Paper 07-001 SA(04).

pdf, Page 1 of 20
AFS Transactions 2007 © American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, IL USA

Silver Anniversary Paper, Division 4

Identifying and Eliminating the Variables that Affect the Performance of

Nobake and Coldbox Binder Systems

D.F. Hoyt
Foundry Sand Technology, Marseilles, Illinois

Copyright 2007 American Foundry Society

ABSTRACT

Controlling the variables that affect the performance of the chemical binder systems can provide more consistent core quality,
reduce core scrap, allow for the reduction of binder content and improve the quality of the castings produced. Day to day
variations in the sand s properties, due to inadequate or incorrect sand specifications, variations introduced in the sand
handling systems, poor sand reclamation processes and inadequate monitoring of the core and mold quality can be the
difference between making a profit or a loss in the foundry.

This paper will discuss sand specifications, sand testing procedures, sand transportation and storage practices, binder types
and their sensitivities to variations in the sand s properties, mixing procedures, venting and real time testing procedures to
monitor and improve the system s consistency and performance.

INTRODUCTION

As foundry binder systems become faster, they typically become more sensitive to variations in the sand s physical and
chemical properties and these variations must be identified and controlled. The newer chemical binder systems are much
more sensitive to changes in the temperature of the sand, with the strip time doubling when the sand s temperature is lowered
by 15F/9.4C or setting twice as quickly when the temperature is raised by 15F/9.4C, from the sand s typical operating
temperature. The binder system s sensitivity to changes in the moisture content, or the chemical composition of the sand, can
significantly impact the performance of the systems, depressing their performance. Variations in the sand grain s structure,
particle size distribution and the cleanliness of the sand can increase the required binder addition and can impact the
economic advantages of using these newer binder systems. The new binder systems are typically compatible with all of the
conventional pattern materials, but the patterns must be in good shape, with fillets, without undercut areas or gouges and the
draft of the pattern must be sufficient to strip a rigid and unforgiving core or mold.

It would appear that one of the drawbacks, of the new binder systems, is that a much closer control of the sand s physical and
chemical properties will be required to produce consistent high quality cores and that minor changes in these properties can
depress production rates and the quality of the cores, molds and casting produced. Actually, it is always a good idea to
establish control limits on all of the materials purchased by the foundry and to have upper, lower and typical values for each
property and to monitor the products to ensure that the foundry s specifications are being adhered to. Establishing
specifications for the physical, chemical and performance criteria of the foundry s raw materials can ensure that each
shipment of sand, resin, mold/core coatings, release agents, iron oxides, etc., will aid the foundry in producing high quality
cores, molds and ultimately premium castings.

Many of these newer binder systems can be affected by changes in the pH and/or the acid demand value of the sand. Acid
catalyzed systems will react faster, when used in conjunction with an acidic sand, but will react more slowly, or will not react
at all, with a very basic sand or a sand containing high levels of carbonates. The phenolic urethane binder systems are
polymerized with a basic activator, typically T.E.A. (triethylamine) or D.M.E.A. (dimethylethylamine), both of these
activators can be used in liquid form for the nobake binder processes, or as a gas for the coldbox process. Acidic sand will
slow down the phenolic urethane reaction where a basic sand will speed up the binder s polymerization. In the case of a
phenolic urethane cold box binder system, a basic sand will cause the mixed sand to begin polymerizing in the hopper, prior
to being exposed the amine activator, reducing the bench life, and subsequently the flowability of the prepared sand, resulting
in low density, spongy cores, and plugged blow tubes.

There are many different nobake and coldbox binder systems available, to the foundry industry, listing the advantages and
disadvantages, as well as the performance requirements of each, would be impossible in this short paper. Since the major
variables, in the production of cores and molds, are related to variations in the sand s properties and consistency, the author
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will try to focus on the acid catalyzed furan and phenolic nobake binder systems, the phenolic urethane nobake and the
phenolic urethane coldbox process and how they are impacted by changes in the sand s properties. These concepts and
controls will generally apply to all of the binder systems.

If a foundry were to order a load of sand , and not specify the characteristics of the sand, the sand company could send
almost anything in their plant. The definition of sand is mineral matter, irrespective of its chemical composition, in a size
ranging from 1/12 in. to 1/500 in/2.00 mm to 0.05 mm or from a #10 sieve through a #270 sieve . No control of the chemical
composition, particle size distribution, A.D.V., pH., A.F.S. clay content or any other physical or chemical characteristic is
required to meet this definition of sand. The more carefully you specify the sand s properties, the fewer problems you will
encounter in the foundry,

Since sand constitutes 99% of the core or mold, the control of the sand s properties is very critical if the binder systems are to
provide consistent, high quality cores. Which properties should a foundry specify in order to ensure that their sand will be
suitable for use in their specific applications? Since there are so many types of binder systems, metal types, casting sizes,
molding/core processes, mixing equipment, etc., we can t provide specific values that would apply to each application. We
recommend that the foundry talk to their current sand supplier and determine which grades of sand they are supplying to
foundries that are producing castings, similar to your castings, using a comparable binder system and equipment. Use this
information as a starting point for establishing your specifications.

After determining the type and grade of sand that the sand producer recommends, talk to the binder manufacturer to
determine which properties, of the recommended sand, may be critical to the performance of their binder systems. Develop a
series of specifications that address the concerns of the binder manufacturer, and ask the sand supplier if they can consistently
supply sand within these specifications. Each of these specifications should list an ideal value and include upper and lower
acceptance limits. The upper and lower limits should be sufficiently restrictive to ensure that scrap cores, molds and castings
would not be produced while the sand is still within the specified parameters. Establishing the desired specifications is
important, but it is more important that the individuals responsible for the quality of the cores, molds and castings understand
these specifications and how variations, from the ideal values, can impact the foundry s efficiency and ultimately the
casting s quality.

SAND SPECIFICATIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON MOLD AND CORE QUALITY

The typical chemical and physical properties that a foundry should specify and monitor should include, but not be limited to,
the characteristics shown below. To determine if a change in the sand, provided by your sand supplier, has a causal
relationship to a production or casting problem, we recommend that you require your sand supplier provide a portion of the
sand they analyzed, to determine that your shipment was within your specifications. The foundry does not have to test each
sample to ascertain if the supplier is meeting your specifications, but it is prudent to retain the samples and analyze samples
during periods when the foundry is obtaining excellent results and periods when the foundry is encountering casting defects,
to determine if variations in the sand s properties are a factor.

TYPES OF SAND
The foundry industry uses several different types of sand for their casting operations. The most commonly used sand is silica
sand. Silica sand is the foundry industry s preferred sand due to its availability, different chemical compositions, various
particle size distributions, different grain structures and it s relatively low cost. Silica is the second most common material in
the Earth s crust and mining locations are typically available near the foundry s facilities, reducing the transportation costs of
the sand. 3

Unlike the other specialty sands silica sand s chemical composition can vary significantly from one mining deposit to
another. The term Silica Sand means that the primary mineral in the sand is Silica or Quartz, but the percentage of silica
present in the sand can vary considerably. A high purity silica sand can have a silica content of 99.9% (SiO2) where a lake or
bank sand, also considered silica sands, could have a silica content of 90 to 95% SiO2. The higher the silica content the
higher the melting point of the sand. The high purity silica sands have a fusion point near 3,200F/1760C where bank or lake
sand deposits, with a silica content of 90%, could have a fusion point as low as 2600F/1427C. Obviously a foundry pouring
heavy steel castings could use the high purity silica sand but lake or bank sands would not be advisable due to their low
fusion temperatures. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the chemical composition of high purity silica with lake sand.

Other specialty sands are typically more expensive than silica sand, but offer unique properties that can justify their higher
cost. The olivine and nickel slag sands are basic, have a pH 7.0, typically 9.0 to 9.5 pH, and are compatible with manganese
steel casting operations, but are not recommended for use with the acid catalyzed binder systems. The fusion temperature of
the olivine sand is typically 3,200F/1,760C but it can be lower if the olivine contains a higher Fe2O3 content. The Nickel slag
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sand typically has a fusion point of 2,750F/1,510C. Silica sand becomes acidic, 7.0 pH when heated to high temperatures,
and can react with the manganese steel, causing defects on the surface of the castings, therefore it is not recommended for
manganese casting operations; however silica sand can be used in manganese casting operations if the molds or cores are
coated with a magnesite type coating to reduce the potential for the mold/metal interaction.
SILICA SAND, CHEMICAL ANALYSES
(TYPICAL)
OXIDE LAKE SAND SILICA SAND
SiO2 94.122 99.880
Fe2O3 0.483 0.011
Al2 O 3 2.370 0.050
K2O 1.110 0.003
Na2O 0.760 0.007
CaO 0.522 0.010
MgO 0.240 0.003
L.O.I. 0.343 0.036
FUSION POINT 2775 F/1523C 3170 F/1743C

Figure 1, Comparison of a high purity silica sand with a lake sand

Chromite sand has a high heat transfer characteristic and is often used to promote directional solidification of the metal, when
used on the mold or core s metal interface areas. The chromite sand does not have an acidic reaction, when exposed to the
molten metal temperatures, and is therefore compatible with the manganese casting operations, and is compatible with all of
the binder systems. The fusion point of the chromite sand is typically 3452F/1900C, depending on the sand s chemical
composition, higher Fe2O3 and SiO2 contents can lower the fusion temperature of the chromite sand. Ceramic and zircon
sands are also used for manganese casting operations with their pH near 7.0 and their fusion temperatures 3,400F.

Which characteristics of the foundry sand will have a significant impact on the mold, core and casting quality? How can
these characteristics be determined and what affects will be encountered if the properties of the sand vary beyond the
specified limits? The testing procedures for determining the properties of new sand, chemically bonded sand, green sand and
reclaimed sand can be found in the AFS Mold and Core Test Handbook, 3rd Edition.2 The following commentary, on these
testing procedures, is offered to aid the foundryman in understanding the significance of the test and how the data generated
can directly impact the quality of the cores and molds produced and why these variables must be controlled within their
established limits.

AFS GRAIN FINENESS NUMBER (AFSGFN)

The AFS. Grain Fineness Number is a quick reference number for describing the average particle size for a given sand
sample, but the foundry should pay much more attention to the particle size distribution rather than the average grain fineness
number. The particle size distribution, the percentage of sand retained on each sieve size, provides a much better perspective
of how the grains will nest, or pack together when formed into a mold or core. Using only the AFSGFN to describe the sand
is similar to placing your head in a freezer and your feet in a furnace and saying that your average body temperature is
70F/21C and therefore you are comfortable. Averages are convenient but they tend to mask the range of the individual data
points.

Most foundries prefer to use a three or four sieve distribution sand for casting operations, but distributions with a two or five
sieve distributions are also successfully used. When referring to a three sieve sand, the sand distribution must have three
consecutive sieve sizes retaining 10% on each of these sieves. Sieves that retain 10%, of the sand, are designated as a
major sieve. The number of consecutive, major, sieves describes the distribution of the sand and, when used in conjunction
with the AFSGFN, can provide an excellent description of the sand s physical characteristics.

A finer sand, a sand with a higher AFSGFN number, will generally produce a smoother casting finish since the sand grains
will pack together tightly reducing the opportunity for the molten metal to intrude into the spaces between the packed grains.
This finer sand will also provide a lower permeability, the ability for the gases generated by the decomposition of the
chemical binders to exit the mold cavity, resulting in gas related and misrun type defects. Very coarse sand will not pack as
tightly and will allow the gases to pass through the compacted sand more easily, but if the sand is very coarse the metal may
intrude into the voids, between the sand grains, resulting in a rough casting finish and metal penetration type defects.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content of the sand should be maintained at the lowest possible level; typically foundries specify that the
moisture level should not exceed 0.25%. When an acid catalyst is mixed with either a phenolic or the furan binder systems it
creates and exothermic reaction, which will cure the core by a dehydration/condensation reaction, driving both the chemical
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and free water from the core, resulting in a cured core. If the sand contains excessive moisture, this moisture will interfere
with the dehydration/condensation reaction and can slow or stop this reaction.1

In both the phenolic urethane nobake and cold box systems, the part 2, co-reactant, is a methyl diisocyanate, which loves
water, 4 oz/ 113.4 g of water is sufficient to totally react up to 55 gal/208 liters of this, co-reactant, inhibiting its ability to
crosslink with the phenolic, part 1, binder and to form the urethane bond. For the cold box binder system it is recommended
that the air, used to blow the cores and to purge the excess activator (TEA or DMEA) from the cured cores, should be dried.
A higher moisture level, in the coldbox binder system s sand, can react with the part 2, co-reactant, reducing the flowability
of the sand, shortening the coldbox mixture s bench life and plugging the blow tubes. When determining the moisture content
of new or reclaimed sand, it is recommended that the sample be dried in an oven rather than a laboratory moisture teller.
Since the sand s moisture level is typically very low, the loss of a portion of the sample when hot air is blown through the
sample could easily produce erroneous measurements.

LOSS ON IGNITION:
The loss on ignition test is an excellent method for determining if the new sand shipment may have been contaminated with
an organic or inorganic material, present in the truck or railcar, prior to the vehicle being filled by the sand supplier. Many of
the sand producers have dedicated railcars, for shipping their sand, but due to an increase in the quantity of sand required by
their customers, they must also ship in railcars that have previously shipped other commercial materials (grain, flours, sugars,
lime, cement, etc). Truck shipments have the same potential for contamination and must be inspected thoroughly, prior to
loading. Ensure that your supplier carefully inspects and certifies that the transportation vehicles were clean and free from
any contamination, from the previous shipments, prior to loading the vehicle.

The Loss on Ignition test requires the laboratory technician to obtain a representative sample of the sand, dry the sample at
220F/100C until the weight remains constant and to re-weigh the sample to determine the moisture content. The technician
should then pass a magnet through the dried sample to remove any magnetic material present in the sand (this step is
important for the analyses of reclaimed sand, but is not typically required for new sand shipments). The dried sand should
also be visually checked for any obvious contamination, with the visible contaminants removed and identified. The
remaining sand should be passed through a splitter and reduced to 1.0 oz/25g, poured in pre-weighed, pre-fired crucible,
placed into a muffle furnace at 1,800 F/982 C for 2 hours or until the weight remains constant. The loss in weight, divided by
the sample weight, multiplied by 100 will provide the percentage loss on ignition value.2

To determine the reason for high or low core strength values, a loss on ignition test (L.O.I.) can be performed on the scrap
cores, the L.O.I. test will determine if the total amount of binder was correct. After the L.O.I. test is completed, the burned
sand can be tested for its sieve analyses, pH, Acid Demand Value (A.D.V.), AFS clay content, and its oxide content (through
magnetic separation or a chemical analyses of the sand). A chemical analysis of the burned sand may also determine if the
variance in properties was due to a contaminant in the sand. For reference purposes, a sample of the new or reclaimed sand
should be heated at 1,800 F/982 C for two hours, to compensate for normal changes in the sand s properties, after the sand
has been heated to high temperatures. The loss on ignition of the un-bonded (new or reclaimed) sand should be added to the
L.O.I. obtained on the core sand sample, providing the corrected organic content (binder level) of the sand.

Some silica sands, ie lake and bank sand s contain several minerals that can either gain or lose weight when exposed to high
temperatures in an oxidizing atmosphere. When Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is heated to 1,800 F/982 C, the CO2 gas will be
driven from the carbonate, converting the CaCO3 into CaO (cement or quick lime), which is much more soluble in water and
much more reactive with the acid and urethane binder systems. When the sand contains the various oxide forms of iron (FeO,
Fe3O4, and Fe2O3) they can increase in weight when the Iron changes its oxide form by combining with the oxygen, in the
air, when exposed to high temperatures in a furnace. Due to the higher amounts of Iron present in the Olivine and Chromite
sands, these sands also increase in weight when heated to 1800 F/982 C in air. When determining the resin content, by the
L.O.I. procedure, for cores made with Olivine or Chromite sands, a sample of the new sand should be analyzed at the same
time the core sand sample is analyzed. By adding the weight gain, measured on the new Olivine or Chromite sand, to the loss
in weight measured on the core sand, the proper binder measurement can be determined. If a new Chromite sand increased
its weight by +1.0%, when heated in the furnace, while the Chromite core sand showed a weight loss of -0.2%, adding the
two values together we would determine that the binder content was 1.2%. If the Chromite sand increased its weight by 1.0%
and the Chromite core sand showed a gain of +0.1%, the binder content would be 0.9%.

As stated above, it is typical for a foundry to allow the L.O.I. sample to be retained in the muffle furnace for up to two hours,
to allow the sample to heat to the temperature of oxidation and for the binder content to react with oxygen, that s present in
the air, and to be oxidized (burned). Many times when a lab. technician finishes weighing the heated L.O.I. sample, and
pours the burned sample from the crucible, he/she will notice that the sand on the top of the crucible is orange colored and the
sand on the bottom of the crucible is black. The orange color on the top generally indicates that the sample contained iron
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particles and these iron particles were converted from FeO (metallic iron), or Fe3O4 (magnetite, black iron oxide) to Fe2O3
(hematite, red iron oxide). The black material in the bottom of the crucible is typically residual binder that has been heated
and converted to carbon, but that has not been exposed to sufficient oxygen to support the oxidation of this carbon residue, in
effect, the L.O.I. test has not determined the actual binder content of the sand.

To speed up the L.O.I. process, by allowing the air to penetrate the sand sample on the sides and at the bottom of the crucible,
a new type of crucible has been developed. These crucibles are made from a porous quartz fiber material that allows the air
to pass through the sides and bottom of the crucible, reducing the required retention time in the muffle furnace by as much as
70%. These crucibles are based on the heat shield technology, utilized by NASA for their re-entry vehicles. An empty
crucible can be placed in a muffle furnace at 1,800 F/982 C and the crucible will become red hot within one minute. The
crucible can be removed from the furnace and handled with your bare hands within one minute. Caution: the empty crucible
can be handled within one minute; the sand in the crucible will still be hot. The heat exchange capacity of these crucibles,
and their porosity, can significantly reduce the time required for performing the L.O.I. procedure.

ACID DEMAND VALUE (A.D.V.) AND THE pH VALUE OF THE SAND

As the binder systems become faster they typically become more sensitive to small changes in the pH and the Acid Demand
Values of the sand. The definition of A.D.V. is a measurement of the acid soluble, acid neutralizing components present in
the sand . The term Acid Demand Value is used to express how much additional acid will be required to compensate for the
acid that will be neutralized by these acid soluble, acid neutralizing materials. In an acid catalyzed binder system, a given
quantity of binder can be reacted with a given quantity of acid-catalyst to provide a specific cure time. If the quantity of acid
is excessive the reaction will become more violent and the core sand will harden faster. If the sand is polymerizing (forming
the polymers, or strands, that will bond the sand grains together) while the sand mixture is entering the core box, being
tucked, compacted, or vibrated, these activities will break the polymers and they will not re-form, weakening the core or
mold. When a sand mixture is over-catalyzed, too much catalyst in relation to the quantity of the binder present, the sand
mixture will become tacky and resist compaction, resulting in a mold or core prone to metal penetration. Excessive catalyst
can also result in friable surfaces on the cores and molds making them more prone to erosion type defects and sand
inclusions. Conversely: if the proper amount of acid, based on the resin addition, is mixed with the sand and a significant
portion of the acid catalyst is neutralized by the carbonates in the sand, the cores may not adequately harden before they are
stripped from the pattern and they may warp or distort.

The use of the A.D.V. test, in acid-catalyzed sand is pretty straight forward; a higher A.D.V. value would mean that the sand
contains higher levels of carbonates that would react with the acid catalyst, neutralizing a portion of the catalyst. To
compensate for this neutralizing of the catalyst, additional catalyst, or a more concentrated catalyst, would be required to
maintain the desired strip time. Since a significant portion of the acid-catalyst is water, we can actually slow down or stop
the chemical reaction by adding so much catalyst that the chemical reaction cannot drive the excess water from the core and
the core will not completely cure. If a sand contains an excessively high quantity of carbonates, if may be necessary to use a
more concentrated catalyst, to minimize the amount of water the catalyst will introduce into the mixture, or to purchase a
sand with a lower A.D.V.

When a basic material (in this case a carbonate) reacts with an acid, it forms salt water. Without going into mass balances,
HCl (hydrochloric acid) when mixed with NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide), the two chemicals used in performing the A.D.V. test,
will form NaCl (table salt) and H2O (water). Since the mechanism for hardening the acid cured binder system is a
dehydration/condensation reaction, the introduction of this additional water would slow the reaction. The neutralizing of the
acid, by the basic compounds in the sand, will slow or can completely stop the hardening of the core mixtures; therefore the
control of the sand s A.D.V. can be critical.

Since the phenolic urethane system does not use an acid to react with the binder, it would appear that the A.D.V. would not
be significant, and that the test may not need to be specified or performed, unless the foundry was using an acid catalyzed
binder system. As discussed in the section on L.O.I., when a sand containing Calcium Carbonate, or other carbonate forms,
are heated to 1,800 F/963 C, in a muffle furnace, CO2 is released from the carbonate, forming a much more reactive cement
or quick lime type material, both of which are partially water soluble and which will increase the pH of the sand.

The definition of pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the Hydrogen ion concentration, in an aqueous solution .
Although the definition sounds complicated, it can be more easily understood by taking the individual terms and explaining
them. The term logarithm means that the unit of measure is based on factors of 10. The term reciprocal means that the
unit of measure, the Hydrogen ion concentration, is inverted or turned upside down (7.0 pH is actually 10-7). In an aqueous
solution means that the measurement is determined in water. When we measure the pH of a solution, 7.0 pH is neutral, this
means the solution is not acidic (less that 7.0 pH), or basic (greater than 7.0 pH), it is exactly 7.0 pH. Distilled water would
typically have a pH of 7.0.
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If 7.0 pH is neutral, then 6.0 pH would be 10 times more acidic than 7.0, 5.0 pH would be 10 X 10 or 100 times more acidic
that 7.0 pH and 4.0 pH would be 10 X 10 X 10 or 1,000 times more acidic than 7.0 pH. The same factors apply to a material
that is basic, with 8 pH being 10 times more basic than a 7.0 pH, 9 pH being 100 times more basic and 10 pH being 1,000
times more basic than 7.0. When the pH of a sand is close to neutral, 7.0 pH, the sand is generally compatible with all of the
binder systems.

Sand, with a relatively high A.D.V., could function well with a phenolic urethane binder system, as long as the higher A.D.V.
is not accompanied by a higher pH. The phenolic urethane system is polymerized when exposed to a basic gas or a basic
liquid. When a high A.D.V. sand is new, the carbonates are not water soluble and there is no acid in the phenolic urethane
system to react with the carbonates; therefore the sand would not initiate the polymerization of the binder system. When
sand, with a higher A.D.V., has been exposed to the metal s casting temperature and reclaimed, the carbonates will be
calcined and the carbonates will increase the pH of the sand affecting its performance in subsequent sand mixtures. Similar
to the affect that water has on the phenolic urethane coldbox systems, the higher pH of the sand can function as an activator
and partially polymerize the sand in the hopper, causing shortened bench life, spongy cores and plugged blow tubes.

THE SURFACE AREA OF SAND:

The surface area of the sand relates to the outside surface of the sand grain and influences how much binder it would take to
cover this surface. In a continuous mixer the sand may only be retained in the mixer for 30 seconds. During these 30
seconds the binder must be smeared or painted on the sand s surface to allow the contacting sand grains to develop a
binder bridge . A binder bridge can be described as an area where two grains of sand, previously coated by the resin,
come into contact and the capillary action of the binder forms a connection between the two grains. When the resin system
cures, this binder bridge will bond the two grains together and to all of the other grains that have formed these binder bridges.

If each grain of sand were a perfect sphere, like a croquet ball, it would have the lowest surface area to be coated. If you
were to make gouges in the ball, the paint would have to fill the gouges and additional paint would be required. This is
similar to painting a wall in your house, a drywall surface is smooth and would require much less paint than a concrete block
wall of equal area. A rounded grain sand structure will require less binder, to achieve similar tensile strengths, than a more
angular grain structure. Finer sand has more surface area than coarse sand. Again we can picture the croquet ball and how
much surface area that must be coated; now we break the croquette ball in half, the surface area has increased since we now
have the same outer surface area of the ball but we also have the two circles where the ball was separated. If the ball is
broken further, the surface area will increase dramatically.

HOW MUCH SURFACE AREA MUST BE COATED FOR 1 LB. OF ROUND GRAIN SAND?
If we assume that each sand grain is a perfect sphere, we sieve the sand into individual grain sizes and mathematically
measure the area to be coated, we will find that 1 pound (1 lb/453.6 g) of sand, passing the 20 sieve and retained on the 30
sieve, would have a surface area of 15.81 ft2/31.34 cm2/g. The following chart (Figure 2) shows the surface area for the
remaining sieve sizes:

SURFACE AREA - ROUND GRAIN SAND

2 2
PASSING RETAINED cm /g ft /#

SIEVE 20 30 31.34 15.81

SIEVE 30 40 44.38 22.39
SIEVE 40 50 62.51 31.53
SIEVE 50 70 88.40 44.59
SIEVE 70 100 124.85 62.98
SIEVE 100 140 176.46 89.01
SIEVE 140 200 250.39 126.31
SIEVE 200 270 352.91 178.02
SIEVE 270 325 462.06 233.08

Figure 2, The surface area for 1 lb/ 454 g of round sand, by sieve size

Most of the foundries use binder levels of 1 to 1.75%, based on the sand s weight. This means that if the foundry is using
1.0% binder, they would be adding 0.01lb/4.5 g of binder to 1.0 lb/453.6 g of sand. This equates to 11 drops of resin to coat
1 lb/453.6 g of sand. If that 1 lb/453.6 g of sand was 60 AFS GFN, and perfectly round spheres, the 11 drops of binder must
coat 63 ft2 /125 cm2 of sand surface.4. If the sand grains were 50% more angular, the area to be coated would be 95 ft2/187
cm2. Adding more binder, to compensate for the sand s increased angularity, or concentrations of fines, will increase the cost
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of the core sand mixture by $2.00 to $3.00 per ton for each 0.1% of additional binder. An increase in the binder addition
from 1.0% to 1.25% will increase the binder cost by approximately $7.00 per ton and the amount of decomposition gases and
smoke, generated during the casting process, by 25%

Since the resin coating on the sand s surface is very thin, the conditions related to the distribution of the binder and it s
adhesion to the grain are very sensitive to slight changes in the sand s properties. Small changes in the pH, a clay coating,
carbonate content, temperature, moisture content, or reclaimed sand containing agglomerated grains, residual binder, residual
catalyst and carbon coatings from partially decomposed binders, can severely depress or accelerate the binder s distribution
and performance.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE FOUNDRY SAND

When we look at the chemical analyses of sand, it typically reflects the chemistry of the entire sand grain, not just the surface
of the grains. When we are coating a resin on the surface of a sand grain, the interaction between the sand grain s surface and
the binder will impact the distribution, and the bonding capabilities, of the binder system much more significantly than the
average analyses of the sand. When we perform an AFS clay wash procedure, we attrition and remove any materials smaller
than 20 microns from the surface of the sand to determine how well the sand has been scrubbed and cleaned by the sand
producer. The A.D.V. procedure and the pH tests do not require that the sand be ground into a powder before testing; our
interest is whether any acidic or basic materials are present on the sand s surface and how these materials may interact with
the binder/catalyst systems.

When a binder system is distributed on the surface of the sand, and the sand is compacted, the sand grains and the binder will
form the binder bridges discussed previously. A high concentration of an acidic or basic coating on the sand s surface will
interact with the activators/catalyst and can speed up or slow down the reaction, depressing the binder s potential to bond the
sand grains and form a high quality core. When the sand laboratory wishes to evaluate the performance of a nobake or
coldbox binder mixture, they typically form a tensile specimen (dog biscuit core) and determine the strength of the bond by
mechanically pulling the specimen until it fractures. The strength of the core s bond is typically reported in pounds per
square inch (psi) or grams per square centimeter.

When the dog biscuit core fractures, a close microscopic examination of the fractured section will reveal that the fractures
can be cohesion, adhesion or a mixed bond failure. A cohesion failure occurs when the breaking of the binder bridges occurs
through the binder bridges. An adhesion bond failure occurs when the binder s bond, to the surface of the sand grain, is
weaker than the bond at the binder bridge, resulting in the binder peeling away from the grain s surface. The adhesion
failures often appear as cupped depressions, where the shape of the grain can be seen as a depression in the fracture. If the
failure mode is a cohesive failure, a small increase in the binder addition may eliminate a problem related to core breakage.
If the bond failure is due to an adhesive failure, increasing the binder level may not help in reducing core breakage problems,
since the problem is related to the adhesion of the binder to the sand s surface. Typically the bond failures will appear as a
mixture of both cohesion and adhesion types, with one type being more prolific than the other.

A small layer of clay on the sand s surface can significantly reduce the bonding capabilities of the resin to the sand grain s
surface and can lead the foundry to increase the binder to achieve sufficient strength for core handling operations. Another
source of adhesion failures is related to the reclamation of sand. When sand is reclaimed thermally, the foundryman should
ensure that the thermal reclamation equipment provides sufficient air and thermal input to oxidize the residual binder,
removing it from the sand grain s surface. The temperature used for thermal reclamation has gradually been reduced as
equipment and foundry personnel have realized that they do not have to heat the entire sand grain to 1,500 F/815C, only the
surface of the grain. Excessive heating wastes energy and requires additional energy to cool the sand prior to its reuse.

In addition to the residual binder causing adhesion failures, the carbonates present on the surface of the sand grains, can be
calcined at temperatures above 1,500 F/816 C, driving off the CO2 gas, increasing both their solubility in water and their pH.
I recently worked with an aluminum foundry that purchased high purity silica sand (99.7% SiO2); the pH of the new sand was
7 pH when it was received at the foundry. The foundry had two types of thermal reclamation units, one had a long
retention time and only heated the sand to 900 F/ 482C, the other reclamation unit had a shorter retention time, but at a higher
temperature, 1,750 F/ 954 C. The sand that was reclaimed at 900 F/482 C maintained its pH at 7, but the sand that was
exposed to the higher temperature increased its pH to 8, resulting in a shortened bench life for their coldbox mixtures. The
majority of sand suppliers wash their sand, prior to drying, cooling, screening and shipping the sand to the customer. The
water used for washing the sand is recycled over and over and if this water begins to accumulate suspended minerals, they
can be dried on the sand s surface, but the bulk chemistry of the sand will not reflect this potential problem.
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SAND TEMPERATURE
When the sand s temperature is increased from 70 F/ 21 C to 85 F/ 29 C, a nobake binder system will set, or harden, twice as
fast (ie 20 min. at 70 F/ 21 C and 10 min. at 85 F/ 29 C). When the temperature is lowered from 70F/ 21 C to 55 F/13 C the
nobake will take twice as long to set or harden (ie 20 min. at 70 F/21 C to 40 min. at 55 F/13 C). The affect of temperature
on the binder system will not only impact its stripping (hardening) time, but will also affect the ability of the mixer to
uniformly coat or paint the binder on the sand s surface.

The affect of the sand s temperature on the distribution of the binder onto the sand s surface, and the hardening of the core or
mold, is similar to painting a house. If we paint the sunny side of the house on a day when the temperature is
90 F/ 32 C, the paint will become very thick and hard to apply due to the heat, from the house s wall, driving the solvents
from the paint, increasing the paint s viscosity and making it difficult to distribute. If we paint the same house on a day when
the temperature is 45 F/7 C, the paint can be applied very easily but it takes a long time for the solvents to leave the paint and
for the paint to dry.

If the sand is setting too fast, due to hot sand, the binder is polymerizing (forming binder bridges) between the grains before
we compact the sand against the pattern s surface. As we vibrate and compact this partially cross-linked sand we will break
these weak bonds and they will never re-bond. This affect is similar to applying a Band-Aid to the back of your hand. When
the Band-Aid is removed you can see the strands of adhesive and the bond to the skin is strong. If we re-apply the same
Band-Aid, the broken bonds will not adhere to the skin and the Band-Aid can be removed with much less effort. A third
application of the Band-Aid may not stick to the skin at all. Sand that is setting too fast will cause friable molds resulting in
sand inclusions, cut/wash defects, metal penetration and run outs.

If the sand is cold, the solvents will remain in the sand mixture and the core or mold will remain plastic and may not provide
sufficient strength to remove or strip the mold from the pattern. If the sand is stripped from the pattern before the mold has
sufficiently hardened, the mold or core will sag and the tolerances of the mold and casting will be affected. Stripping a core
too soon can result in the core s distortion, resulting in sag and crush type defects when the cores are placed in the mold
cavity. Sand temperature is a critical control parameter and should be checked frequently. If the bottom boards, that the
stripped molds or cores are placed upon are not flat, the prematurely stripped core or mold will distort to match the bottom
board, resulting in the defects noted previously. Control of the sand s temperature should be maintained by using a sand
heater/cooler to minimize variations in the hardening rates for the cores or molds.

Many foundries have learned that when a cold pattern is placed on the nobake line, the temperature of the pattern can slow
down the binder s polymerization of the sand adjacent to the pattern, which will harden at a slower rate than the sand at the
top of the mold. When the mold is stripped, the uncured sand will adhere to the pattern, producing a mold with depressions,
which the cleaning room will observe as protrusions on the castings, which they will have to remove.

Foundries often preheat the patterns by placing them under a series of heat lamps, immediately prior to moving the pattern
under the continuous mixer for filling. The heat from these heat lamps is much greater on the higher areas of the patterns,
causing the coated sand to harden at a faster rate in these areas than the areas of the mold which have deep pockets. This high
level of heat can also damage areas of the pattern which are too close to the heat source. One foundry, I have worked with.
modified a garage type heater with a 900 exhaust pipe, which allowed the heater to be hung horizontally above the pattern
area of the nobake loop, blowing hot air onto the patterns. This system incorporated a micro switch with a timer so that when
a pattern was placed into the ready position, the heater would preheat the pattern for a given period of time. The blower on
the heater distributed the hot air evenly, warming the high areas, the deep pockets and the vertical walls of the pattern.

When making nobake molds, the slower the mold hardens, the better the quality of the mold/core and the less chance that a
small change in the sand s temperature would create core and mold quality problems. When a foundry installs a nobake loop,
they typically place the continuous mixer opposite the rollover or mold stripping area. This practice utilizes 50% of the loop
for the storage of empty boxes and 50% for the curing of the cores/molds before stripping. Placing the stripping area 3/4 of
the way around the loop will allow the molds to cure for an additional 50% of the current strip time, and not affect the
capacity of the loop.

If the curing portion of a molding loop is reduced in length, the amount of activator must be increased to ensure the molds are
capable of being stripped when they reach the stripping station. When the binder system has a greater amount of catalyst, the
potential for the core or mold to be over-cured is increased. This is similar to a baker baking a cake at 325 F/ 163C for 25
minutes and then turning off the oven, but not removing the cake from the oven. The residual heat of the oven will continue
to bake the cake; similarly a mold that is over-catalyzed will continue to cure after it is stripped, degrading its properties.
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AFS Clay Content (<20 Micron Material)

The AFS Clay value is an indication of the cleanliness of the sand and can have a significant affect on the strength
development of the cores. The binder must coat the sand and form binder bridges between the sand grains. High
concentrations of fine (<20 micron) material, on the sand s surfaces, provides excessive surface area for the binder to coat
and will depress the tensile strength of the core or mold mixture. To understand how small a 20 micron particle is, a human
hair is 80 to 100 microns in diameter. Based on the surface area chart shown above, the surface area for 1 lb/453 g of clay
would be approximately 350 ft2 / 693 cm2 that must be covered by the binder. If the clay was covering the surface of the sand
grains, the opportunity for an adhesion failure of the resin bond would be increased.

PERMEABILITY:
Base permeability, the permeability of an un-bonded sample of sand, can be determined on a permeability meter which
passes a given volume of air through a compacted sample of sand, measuring the compacted sample s resistance to this
airflow. A higher permeability reading indicates a more porous or open sample, less prone to gas related defects, but more
prone to the intrusion of the metal into the mold/core s surfaces, resulting in metal penetration type defects. Coarse sands
often require a mold or core coating to provide an acceptable casting finish, however this coating typically has zero
permeability and the gases formed must move toward an uncoated area to exit the mold or core. A very low permeability
sand may provide an excellent casting finish, often without the use of a core or mold coating, but it may require either contact
or non-contact venting practices to aid in the removal of the gases and water vapor produced during the casting operation.
Since the base permeability is performed on an un-bonded sand sample, it is necessary to place a base permeability screen in
the bottom of the 2 in. X 4.75 in/5.08 cm X 12.1 cm specimen tube, pour in the required amount of sand to produce a 2 in. X
2 in/5.08 cm X 5.08 cm specimen, place a second permeability screen on the top of the sand and compact the specimen with
three impacts of a 14 lb./5.23 Kg weight, using a standard AFS rammer, dropping 2 in/5.08 cm. The length of the compacted
sample must be within ± 1/32 in/±0.08 cm of the 2 in. X 2 in/5.08 cm X 5.08 cm standard specimen. After the sample is
compacted in the permeability tube, the tube is inverted and placed on a permeability machine (Figure 3).4

Understanding what permeability is and how it works can help in designing a venting system that effectively allows the gases
to pass out of the mold as they are being generated, failure to vent these gases from the mold cavity, can result in gas related
and misrun type defects. Figures 3 and 4 may help in understanding how permeability is measured, and how the gases pass
through a compacted sample of sand.

HOW DOES PERMEABILITY WORK?

WHAT IS PERMEABILITY?

COIN
AIR
CHAMBER
SEAL
AIR
CHAMBER
SEAL
100
PERMEABILITY 125 75
2 in. COIN
SCREENS 150 50 5.08 cm
175 25 100
0 125 75
150 50

PERMMETER 175
0
25
PERMEABILITY = 140 PERMEABILITY = ?
(THE COIN WILL COVER 1/3 OF THE SAMPLE S SURFACE) PERMMETER

Figure 3, Base permeability Figure 4, Permeability quiz

After the sample is compacted, in the permeability tube, the tube is inverted and placed on a permeability machine, the lever
on the permmeter is pulled forward, expanding a rubber seal and sealing bottom of the tube. A standard flow of air, provided
by the permeability meter, enters the chamber below the compacted sand. The gage on the permeability meter provides a
numerical value, based on the back pressure of the air in the chamber, quantifying the rate at which the air can pass through
the compacted specimen. A high permeability value indicates that the sand is more open and that the air can pass through the
sand very quickly. A very high permeability value would indicate that the sand was very coarse or that the sand resisted
compaction by the three impacts of the rammer s weight.

The first drawing illustrates that when sand grains are compacted against a smooth metal surface the grains cannot nest or
pack together as tightly as they would in the center of the specimen. This condition results in a higher permeability at the
interface between the sand and the specimen tube. When air is introduced into the air chamber, a slightly higher flow rate
will occur around the perimeter of the tube than through the compacted grains in the center of the specimen. This same
phenomenon also occurs when we compact a mold or core against the surface of a pattern.
 Paper 07-001 SA(04).pdf, Page 10 of 20
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Figure 4 shows two identical samples of sand that were compacted and tested using the procedure described above. The first
sample provided a permeability value of 140, when tested on the permeability machine. When we prepared the second
sample, we placed a coin, on the bottom permeability screen, prior to filling and compacting the sample. When the
compacted sample was inverted and placed on the permeability meter, the coin sealed 1/3 of the top of the sample. How
much would the permeability be reduced with the coin covering 1/3 of the sample? The answer is that the permeability value
would not change since the air does not follow a straight line as it passes through the sample. The only time the gas can flow
in a straight line is when we provide a vent, or have a naturally occurring vent at the core/pattern interface. The flow of the
air or gas moves from one void, between the grains of the sand, to the next void, similar to working through a maze, until it
can reach the atmosphere and dissipate.

If the permeability of the mold is insufficient, to allow the gases to escape the mold, gas related defects could occur. To
increase the permeability of the mold/core the foundry could purchase coarser sand which would allow the gases to vent
through the sand more easily. This approach is often not practical, due to the need for a smooth casting finish. Very coarse
sand often produces a rougher casting finish and could allow the metal to penetrate between the grains providing a
penetration type defect. Reducing the sand s compaction may also reduce the potential for gas related defects, by a slight
increase in the sand s permeability, but the opportunity for runouts, metal penetration, mold wall movement and oversize
castings could result. The best way to reduce the incidence of gas related defects is to reduce the gas producing materials in
the cores or molds and to vent the cores and molds.

The permeability of the cores, using either a remote permeability sensor or an MQI (Mold Quality Indicator), can help in
determining the degree of compaction of the cores in a quick and non-destructive operation. Permeability measurements can
be taken at several locations, on the production cores, to determine the uniformity of the core s compaction.

By understanding the principals of permeability, we can begin to take advantage of venting options that will allow the gases
to pass through the cores and molds without actually having a vent contact the casting s surface. When vents contact the
casting s surface they fill with metal, when the metal reaches the vent s opening, reducing or eliminating the vents efficiency.
Locations where the vents make contact with the casting will have to be removed, in the foundry cleaning room, increasing
the labor and subsequently the cost of the casting.

The highest area of permeability, in the mold, is where the sand meets the pattern s surfaces. Since the pattern s surface is
flat, and the sand grains are rounded or angular, the grains cannot nest or pack together as tightly at the interface, between the
sand and the pattern. This condition has led foundrymen to use parting line vents for hundreds of years. As foundries tried to
fit more and more castings in the mold, the outer edges of the casting s cavities were closer to the outside of the mold and a
fear of the metal running out the vent caused many foundrymen to stop this practice, (Figure 5).

PERMEABILTY AT THE PARTING LINE

VENT THE MOLD
HIGHEST AREAS OF PERMEABILITY

CORE

PATTERN

CORE

ALIGNMENT OF SAND GRAINS

PARTING LINE VENTS
PARTING LINE VENTS, NON-CONTACT VENTS, OFFSET VENTS

VERTICAL MOLDING PROCESS

Figure 5, vertically parted mold Figure 6, horizontally parted mold

Gas will always seek the path of least resistance, since the grains at the parting line are not packed as tightly as the interior
sections of the core the gas will try to escape through this area. By installing non-contact vents (vents that don t actually
touch the casting cavity) the gases can move through the parting line, intersecting a vent, which can allow the gases to
quickly exit the mold (Figure 6). If the outside edge of the casting cavity is close to the edge of the mold, these vents can be
formed in the shape of a Z . Gas can easily make changes in direction, but any metal which might get into the vent will
solidify at these radical changes of direction.

Non-contact venting can be accomplished by mounting 0.5 in/1.3 cm dowel rods, cut length wise to form a half round vent,
parallel to, and 0.5 in/1.3 cm away from the perimeter of the casting. The gases formed, during the pouring operation, would
only have to move 0.5 in/1.3 cm to intersect with these vents. Vents through the cope, or into the drag, can be aligned to
intersect with these horizontal vents, allowing the gases to exit through the cope. Since the cope vents do not actually contact
the casting, problems related to sand or metal entering the vent, and scrapping the casting, cannot occur.
 Paper 07-001 SA(04).pdf, Page 11 of 20
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The same permeability meter, used for laboratory permeability measurements, can be used to monitor the permeability of
production molds or cores by replacing the permeability specimen tube with a metal bell, attached to a rubber hose, with a
sensor that is placed against the mold or core s surface. The metal bell is placed on the permmeter, the permmeter s is lever
pulled forward sealing the metal bell and directing the airflow into the rubber hose, exiting through the remote sensor and
into the compacted mold surface. The sensor is equipped with a rubber seal which forces the airflow into the compacted mold
or core, determining the degree of compaction for the mold or core. The resistance to the passage of the air is read directly
off the permeability meter s dial. The lower the permeability value the higher the degree of compaction Some foundries
requested a battery operated permeability meter with a digital readout for monitoring their production molds and cores, this
request was satisfied with the Mold Quality Indicator (M.Q.I.). This unit performs the same function, as the remote sensor
described above, with the additional advantages of a digital readout and its battery powered portability.

The permeability of a production mold or core can often be correlated to various types of casting defects. If the permeability
is excessively high it indicates that the mold was not sufficiently compacted, contained coarse particles, the dust collector is
removing the finer sand, excessive activator/catalyst, or the mold was made with hot sand. A foundry with a very high
permeability value could encounter rough casting finishes, metal penetration, cope drops, erosion, sand inclusions, oversized
castings etc. If the permeability is exceptionally low it indicates a very high level of compaction or excessive fines, from the
sand supplier, sand segregation or an inefficient dust collector. A foundry with very low permeability values may experience
gas related defects, slower pouring rates, leading to misruns/cold shuts, rat tails, buckles, scabs and other expansion related
defects.
GRAIN SHAPE
Angular sands resist compaction when the angular grain structure mechanically locks the grains together, resisting their
movement and compaction. If two cores were compared, with identical particle size distributions and AFS Fineness
Numbers, a round grain structure would typically provide a core with a density 6 to 8% higher than one produced with a sand
having an angular grain structure.

This difference in compaction can be compared to filling a box with sand sized marbles and shaking the box. With a minimal
amount of effort the marbles will pact to their highest density with each marble making contact with 8 to 12 of the
surrounding marbles. If a duplicate box was filled with sand sized glass cubes, the box could be shaken for a considerable
amount of time and the glass cubes would never achieve the density or contact points of the of the round marbles. When a
rounded grain sand structure is tucked, vibrated or blown into a corebox, this grain structure allows the sand to move and to
be compacted, while angular sand would provide a higher resistance to the sand s flowability and compaction.

When the core binders are added to the sand, in the continuous mixer, they are smeared on the surface of the sand grains.
When these coated sand grains are compacted, at each location where the sand grains touch, the capillary action of the binder
will form a binder bridge, bonding the two grains together. Where a rounded grain structure would contact 8 to 12
surrounding grains, an angular grain may only provide 5 to 7 contact points. When the core is stressed, in either the
laboratory or in production, these contact points will determine the strength and ultimately the performance of the core.

When angular grains are compacted they will have less contact points between the grains, due to their resistance to
compaction and the structure of the sand grains. When the sand in a core making operation is excessively coarse, or a narrow
distribution, the number of contact points between sand grains are even lower.
There are advantages and disadvantages for each of the grain structures.
A rounded grain structure will provide:
Advantages:
1. A lower surface area requiring less binder
2. A grain structure that will resist breakdown during pneumatic transportation and reclamation
3. Higher density cores with less metal penetration
4. A smoother casting finish
5. Higher sand reclamation potential
6. Less dust when pneumatically transported
7. Less abrasion to the patterns when blown
8. Better resistance to erosion defects
Disadvantages:
1. Lower permeability, due to the increased compaction
2. More prone to expansion defects, due to the core s density and grain to grain contact points
3. Typically more expensive freight to your foundry
4. Cores will weigh 6 to 8% more than cores made with an angular san
An angular grain structure will provide:
 Paper 07-001 SA(04).pdf, Page 12 of 20
AFS Transactions 2007 © American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, IL USA

Advantages:
1. Higher permeability for the same AFSGFN and particle size distribution
2. Less prone to expansion defects due to the lower degree of compaction
3. Less expensive freight to your foundry
Disadvantages:
1. Higher surface area, requiring more binder
2. The sand grains fracture more easily, into smaller particles and respirable dust, when
pneumatically transported
3. The resistance to compaction can lead to a porous core structure, subject to metal penetration and
erosion defects
4. More wear on the foundry s patterns
5. Lower yields in sand reclamation processes
6. Lower scratch hardness strengths
7. Lower core tensile strengths

The specifications for controlling the sand your foundry could include:

Type of Sand Required AFS Grain Fineness Number Particle Size Distribution
Moisture Content Loss on Ignition A.D.V. and pH
Sand s Surface Area Chemical Analyses Sand Temperature
AFS Clay Content Permeability Sand Grain Shape

The foundry purchase agent will now have to work with the sand and binder companies to develop realistic specifications
that they can meet, and that will minimize variations in the performance of the sand when used with the various binder
systems. Up to this point we have focused on the sand properties, but it is just as important that the properties of the binders
and catalysts be specified and controlled.

BINDER AND CATALYST SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTROLS

In the sand section we discussed the polymerization of the binder systems, and how the binder bridges are formed during the
hardening of the cores and molds. The resins that your foundry purchases from your binder supplier can also polymerize in
their shipping containers, if the resin is not used within its recommended shelf life, or if it is stored under less than ideal
conditions. Some of the acid catalyzed binders can be stored for up to three months, at temperatures between 600 F/160 C and
900 F/320 C, before encountering degradation in the resin s performance. Higher temperatures will shorten this storage life
and advance the resin, increasing its viscosity, making it more difficult to distribute the resin on the sand s surface.

To ensure that the resin your foundry has purchased is not several weeks old when you receive it, check the batch number
and date of manufacture, this data is usually posted on the shipping containers. Some of the binder manufacturers use a
coded system to identify this information; we suggest you contact your sales representative to learn how to read this code.
The foundry should also develop a system of first in, first out. When a new shipment of binder is delivered to the foundry,
organize the storage so that the forklift driver will place the drums by the date they were manufactured and not place the new
drums of material in front of the older material. Although it is tempting to order a larger resin shipment, to reduce freight
costs, only purchase and store the quantity of resin that the foundry will consume within the recommended shelf life of the
individual binder components. If the foundry is scheduled for an extended shut down, plan the resin purchases so that a large
quantity of resin will not be retained beyond the recommended shelf life. Control the storage conditions to maximize the
shelf life of the purchased resins.1

When using an acid catalyzed binder system, it is recommended that the binder and the catalyst be stored separately. If the
binder and catalyst are mixed, without sand, a violent reaction will occur, with the resin being thrown from the mixing vessel.
When the resin and catalyst are mixed in a constricted or closed container, an explosion could occur. If the binder and
catalyst are purchased in bulk truck loads, and delivered in tank trucks, either use two different size delivery connections or
place locks on the delivery pipes to ensure that a shipment of catalyst is not inadvertently pumped into the resin tank, or that
the resin is not introduced into the catalyst tank. This type of accident has occurred in several foundries, resulting in
explosions and serious damage to the foundry installation with a loss of lives.

When calibrating either continuous or batch mixers, always use separate and easily identifiable containers to collect the resin
and acid samples. Do not pour these samples back into the bulk tanks, even a small amount of catalyst in a large bulk tank of
resin, can be sufficient to polymerize and solidify the resin in the bulk tank. When the laboratory technician is mixing a test
batch of resin, to determine the performance characteristics of the sand or binder system, never premix the binder and the
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catalyst and always add the acid catalyst first. After the catalyst is thoroughly distributed on the sand s surface, add the resin.
If the resin is added first, and distributed on the surface of the sand, when the catalyst is added to the mixture a high
concentration of acid will be reacted with a limited amount of binder and will over-catalyze the binder in this area. This
reaction will consume an excessive quantity of the catalyst, while degrading the performance of the binder exposed to this
excess quantity of catalyst. Since a greater portion of the catalysts is consumed in the area where it is introduced, there will
be an insufficient quantity of catalyst to react with the remaining binder in the mixture. When mixing an acid catalyzed
binder system in a continuous or, the catalyst should always be introduced first, with the resin binder introduced further down
the mixing trough.

Binder systems are often modified to make them more compatible with different types of metal or to alter the performance of
the binder system to meet various foundry conditions. The Furan nobake binder system is an acid catalyzed binder system
that is primarily composed of furfuryl alcohol, but is often modified by the addition of phenolic resins, adhesion promoters
(sulanes), urea, formaldehyde and other additives to enhance specific performance criteria. These furan nobake binder
systems are available with various levels of water and nitrogen. An addition of urea formaldehyde increases the nitrogen
content of the binder and limits its use for steel and some gray iron casting applications. The type of metal poured often
dictates the acceptable nitrogen and water level, Table 1 shows the typical water and nitrogen levels acceptable for the most
common metal categories:

The phenolic nobake resin systems have little to no nitrogen content and are compatible with most metals. For steel
applications the water content should be maintained near 0% with some gray iron sands tolerating water levels as high as
20%. The curing mechanism for both the furan and phenolic binder systems is a dehydration/condensation reaction where
water is driven from the mixed sand by an exothermic reaction, the higher the water content in the binder, the longer it will
take to drive out the water, therefore providing a longer curing time for the molds.1

Table 1. Furan Nobake, Nitrogen and Water Levels for Various Metals
METAL TYPE CLASS NITROGEN (%) WATER (%)
GRAY IRON 20, 30 5 TO 11 8 TO 15
GRAY IRON 40, 50, 60 0 TO 4 0 TO 10
DUCTILE IRON ALL 0 TO 5 0 TO 8
STEEL ALL 0 0
NONFERROUS 4 TO 11 8 TO 15

The catalysts used for both the furan and the phenolic nobake systems are typically proprietary mixtures of acids, water,
solvents and/or methanol. The most common catalysts used are Toluenesulfonic acid (TSA) and Benzenesulfonic acid
(BSA), these acids can be purchased with either water or methanol as their solvent. Since the binder s curing mechanism
entails removing water from the sand-binder mixture, the alcohol solvents are the more reactive catalysts. Phosphoric acid
may be used with the furan binder system but it is not recommended for the phenolic binder system. Since these acids are
diluted with either water or methanol, they should be stored inside, ideally at 650 F/180 C.

When a foundry feels they must dilute their catalyst with water, always add the acid to the water, never the water to the acid.
These acids are very corrosive and should not be stored in metal containers. Many foundries will purchase both a
concentrated and a milder catalyst. Having two catalysts, with different acid concentrations, allows the foundry to blend these
catalysts to adjust for changes in the cure time of the molds. Adding a large quantity of dilute, water carried, catalyst can
actually slow down or stop the chemical reaction, since the catalyst addition can introduce more water than the exothermic
reaction can remove from the sand mixture. When the process requires a high level of a mild catalyst, try replacing the dilute
catalyst with a more reactive catalyst or use a blend of the two catalysts.

Because the phenolic and furan binders are cured by an exothermic reaction, driving the water from the mold, the surface of
the mold will harden faster than the inside of the mold, since the surface of the mold can lose this water into the atmosphere.
One of the common practices, to determine the proper stripping time for the mold, is to use a long nail to determine the
degree of cure under the mold s surface. Stripping a mold too soon after mixing, before the internal portions of the mold are
adequately cured, can result in the mold distorting and sagging to match the configuration of the bottom board. When the
cope and drag sections of this mold are assembled, this distortion can result in runouts or changes in the casting s dimensions.

The phenolic urethane binder system differs significantly, from the acid cured binder systems, in that the chemical reaction is
not predicated on a dehydration/condensation reaction. When the phenolic urethane s two part resin system is exposed to the
liquid activator, the chemical reaction is delayed allowing a period where the mixed sand may be moved and compacted prior
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to the initial formation of the polymers, this delay in the binders reaction is commonly referred to as the mixture s work
life . In the phenolic urethane coldbox system the two resins are distributed onto the sand s surface, with the sand mixture
blown or packed into a corebox, a gaseous form of the activator passed through the compacted sand curing the core almost
instantaneously. The gassing process is followed by an air purge, to aid in the distribution of the gaseous activator and to
remove any excess amine gas from the core. The amount of time the mixed sand can be stored without the mixture
advancing, becoming tacky and reducing its flowability, is referred to as the bench life of the mixture. If the sand has a
high pH, the pH can function as a catalyst, initiating a partial cure of the sand in the hopper, reducing its bench life and
decreasing the density of the cores, resulting in a reduction in their tensile strength and core handling characteristics.

The storage life for the phenolic binder component, commonly referred to as part 1 resin , is typically up to 6 months, if the
resin is stored at temperatures less than 90 F/32 C. Storing the binder at temperatures greater than 90F/ 32C, or for longer
than the recommended storage period, can initiate the polymerization cycle with the binder becoming very viscous and
difficult to distribute uniformly on the sand s surface. The part 2 resin is a methyl diisocyanate, this binder also has a
recommended shelf life of up to 6 months and also requires that the binder s storage temperature be maintained at less than
90F/32C. The part 2 binder is very sensitive to moisture, 4 ounces/113 g of water is sufficient to totally react 55
gallons/208 liters of this binder component. When the part 2 binder component is stored in bulk tanks, it is recommended
that the resin be stored with a Nitrogen blanket or chemically dried air, to stop the moisture in the air from reacting with the
binder.

All of the binder systems discussed in this paper have limited storage lives, which can be reduced significantly if the resin
drums are stored outside in direct sunlight, or at temperatures exceeding 90F/32C. When drums of resin are stored outside,
the resin in the drum can reach temperatures up to 150 F/66 C, initiating the polymerization of the binder and increasing its
viscosity. When the part 2 , methyl diisocyanate binder is stored outside, and exposed to rain and sunlight, the rainwater
retained on the top of the drum can cover a portion of the bung hole, that is used for filling and draining the resin from the
drum. During daylight hours the drum will heat to 150F/66C and the binder will expand, forcing a portion of the air, at the
top of the drum, to vent through the threaded bung hole opening. During the night the resin will cool, contracting and
drawing the water into the drum, reacting with the binder. In extreme cases, the drums may swell and bulge as the water
reacts with the binder and generates CO2 gas. Resins and catalysts that are stored outside, and allowed to freeze, can cause
the acid salts to drop out of suspension and the resins to separate. Avoid storing the chemical binder components outside
whenever possible, if the binders must be stored outside cover them with a tarp or some other waterproof covering to
minimize the temperature differential and the potential for heat or water to react with the various binder components.

As with the sand supplier s specifications and recommendations, the chemical binder manufacturers should provide the
foundry with a list of recommended testing procedures, and the permissible tolerances for their products. These tests should
include, but not be limited to, viscosity by either the Brookfield Viscosity Method or the Garner Holt Viscosity Tube Method,
the solids content of the binder or catalyst components, the components pH and the specific gravity of the binders and
catalysts, by either a weight/volume measurement or by Baume . These test procedures, accompanied by performance testing
with retained sand samples, can aid in determining if a variance in the binder, catalyst, or the sand s properties can be
associated with difficulties related to the quality and performance of production molds, cores or castings. Representative
samples of the sand and binder components should be obtained, when the mold and core making operations are performing
well, with these samples retained as reference standards, for times when the systems are not performing adequately. The
binder components should be refrigerated, to extend its usable life, and the sand sample should be kept in a sealed container
to avoid potential contamination.

USE THE LABORATORY RESULTS AS A GUIDE FOR IDENTIFYING THE SOURCES OF CORE AND MOLD
QUALITY PROBLEMS

When the laboratory completes a performance evaluation, using the retained laboratory samples, and all of the test results are
within the acceptable parameters, determine the loss on ignition values on the broken core tensile specimens and analyze the
burned sand to determine the properties of the sand after having been exposed to the binder, catalyst, sand, iron oxide or other
additives that are normally used in the core sand mixtures. These values should be maintained and compared with similar
properties obtained on production cores or molds, both when the production cores are encountering problems and when the
cores are exhibiting excellent core and casting properties. By performing similar tests on the defective core samples, the
difference in the properties may point to the variable that may be causing the problem.

The majority of foundries don t have adequate laboratory equipment and/or the technician time to perform all of the tests to
quantify the properties of the core sand remaining after the loss on ignition test has been accomplished. If the foundry can t
perform the desired tests, contact your foundry product suppliers to determine if they can support you by performing portions
of the required tests in their laboratories. Some of the suppliers routinely test samples for their customers; other suppliers
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will perform the testing for a fee. Typically the fees, charged by the suppliers, do not cover the cost of the testing, but they
often stop a foundry from overtaxing the supplier s laboratory capabilities. An alternative procedure is to establish contact
and make arrangements for support from a commercial laboratory that has the required testing capability.

Having managed several of these supplier s laboratories, I have had numerous requests for support from foundrymen
encountering problems. Typically the foundry contact would call and advise me that they had sent a core, a section of a mold
or a green sand sample for analyses and that the foundry needed the results as soon as possible, usually because the foundry
was encountering excessive core, mold and/or casting scrap. My typical response to the foundryman was, what were the
properties of the cores and molds when the foundry was operating well and the castings were excellent ? Invariably the
foundry spokesperson would state that they never test the sand when everything is going well, they are too busy making good
castings and couldn t afford the time.

The best time to determine the properties of the production sand is when the system is working well and the cores, molds and
castings are at their best. The two most common causes, blamed for the scrap castings, are the sand and the person that failed
to attend the scrap meeting. These two are blamed since they are not available to defend themselves, the sand has already
been reused and can t be evaluated, and the person not attending the meeting knew he was to blame so he didn t attend the
meeting.

Each time we mix the core sand, and form a core or mold, we have a certain amount of strike-off sand; we can collect a
sample of the sand from the mixer, or save a small production core which can be retained for future testing. Capture these
sand samples at regular intervals (hourly) and seal them in plastic bags for future testing, label the bag or core with the time
and date that the sample was taken. These samples do not have to be compacted into a core, since the testing will be
completed on the sand remaining after the loss on ignition test is completed. When the foundry is producing excellent cores,
molds and castings, send the samples of the retained sand or cores to the foundry s laboratory, the supplier s laboratory or the
commercial laboratory for a complete analyses. The properties reported by the various laboratories will provide a reference
standard for the values desired to produce excellent cores, molds and castings.

Try to obtain and record any associated information that may have an influence on why the quality of these cores were
superior (ie how old is the resin, was the sand silo full or empty, what was the temperature of the mixed sand, have we
changed the binder to catalyst ratio, how much binder were we adding, were we adding any special additives, the condition of
the mixer, etc.). By noting the conditions related, at the time the cores were produced, a causal relationship may be
determined that may account for the variation in the properties. An example of a causal relationship might be that when the
sand storage silo contained less than one fourth of its capacity, a significant increase in the sand s fines content was observed.
This higher concentration of fines required the foundry to increase the binder content, due to the added surface area of the
sand, while lowering the permeability of the sand, resulting in gas related defects.

Each time the foundry determines one of these causal relationships, write the source of the variation on a process control card
and retain copies of the cards at the mixer and in the laboratory. As additional sources of variation are discovered, note them
on the same card and comment on how these variations impacted the core sand s properties, the casting quality and the
laboratory analyses. By organizing this data, the foundry has developed a systematic approach to determining the causes for
variations in the quality of the cores or castings (ie the cores have a friable surface, resulting in erosion of the core s surface,
excess core breakage and sand inclusions in the castings). The areas that may impact the core s surface quality could
include:
Hot sand, too much catalyst,
Excess release agent applied to the patterns,
Patterns were not adequately cleaned prior to applying the release agent,
Wrong type of release agent used,
Cold patterns,
Old resin,
Wrong type of catalyst or binder used,
High moisture content in the sand,
Too many fines in the sand,
The pH of the reclaimed sand was too high or too low,
Insufficient amount of new sand was added to the reclaimed sand,
Binder to catalyst ratio was not correct,
Maintenance problem with the mixer, etc.

After identifying the potential sources for the problem, record these potential sources with the most likely cause listed first,
followed by the next most likely cause. When a core or casting problem is encountered, check off the potential causes until
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the root cause is identified. After identifying the potential root cause, correct the problem and test the sand after the
corrections have been incorporated to see if the changes eliminated or reduced the problem.

MIXING PROCEDURES

Since there are so many types of mixers, used to produce nobake and coldbox cores, it would be impossible to make specific
recommendations for each in this paper. However; the most frequent problem encountered with the various mixers is the loss
of their mixing efficiency. This can usually be quantified by using a twelve cavity core tensile pattern and a Kitchen-Aid
type mixer. Place a cardboard cover over six of the tensile specimen cavities, catch a sample of the mixed sand, as it is being
discharged from the production mixer, and compact the sand into the six uncovered cavities. Remove the cardboard cover
and catch another sample of the discharging sand, place the mixed sand in the Kitchen-Aid mixer, mixing it for an additional
one or two minutes. Compact the sand, receiving the additional mixing time, in the remaining six tensile specimen cavities
and allow the cores to cure. Compare the tensile strength, density, permeability and the scratch hardness of the as mixed
samples with those provided the additional mixing energy. If the cores receiving the extra mixing energy provide improved
properties, it may be time to have the mixer repaired. Maintaining the mixing efficiency of the mixer may allow the foundry
to reduce the quantity of binder required and improve the quality of the cores and molds produced.

Calibrate the binder and activator additions to the mixers routinely and perform stress tests on the production cores and
molds. When test mixtures are evaluated in the laboratory, they are prepared under ideal conditions and may not reflect the
conditions on the molding floor. The typical test, to determine if the mixer, binder, catalyst and sand are all performing well,
is to make a tensile specimen and pull it apart, determining the tensile strength. Many foundries have found that testing
production molds and cores can provide a more realistic, real-time correlation with the molds, cores and ultimately the
casting s quality. Placing a production core or a section of a mold, in a testing fixture and clamping it in place, allows the
foundryman to apply pressure to the core, using a hydraulic piston with a stress gage, until the core fails, recording the
pressure required to fracture the core section. Often foundries will evaluate production cores to determine their strength
development rate, the affect of applying a coating on the core, decreases or increases in the strength after drying the coating
and the strength of the cores after extended storage. Many automotive foundries test cores from the pallets of stored cores,
after a shutdown period, to determine if these cores should be used or discarded.

Large molds can also be evaluated using the same hydraulic piston system. By placing 1 in/2.54 cm spacers, between the
ends of two heavy saw blades, and bolting the blades and spacers at each ends of the two blades, the assembled saw blades
can be used to cut a 1 in/2.54 cm thick slab from a production mold or large core. By turning the saw blade assembly 900,
and cutting the core slab, we can produce a 1 in X 1 in / 2.54 cm X 2.54 cm core that can be evaluated for it transverse
strength either on a standard laboratory tensile strength machine or using the hydraulic piston method. If the length of the
tensile strength specimen is cut to a specific size, weighing the tensile specimen can provide data related to the compacted
density of the mold.

Many of the mixers utilize a thermocouple to monitor the temperature of the sand as it enters the mixing chamber. This
temperature reading is utilized by computer controlled pumps to adjust the amount of catalyst required to maintain a constant
hardening rate for the molds or cores. Care should be taken to ensure that the tip of the thermocouple is actually in the
moving sand that is feeding the mixer. If the tip is placed in the stationary sand, adjacent to the moving sand, the sensitivity
of the thermocouple will be decreased, since the heat from the moving sand must be transferred to the sand surrounding the
thermocouple. This incorrect placement of the thermocouple may extend the life of the thermocouple, but it diminishes the
sensitivity of the thermocouple and reduces the potential for accurately controlling the catalyst additions and subsequently the
hardening rate of the cores or molds.

RELEASE AGENTS

Use release agents only when needed, in most foundries the application of a release agent is not required each time the
corebox is used. If a specific area on a mold or core sticks, apply release to this area, and wipe or blow off the excess
material, as frequently as required. If other areas of the core box do not exhibit the same sticking tendencies, don t spray
them with the same frequency. Check the area, where the sand sticks, for undercuts, missing fillets, rough surfaces or
insufficient draft on the pattern, if any of these defects are discovered, contact the pattern shop to have the pattern repaired.
If the problem is due to insufficient draft or is a design problem, have the pattern shop talk to the engineering department and
the customer, to determine if a modification of the pattern is feasible.

When resin begins to build up, on the core box s surfaces, it makes the cores harder to strip. When this buildup occurs, the
first thing to check is if the core room is using too much resin. If the binder addition is not excessive, the use of a release
agent may be required. The use of a release agent is an excellent way to minimize or solve problems related to cores sticking
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in the core box. The most important concept to remember, when using release agents, is that the function of the release agent
is to stop the sand from adhering to the pattern. If the corebox is sprayed or painted with a heavy coat of release agent, and
the excess amount of release agent is not blown out of the corebox, the release will be drawn into the core, through capillary
action, and the same properties which keep the sand from sticking to the pattern will keep the sand grains from sticking to the
adjacent grains. Always blow or wipe any excess release agent from the corebox or pattern before filling it with sand. An
excess of release agent can also inhibit the bonding of a mold or core coating to the surface of the core or mold, resulting in
the coating spalling from the surface of the core during the casting process.

Always thoroughly clean the core boxes prior to coating them with release, when a release agent is sprayed over sand or
resin, adhering to the pattern, the surface of the sand/resin buildup becomes part of the pattern and each core will replicate
this design with a depression on the core s surface, where the adhering sand was located. When the core is placed in the
mold and cast, the casting will show a buildup, similar to metal penetration, where the depression on the core s surface
occurred. When castings defects exhibit a pattern, or it looks like the burn-in defect has a similar design, check the pattern to
determine if it could be the source of the problem.

When an excessive amount of parting is applied, or it is applied non-uniformly, the release agent will flow to the lowest areas
of the pattern, usually concentrating the release at the sharp edges of the parting line or pockets in the pattern, typically these
are areas that will receive the greatest thermal stress during the casting process. The release agent will be absorbed into the
sand through capillary action, impeding the bonding of the sand grains in these most critical areas of the core or mold,
diminishing the core s integrity.

SAND HANDLING AND SAND SEGREGATION

In the binder portion of this paper, I commented on the relatively short shelf life of the binders and how the properties of the
binder can change if not stored or handled properly. Obviously the sand doesn t have a problem with shelf life, but it does
have problems associated with particle size segregation and the improper handling of the sand. Each time sand is moved, the
sand particles segregate, by particle size and density, altering the consistency of the sand used in the foundry. If a container of
sand is poured onto a tabletop, the sand will form a cone with an angle of repose (resting level) of 350. As the sand forms this
cone, the larger, coarse, heavier grains will roll down the outside of the cone to its lowest level. The smaller grains are
lighter, and typically more angular, and they will lock together mechanically, concentrating these fines in the center of the
cone. The mid sized particles will be located between the fines in the center and the coarse grains on the perimeter of the
cone.

After the foundry has established the desired specifications for their sand, and the supplier has tested the sand and determined
that the shipment meets the customer s specifications, the sand is loaded into bags, trucks or railcars for delivery to the
foundry. As the sand enters a railcar or truck, the sand will segregate in the same method described above, with the finer
portion of the sand concentrated directly under the loading hatch and the coarse particles rolling down the cone to the lowest
area of the vehicle. Since the railcar or truck shipment is segregated, static sampling of the shipment from the top of the car
or truck would not be practical or accurate. Individual samples, obtained during the unloading of the car or truck can be
problematic, since the individual samples of the discharging sand, can vary as much as 20 AFS GFN numbers from one
sample to the next. The only way to accurately sample a sand shipment, from a truck or railcar, is to frequently and
uniformly sample the discharging sand and combine the individual samples. Unfortunately this procedure entails placing the
entire rail or truck shipment into the storage silo before it can be tested. Due to the inability of the foundry to obtain a truly
representative sample, without unloading the entire car, it is important to have the sand supplier provide a representative
sample of the shipment and to certify that the shipment is within the customer s specifications. It also emphasizes that the
selection of a credible sand supplier is crucial, if the foundry is to receive consistent, high quality, sand shipments.

Railcar shipments can be sampled, during the unloading of the railcar, by frequently passing a sampling tube through the
sand flow during the entire unloading operation. A standard sampling procedure (AFS 1101-00-S) can be found in the AFS
Mold and Core Test Handbook, 3rd Edition.1 The photograph shown in this test procedure illustrates a sampling device that
was designed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers; a similar testing device can be made with a 2 in/5.08 cm diameter
P.V.C. pipe, 4 ft/122 cm. In length, with a slot cut the length of the tube. The width of the slot should be a minimum of three
times the diameter of the largest particle size that will be encountered. Place a cap on one end of the pipe and pass the
sampler through the free flowing sand at regular intervals, placing the accumulated sand sample into a larger container after
each pass. The accumulated sample should be greater than 3 lb/1.31 kg, and must be reduced to 2.41 oz/75 gm, using a
riffle splitter, to obtain a suitable sample for a sieve analysis.

When the sand enters the top, center of the storage silo (Figure 7), the sand will build up directly under the entry point,
forming a 350 cone, the larger, heavier grains will roll down the cone and be concentrated on the outside perimeter the cone,
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along the walls of the silo. The finer grains are lighter and more angular, and will lock together, resisting movement, and will
be concentrated directly under the feed area and in the center of the cone. The medium sized grains will be placed between
the fine sand, at the center of the cone, and the coarse sand on the outside perimeter of the cone. When the sand is discharged,
through a discharge gate, at the center, bottom of the silo, the first sand to be discharged will be very fine with the coarse
sand remaining against the silo walls until the angle of repose favors it rolling into the feed pattern of the discharging sand.
When the sand is discharged through this center discharge point, the sand will fall vertically, due to gravity, creating a void
directly above the sand that has been discharged. Gravity will force the sand located directly above this void to fill the void,
creating the discharge patterns seen (Figures 8 through 11).

Since the discharge void is filled with the sand directly above the discharge opening, the sand surrounding this area of
movement, cannot move horizontally and will remain in place until the discharge pattern allows it to fall into the ever
widening void and a free flow condition exists. By studying the flow patterns below, it s easy to see how a silo, storing
reclaimed sand, could use the same reclaimed sand over and over, even though the silo is more than three quarters full. The
freshly reclaimed sand would enter the top of the silo and feed through the void, creating a last in/ first out pattern.5

Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11

Discharge pattern for sand exiting a singe discharge silo, Figures 7 through 11
Viewing the silo discharge patterns shown in figures 7 through 11 explains how the core room could get a very fine sand,
after the silo is filled with new sand, causing weak cores due to the higher surface area of the sand and necessitating an
increase in the binder addition to ensure that the cores can tolerate the core and mold handling processes.

When a core can be made at 1.0% binder level, for an extended period of time and then problems are encountered, the core
makers typically increase the binder addition by 0.1% to see if the problem goes away. If the problem goes away, the binder
level generally remains at the new level, because no one wants to take a chance on lowering it and encountering a repeat of
the problems. Because of this attitude, the binder level remains at the elevated level, even though the cause for the lower
core strength has never been determined, but may have been corrected thru a cyclical fluctuation in the properties of the sand.
When the binder level is raised from 1.0 % to 1.1% the cost of the additional binder increases the cost of the mixed sand by
approximately $3.00 per ton. When these cores are exposed to the molten metal, the amount of gas generated will be
increased by 10%.

If the binder level remains at the elevated level, the strength of the core is increased and the core sections, away from the
mold/metal interface, will be stronger and may not breakdown in the casting and shakeout operations. The higher level of
residual binder coating, on the sand s surface, interferes with the wetting the sand grain s surface and impedes the bonding of
the clay to the sand, in a greensand system. These core butts must be screened from the greensand, or the quality of the
castings will be affected. As the core butts are processed and screened, potions of these core butts will be broken and
abraded, allowing them to enter the system as compound grain structures, that are small enough to pass through the scalping
screens, but much larger than the sand used in the green sand system producing rough casting finishes and metal penetration
type defects..

To help in understanding the placement of the recommended discharge pipes, I have included several additional schematics
which depict the location and feed pattern for the discharge pipes (Figure 12), a cross sectional view of the discharge pipes in
the cone section of a sand silo (Figure 13), a typical sand flow control assembly (Figure 14) and a view of the sand s flow
pattern when the silo is configured with a perforated discharge plate, in lieu of the re-blending pipe assembly (Figure 15, this
practice is not recommended).

The schematic (Figure 12), shown below, depicts the location of the discharge pipes for a 9 ft/2.74 m diameter silo. By
placing the first pipe in the center and measuring 2/3 the radius of the silo, we can place the second pipe 3 ft/0.91 m from the
center of the silo. Drawing a circle, with a 3 /0.91 m radius, we can locate the additional five pipes on the circumference of
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this circle, forming six equiangular triangles. If a silo, with a diameter larger than ten feet is encountered, a second series of
pipes can be placed on a second circle. In a 20 ft/6.1 m diameter silo, the first pipe would be placed in the center of the silo
with the first circle of pipes at a 4 ft/1.22 m radius, containing six pipes placed on this circumference, equidistant from each
of the other pipes. The second circle would have a radius of 8 ft/2.44 m, with twelve pipes, placed on this circumference,
equidistant from each of the other pipes.

Drawing (Figure 13) shows a schematic of the cross section of a silo, with seven pipes placed, in the cone, at the bottom of
the silo. The pipes do not have to be attached to a plate in the silo; they can be free standing with welded angle iron supports
to hold them in place. When the silo is filled, the pipes will be surrounded by sand which will provide additional support for
the assembly. A slide gate at the bottom of the silo will allow for the sand to discharge at any feed rate desired by the
foundry. Since sand will form its own choke, the feed gate does not have to be placed tightly against the pipes. When the
plate is shifted, the sand will begin to flow evenly from each pipe, re-blending the previously segregated sand. For
maintenance purposes, we suggest that additional drain points be located on the bottom plate of the silo to allow the sand
surrounding the discharge pipes to be removed.6

DISCHARGE PIPE FEED PATTERN

1.5 FT.

3 FT.
3 FT.
TACK WELDED
3 FT.
ANGLE IRON
4 DIA. PIPES

SAND DRAIN
FOR MAINT.

FLOW CONTROL GATE

SAND CHOKE

COLLECTOR PIPE
9 FT. DIA. SILO

Figure 12 Figure 13

SAND FLOW CONTROL GATE

SAND
DISCHARGE
PATTERN

Figure 14 Figure 15
Designing a discharge system to minimize sand segregation, Figures 12 through 15

The schematic (Figure 14) shows the seven pipes, from the 9 silo example, being brought together to form two parallel rows,
with four pipes in the first row and three pipes in the second row. By placing a slide gate under the two parallel rows, and
shifting the gate, any flow rate can be accomplished. For better flow control, rectangular extensions can be added at the
bottom of the round pipes giving a proportional feed rate as the discharge gate is shifted.

The schematic (Figure 15) shown above, illustrates why the placement of a perforated plate in the silo, does not re-blend the
sand or provide a first in/first out discharge pattern. When the sand is discharged through a center discharge point at the
bottom of the silo s cone, the sand will fall vertically, due to gravity, creating a void directly above the sand that has been
discharged. Gravity will force the sand located directly above this void to fill the void, creating the discharge pattern shown.
Since the discharge void is filled with the sand directly above the discharge opening, the sand surrounding this area of
movement cannot move horizontally and will remain in place until the discharge pattern allows it to fall into the widening
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void. Since the hole in the center of the plate is directly above the discharge opening, it will feed the greatest amount of sand
to satisfy the discharge requirement. The other openings will make up any additional amount of sand required, but the
primary feed will be provided by the center discharge opening, creating a last in/first out condition. Unless the sand below
the plate is totally vacated, the discharge pattern will be similar to a single discharge system.

The installation of re-blending (anti-segregation) tubes can be an effective tool, minimizing the variation of the sand as it is
being discharged from the silo. The use of these tubes is not limited to round bins, square or rectangular bins can be designed
to re-blend the sand as it exits the silo.

CONCLUSION

There are many variables that can cause core, molding and casting defects. By becoming aware of these variables, and their
possible sources, the foundry personnel can establish a go to list directing the foundry personnel to specific locations and
conditions that may have a causal relationship to the current problems. By organizing these go to lists by the most
probable cause, a likely cause, a possible cause and a remotely possible cause, the foundry can concentrate their immediate
resources more effectively.

By retaining sand samples or cores, and identifying the date, time of production and the quality of the cores, molds and
castings, the foundry will have samples, of the mixed sand, that provided the superior performance as well as during periods
when the foundry encountered less than acceptable performance. By analyzing these sand samples, after the L.O.I. test, the
foundry can determine the possible causes and sources of the variations. Once these sources of variation is identified, ie the
sand level in the silo, the foundry can continue to monitor the relationship of the sand silo s status and correlate it with
changes in the core s, mold s and casting s quality.

To be an effective competitor in the world s casting market, the foundry must be capable of making high quality castings the
first and every time. By knowing the sources of the problems and correcting them effectively, we can begin to fix the
problems, not the blame.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to AFS Committee members of 4-C, for selecting this paper for presentation as
the 2007 Silver Anniversary Paper.

REFERENCES

1. American Foundry Society, Chemically Bonded Cores & Molds Handbook, (1987)
2. American Foundry Society, Mold & Core Test Handbook, 3rd Edition, (2001)
3. American foundry Society, Green Sand Additives Handbook, 2nd Edition, (2000)
4. Hoyt, D.F., Back to the Basics of Silica Sand, Modern Castings Magazine, September (1987
5. Hoyt, D. F., Martin Marietta, Segregation of Sand, Movie, Video (1978)
6. Hoyt, D.F., Otte, A., Scott, W.D., Proper Re-blending Techniques for Foundry Sand Systems and Their Affect on Cold
Box Properties, AFS Transactions, 1990, Paper No. 90-29.