The FASEB Journal • Essay

Arab science in the golden age (750 –1258 C.E.)

and today
Matthew E. Falagas,*,†,1 Effie A. Zarkadoulia,* and George Samonis‡
*Alfa Institute of Biomedical Sciences (AIBS), Athens, Greece; †Department of Medicine,
Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; and ‡Department of
Medicine, University of Crete School of Medicine, Heraklion, Crete, Greece

The Arab world covers a vast geographic area,

comprising many different countries in Asia and Africa.
The contemporary world owes much of its progress in
all fields of human intellectual activity, including med-
icine, to Arabic culture, especially the advancements
made during the Golden Age of Arabic-Islamic science
(8th to 13th centuries C.E.). The glorious historic
background of the Arabic world permits us to identify
the debt that humanity owes to the Golden Age of
Arabic science and to evaluate the research contribu-
tions made by Arab countries to biomedical sciences in
our own day.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF ARAB SCIENCE

The biomedical sciences of the Arabic-Islamic world

underwent remarkable development during the 8th to Figure 1. Pottery cup depicting a leopard. Fatimid period,
13th centuries C.E., a flowering of knowledge and Egypt (11th century C.E.). Diameter: 20.4 cm. From the
intellect that later spread throughout Europe and Islamic collection of the Benakis Museum, Athens, Greece
greatly influenced both medical practice and educa- (printed with permission).
tion. The scientific glory of the Arabic nation origi-
nated on the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century C.E., butions of paramount importance to science, medicine,
where the preaching of the prophet Mohammed technology, philosophy, and art.
united the Arab tribes and inaugurated the Muslim
religion (1). The Islamic state was formed in 622 C.E.,
when the Prophet moved from Mecca to Medina.
Within a century after his death (632 C.E.) a large part WHAT LED TO THE GOLDEN AGE?
of the planet, from southern Europe throughout North
“The Golden Age” was based on several factors (5).
Africa to Central Asia and on to India, was controlled by
Muslims following the guidelines of the Prophet stud-
and/or influenced by the new Arabic-Muslim Empire
ied and searched for knowledge (1, 5, 6). The Quran is
(1, 2). In 711 C.E., Arab Muslims invaded southern
clear: “The scholar’s ink is more sacred than the blood
Spain and a center of flourishing civilization (al-Anda-
of martyrs”, while the Prophet promoted medical re-
lus) was created (1). Another center emerged in Bagh-
search preaching that “For every disease, Allah has
dad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the Islamic
given a cure.” (5) Communication became easier be-
world during a historic period later characterized as the
cause the Muslim Empire united extensive geographic
“Golden Age” (⬃750 to 1258 C.E.) (3).
areas. Scholars travelled to teach or share ideas. Fur-
Arguably, many of the achievements of the Islamic-
thermore, the Arabic language became a unifying
Arabic Golden Age were based on previous initiatives
factor (4, 5). Translations from Greek, Latin, and
taken by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Persians,
Chinese into Arabic were innumerable, thus removing
Greeks, and Romans (1, 2, 4). Hence, translators were
language barriers for scholars. During the same period,
invited to Baghdad, where scientists and researchers
studied the past and created the future. The result of
their work was impressive progress in all sectors of 1
Correspondence: Institute of Biomedical Sciences (AIBS),
science. The rulers of Islamic Spain, in an attempt to 9 Neapoleos St., Marousi 15123, Greece. E-mail: [email protected]
surpass Baghdad, recruited scholars who made contri- doi: 10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm

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Figure 2. Glass cup. Egypt, Syria, or Iraq (9th–10th
century C.E.). Height: 10 cm. From the Islamic
collection of the Benakis Museum, Athens, Greece
(printed with permission).

Arabs learned from the Chinese how to produce paper ISLAMIC MEDICINE
and books became more available (5). Libraries were
established in Cairo, Aleppo, Baghdad, and urban During that period, Islamic medicine went through
centers in Iran, central Asia, and Spain, while book- impressive developments, which later influenced med-
shops with thousands of titles opened in several cities ical education and practice in Europe (1, 2). Intense
(4, 5). Finally, The House of Wisdom, an academic efforts for translation and analysis of the works of
institution serving as a university, was established in Hippocrates, Rufus of Ephesus, Dioscurides, and Galen
Baghdad in 1004 C.E. (5). took place (1, 2). Arab scholars synthesized and further

TABLE 1. Raw and adjusted indicators for biomedical research productivity of Arab countries

Population
(in millions— GDP (in billion PubMed
average USDs—average Papers ESI—Papers
1994–2003) 1994–2003) (1994–2003) (1995–2004)

Algeria 29.7 42.8 281 370

Bahrain 0.6 6.6 200 ND
Comoros 0.5 0.2 3 ND
Djibouti 0.6 0.3 14 ND
Egypt 62.2 65.6 5,352 5,532
Eritrea 4.0 0.7 17 ND
Iraq 22.5 ND 259 ND
Jordan 4.7 7.5 1,293 1,167
Kuwait 2.1 26.6 1,554 2,068
Lebanon 4.2 12.1 1,322 1,364
Libya 5.1 ND 172 ND
Mauritania 2.5 1.2 35 ND
Morocco 28.0 38.9 2,008 2,281
Oman 2.3 12.2 620 ND
Qatar 0.6 ND 168 ND
Saudi Arabia 20.0 139.5 5,588 7,461
Somalia 8.4 ND 21 ND
Sudan 30.5 8.0 384 421
Syria 14.3 12.6 140 14
Tunisia 9.4 21.9 1,753 1,994
Unit. Arab Emirates 3.0 41.0 1,102 1,368
West Bank and Gaza 2.8 3.3 102 ND
Yemen 16.9 3.9 97 ND
Total 274.9 444.9 22,485 24,040
% of Global 4.6% 1.4% 0.5%

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elaborated the knowledge they had gathered from anatomy, surgery, anaesthesia, cardiology, ophthalmol-
ancient manuscripts, adding their own experience. ogy, orthopaedics, bacteriology, urology, obstetrics,
Numerous Arab pioneers are mentioned in medical neurology, psychiatry (including psychotherapy), hy-
history. Among the most famous are: Yuhanna ibn giene, dietetics, and dentistry (1, 4, 7).
Massuwayh who performed dissections and described
allergy (4, 7); Abu Bakr Muhummad ibn Zakariyya
ar-Razi (Rhazes) who differentiated smallpox from EDUCATION, HOSPITALS, AND SCIENCE
measles, described the laryngeal branch of the recur-
rent nerve, introduced mercurial ointments and hot In that era, a thorough system of medical education was
moist compresses in surgery, investigated psychoso- created in the Arab-Muslim world (1, 4). Arabic medi-
matic reactions, and wrote the famous Al-Hawi, a med- cal studies consisted of initial training in such basic
ical encyclopedia of 30 volumes (4, 7); Az-Zahrawi sciences as alchemy, pharmacognosy, anatomy, and
(Abulcasis), known as the father of surgery, who per- physiology, which was followed by clinical training in
formed tracheotomy and lithotomy, introduced the use hospitals, where students performed physical examina-
of cotton and catgut, and described extra-uterine preg- tions, attended ward rounds, and clinical lectures (1,
nancy, cancer of the breast, and the sex-linked inheri- 2). Upon completion of training, future physicians
tance of hemophilia (4, 7); Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who were required to pass oral and practical exams in order
differentiated meningitis from other neurologic dis- to be licensed. Medicine was not only a profession or
eases, described anthrax and tuberculosis, introduced science, but also a philosophical attitude based upon
urethral drug instillation, stressed the importance of religion and culture, obeying codes of ethics character-
hygiene, and dietetics, and the holistic approach to the izing the physician’s behavior and obligations to pa-
patient [his work al-Qanun fil Tibb (The Canon of Medi- tients, colleagues, and the community (4).
cine), represented the absolute authority in medicine At the same time, secular hospitals (Bimaristans),
for 500 years (4, 7)]; Ibn-Zuhr (Avenzoar) who de- developed all over the Arab world (1). These were
scribed pericarditis, mediastinitis, and paralysis of the well-organized institutions, run under specific regula-
pharynx, and who pointed out the importance of drugs tions and directed by physicians (1, 2). No sexual,
for body and soul (4, 7); and Ibn-Nafis who studied and religious, social, or economic discrimination interfered
described pulmonary circulation (4, 7). with patients’ treatment (1). Detailed medical records
Progress was apparent in all medical fields, including were kept (1). These hospitals were adequately

TABLE 1. (continued)

ISI—Papers in Articlesa per million Articlesa per

the top 50 clinical population billion USD
ESI Citations ESI medicine journals (average population (average GDP
(1995–2004) Fields (1994–2004) 1994–2003) 1994–2003)

4,186 4 18 9.5 6.6

ND ND 0 333.3 30.3
ND ND 0 6.0 15.0
ND ND 0 23.3 46.7
26,593 8 66 86.0 81.6
ND ND 2 4.3 24.3
ND ND 2 11.5 ND
3,334 3 9 275.1 172.4
8,596 8 21 740.0 58.4
6,947 6 35 314.8 109.3
ND ND 0 33.7 ND
ND ND 1 14.0 29.2
7,179 6 29 71.7 51.6
ND ND 14 269.6 50.8
ND ND 1 280.0 ND
31,229 8 69 279.4 40.1
ND ND 0 2.5 ND
2,967 3 7 12.6 48.0
928 2 4 9.8 11.1
8,606 6 17 186.5 80.0
5,922 6 0 367.3 26.9
ND ND 0 36.4 30.9
ND ND 1 5.7 24.9
106,487 284b
0.1%
a b
Articles indexed in PubMed. 12 articles had two authors with addresses in different Arab countries. ND, no data reported; GDP, gross
domestic product; USD, United States dollars; ESI, Essential Science Indicators; ISI, Institute for Scientific Information.

THE ARAB WORLD OF SCIENCE 1583

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equipped, and had both inpatient and outpatient units Additionally, the Golden Age was characterized by
(1, 2). Small, mobile hospital units were also created to technological, architectural, and artistic achievements
serve distant areas and battle fields (1). The first known (Figs. 1 and 2). Methods for irrigation including under-
hospital was established in Damascus in 706 C.E., while ground channels, windmills, and waterwheels were
the most important one, located in Baghdad, was some of the Arabic inventions (6, 9), while even today
established in 982 C.E. (2). Arab architectural miracles and unique objects of art
Along with progress in medicine, there were remark- can be admired in many countries, with many of the
able developments in pharmacology (1, 2). In the 9th best examples in southern Spain.
century C.E., manuscripts of Dioscurides and Galen Unfortunately, decline is an historical phenomenon
translated from Greek formed the basis of further observed in all times and cultures, and the Arabic-
understanding. Arab scholars became acquainted with Islamic world was no exception. From the 9th century
herbs, experimented with anesthetics, developed tech- C.E., several provinces had already started to fall away
niques such as distillation, crystallization, solution, and from Abbasid control and in the next four centuries the
calcinations (1, 2) and introduced new drugs such as political power of the Empire was dispersed among new
camphor, senna, musk, alum, sandalwood, ambergris, independent states (6). Around the 12th century C.E.,
mercury, aloes, and aconite. They also developed syr- the Abbasid Empire became weak, marking the begin-
ups and juleps, created flavoring extracts made of rose ning of the end (1, 9). Turks played a major role.
Turkish soldiers, who first reinforced the Empire after
water, orange or lemon peel, and experimented with
861 C.E., undermined the central authority (6). While
poisons and antidotes (1, 2, 4). The most famous
the Abbasid Caliphate was disintegrating, the Seljuk
manual was The Comprehensive Book on Materia Medica
Caliphate was beginning in 1057 C.E. By then the
and Foodstuffs, an alphabetical guide to over 1400
Empire had lost unity and power due to religious
simples, written by Ibn al-Baytar (2). The first pharma-
differences, charges of heresy, and assassinations.
cies were established in Baghdad in 754 C.E. In the Along with the internal pressures, the European Cru-
12th century C.E., pharmacology was differentiated sades (1097–1291 C.E.) further weakened the Muslim
from medicine and alchemy and became an indepen- Empire (9). Finally, in 1236, Cordoba fell to Spanish
dent discipline (1). The impact of Arabic pharmacol- Christians (5) and in 1258, Baghdad fell to Mongols
ogy in Europe was tremendous for centuries. Terms (1, 5).
used in everyday pharmacy and chemistry such as drug,
alkali, alcohol, elixir, aldehydes, etc., are derived from
the Arabic (1).
Advances in medical sciences were not an isolated ARAB SCIENCE TODAY
phenomenon. Astonishing progress was made in as-
tronomy, mathematics, chemistry, and other fields of To document the contributions of Arab countries to
science (1, 6, 8). Prominent astronomers were Ibn science today, we performed a bibliometric evaluation
Firnas, who constructed a planetarium and reputedly of the current biomedical research productivity in Arab
was the first man to fly; Al-Zarqali, who created a kind countries, updating the relevant literature (10, 11) by
analyzing data of the last decade and expanding on the
of astrolabe for measuring the motion of the stars;
issue with the use of various methods of measuring
Al-Bitruji, who studied stellar movements; Al-Fargani,
research output and the inclusion of more Arab coun-
who wrote the Elements on Astronomy; and al-Sufi, who
tries. Although bibliometric analyses have several limi-
described the Andromeda galaxy. Mathematics was
tations, such as the inclusion of only a proportion of
closely linked to astronomy and almost every mathema-
journals in indexing databases (12, 13), the results of
tician was also an astronomer (8). Arithmetic, algebra, our study offer useful data about the biomedical re-
geometry, and trigonometry flourished. Famous geo- search productivity in Arab countries during the last
metricians were Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who first translated decade. The research productivity of 23 Arab countries
Euclid’s Elements; and Muhammad and Hasan Banu was evaluated by three different methods. First, by
Musa, who wrote books on the measurement of the using the PubMed search engine, we identified the
sphere and trisection of angles and who discovered number of biomedical articles in which the first au-
kinematical methods of drawing ellipses (8). Among thor’s address was in one of the Arab countries for the
arithmeticians and algebraists, al-Khwarazmi was con- period 1994 –2003. We used a methodology similar to
sidered the greatest. He obtained data from Greeks and other bibliometric studies performed by our group
Hindus and transmitted arithmetical and algebraic (14).
knowledge, which exerted great influence upon medi- In addition, the total number of articles originating
eval mathematics (8). Finally, trigonometry was devel- from all Arab countries was calculated and compared
oped along with astronomy with important representa- with worldwide productivity. This method included the
tives such as Ahmad al-Nahawandi, Al-Khwarizmi, use of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI)
Habash al-Hasib, Yahya ibn abi Mansur, and Sanad ibn Essential Science Indicators (ESI) database. The ESI
Ali (8). In the field of chemistry, Jabir Ibn Haiyan database provides science trends and statistical infor-
introduced the meaning of experimentation, leading mation derived from other ISI databases. At the time of
from alchemy to modern chemistry. our analysis (April 2005) a total of 4941 journals were

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TABLE 2. Number of articles indexed in PubMed for each Arab country during the years 1994 –2003

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total

Algeria 29 25 13 17 19 26 30 44 32 46 281
Bahrain 13 13 11 16 15 19 26 28 25 34 200
Comoros 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3
Djibouti 1 0 2 4 2 0 1 1 1 2 14
Egypt 346 375 398 391 451 543 591 723 707 827 5352
Eritrea 1 0 0 0 1 0 4 3 3 5 17
Iraq 21 16 12 16 8 22 43 32 43 46 259
Jordan 64 65 86 88 107 135 161 174 221 192 1293
Kuwait 69 102 105 114 143 188 170 190 231 242 1554
Lebanon 61 47 61 88 124 146 160 215 184 236 1322
Libya 19 22 18 10 16 18 22 18 14 15 172
Mauritania 4 5 2 4 5 4 4 4 3 0 35
Morocco 85 126 140 136 166 203 226 289 333 304 2008
Oman 28 34 33 36 44 59 78 110 85 113 620
Qatar 17 12 15 12 16 11 9 26 21 29 168
Saudi Arabia 444 517 526 510 510 480 627 582 698 694 5588
Somalia 7 5 3 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 21
Sudan 39 38 34 30 38 31 29 42 49 54 384
Syria 3 10 2 7 7 20 21 24 18 28 140
Tunisia 141 105 94 124 94 131 167 264 264 369 1753
United Arab
Emirates 70 90 96 111 122 102 114 142 115 140 1102
West Bank and
Gaza 1 3 5 5 8 10 12 20 15 23 102
Yemen 4 4 4 6 5 10 14 17 15 18 97
Total (Arab
countries) 1467 1614 1660 1727 1902 2160 2509 2949 3078 3419 22,485
World total 382,711 390,587 401,431 398,550 416,746 433,254 473,109 481,014 499,995 528,276 440,5673

included in the ESI database and were categorized into lated from data obtained from the online World Bank
22 broad scientific fields for the 10-year period 1995– databases (15).
2004. We focused our search on nine biomedical Raw and adjusted indicators for the biomedical
scientific fields: biology and biochemistry, clinical med- research productivity of the Arab world during the
icine, immunology, microbiology, molecular biology last 10 years are shown in Table 1. The last two
and genetics, multidisciplinary, neuroscience and be- columns present data adjusted for population size
havior, psychiatry / psychology, and pharmacology and and GDP. Researchers from Saudi Arabia published
toxicology. Data in the ESI database is organized in the largest number of articles. However, when adjust-
various ways, including national rankings for research ments for population and GDP were made, Kuwait
productivity in the above scientific fields. Thus, data and Jordan, respectively, were the most productive.
pertaining to the total number of publications, total Looking at the cumulative indices of scientific pro-
number of citations, as well as to the number of duction of the Arab countries, one may notice that
citations per paper for the examined 10-year period, although the population of these countries repre-
sented 4.6% of the global population and had 1.4%
was collected and evaluated for each of the 23 Arab
of the global GDP during the study period, they
countries. Some Arab countries did not have data in the
produced 0.5% of the biomedical research indexed
ESI rankings because they did not pass the needed
in the PubMed database and 0.1% of the articles
cumulative citation count threshold as set by ESI.
published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals.
We also evaluated articles published in the top 50 Only 30 articles from those published in the top 50
clinical medicine journals as categorized in the ESI clinical medicine journals during the period 1994 –
database, sorted on the basis of the number of citations 2004 originated exclusively from Arab countries,
per paper. Then, by making use of the ISI Web of whereas in 254 others there was also participation of
Science “advanced search” tool, we identified articles in authors from non-Arab countries [in 146, authors
these journals in which at least one author had an from the USA; and in 112, authors from Western
address in an Arab country. We analyzed data on Europe (there were co-authors from the USA, West-
original articles only, excluding publication types such ern Europe, and Arab countries in some papers)].
as letters, editorials, and news items. In order to adjust Most Arab countries located in the African continent
for confounders that affect research productivity, the produced less research, in absolute or adjusted num-
average population and gross domestic product (GDP) bers, than the majority of non-African Arab countries.
for each country during the study period were calcu- Although researchers from Egypt and Morocco pub-

THE ARAB WORLD OF SCIENCE 1585

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lished a relatively large number of papers and received Mantadakis, M.D. for reviewing the manuscript. M.E.F de-
a good number of citations compared to researchers signed the study, supervised data collection and analysis, and
from other Arab countries, they ranked lower when the wrote the bibliometric part of the paper. E.A.Z. and G.S.
wrote the part of the paper regarding the Islamic Golden Age.
data for research productivity were adjusted for popu- M.E.F. is guarantor.
lation and GDP.
Data regarding the number of articles indexed in
PubMed, in which the first author’s address was in an
Arab country, for the years 1994 –2003 are presented in
Table 2. As shown, there was a continuous increase in REFERENCES
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Arab science in the golden age (750−1258 C.E.) and today
Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia and George Samonis

FASEB J 2006 20: 1581-1586

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