Draft Manuscript on

Integration of Transferable Skills into technical training and its impact on women employability in
Kenya: case for CAPYEI
Abstract
Despite efforts to ensure equal access to education for all, school to work transition for women is still low
in Kenya. The study on transferable skills for Kenyan women and girls sought to enhance women and
girls skills development and employability through evidence-based influence on gender responsive
policies. This paper used a mixed research method to fill the evidence gap on how to bring training on
transferable skills into formal education systems in Kenya, with a focus on enhancing employability of
women and girls. The study evaluated a programme by CAP Youth Empowerment Institute (CAPYEI)
that uses Basic Employability Skills Training (BEST) model to contribute to the evidence and generate
lessons on the type of skills needed to enhance women economic empowerment. The study sampled 518
graduates and non-graduates of the CAPYEI for 2019. Results indicate that skills development improves
chances of employment among the target group and especially women. Consequently, integration of
transferable skills training in teaching and training institutions has potential to enhance competitiveness,
employability and entrepreneurship chances of the graduates in the labor market. The findings of this
study are essential for government, program implementers, donors, civil society, and media to identify
evidence gaps, build demand for evidence, and ensure that evidence informs policy, programs, and public
discourse, contributing to effective decision-making.
Keywords: Employability, Women, Girls, integration, propensity score matching

I. Introduction

Background
Globally, gender inequality remains a significant challenge limiting access to education and employment
opportunities for women. The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2021 shows that
Kenya ranks 95 out of 156 countries on the gender gap index of 0.692 out of a maximum of 1. Due to the
gender gap, women are more likely to be unemployed, underemployed, or engaged in informal work, with
limited access to formal employment opportunities compared to their male counterparts. In order to
address employability challenges for women in Kenya, strategies aimed at empowering the women such
as integrating transferable skills into education and training programs have been proposed and
implemented within the education system. Transferable skills are skills that can be applied in various
settings, regardless of the job or industry such as communication, problem-solving, teamwork, leadership,
and time management. Integrating transferable skills into education and training programs are poised to
enhance employability of individuals passing through the education and training institutions thus bridging
the skills gap and supporting economic growth. According to a report by the World Economic Forum
(2020), transferable skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and teamwork are
increasingly becoming vital in the workforce, and the demand for such skills is projected to increase
significantly in the coming years. Focus on the transferable skills has been necessitated by the dynamic
nature of the labor market and future outlook.
Moreover, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has
emphasized the importance of transferable skills in achieving its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
(UNESCO, 2021). In particular, UNESCO recognizes that transferable skills play a crucial role in
achieving SDG 4, which focuses on ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting
lifelong learning opportunities for all. A survey conducted by the International Labour Organization
(ILO) revealed that employers worldwide value transferable skills, with communication, teamwork, and
problem-solving skills being the most highly sought after (ILO, 2021).
According to the World Bank, approximately 11 million young people, including girls, enter the African
labor market each year, yet only about 3 million are able to find a wage-paying job (World Bank, 2018).
This highlights the importance of equipping young people, especially girls with transferable skills that
can enhance their employability in a highly competitive labor market and enable them to support
themselves outside the formal labor market. In response to this, various African governments have
implemented policies and initiatives aimed at developing transferable skills among their citizens such as
curriculum reviews. However, despite these efforts, a significant gap remains in the development and
implementation of transferable skills programs in many African countries including Kenya (World Bank,
2018).
In the recent past a number of research studies have been conducted and highlighted significant gaps that
need to be addressed within the structural environment in Kenya. Among the gaps identified is low
emphasis by employers on transferable skills during recruiting [38% of employers considered transferable
skills important when recruiting new staff (KEPSA, 2021)], limited programs inculcating transferable
skills in their program [14% of vocational training programs in Kenya offered courses on transferable
skills (ILO, 2020)], low quality of existing training programs that focus on transferable skills, and low
employer trust on the preparation of graduates with transferable skills for the job market (KIPPRA, 2018),
[26% of employers believed that vocational training institutions adequately prepared graduates]. This is
reflected in the high youth unemployment rates in Kenya which stood at 22.4% in 2020 (World Bank,
2021).
In this paper, an intervention by one of the NGO (CAPYEI) is evaluated to provide information on the
performance of integrating transferable skills in training (CAPYEI, 2021). CAPYEI training model, Basic
Employability Skills Training (BEST), is an adaptation of the training model developed in India as a
response to challenges facing street children which was later introduced in Africa in 2008 particularly
Egypt and later in Kenya. The training targets youths aged 18-35 years particularly girls who have been
marginalized for a long time. The model works with youth who didn’t finish Form 4 and/or who never
went to school at all. As at 2023, the programme has so far trained over 90,000 youths with majority of
them having been able to join employment while others have begun their own businesses indicating
development of entrepreneurial skills. The programmes model addresses the way people think about
TVET in Kenya. The CAPYEI transition to employability exceeds 80% making it interesting for
evaluation to understand the principles behind its operation and success. CAPYEI also collaborates with
employers who provide feedback, offers internship opportunities to graduates and offers training on
recent developments in the workplace. According to CAPYEI over 3000 employers are giving on the job
training for the graduates they want to hire. Before the onset of COVID-19 in 2020, the programme had
been training 10,000 youths per year, however the number reduced to 4000-5000 per year with the
number falling to 1500 due to COVID-19 in 2022.
Research question
The study was guided by the following question; How do transferable skills impact on employment rates,
wage and entrepreneurship of women and girls in Kenya?
Significance of the study
Addressing gender inequality is critical in dealing with challenges affecting women in accessing
education and employment opportunities. Empowering women economically empowers families,
communities and in turn contributing to national development thus attainment of SDG 4. Additionally,
skills development improves chances of employment for women thus integration of transferable skills
training in teaching and training institutions is expected to enhance competitiveness, employment rates
and entrepreneurship chances of the women in the labor market. Further, the findings of this study are
essential for government, program implementers, donors, civil society, and media to identify evidence
gaps, build demand for evidence, and ensure that evidence informs policy, programs, and public
discourse, contributing to effective decision-making.
Literature Review
Previous research studies have shown that education and training programs that incorporate transferable
skills improves employment rates for women. For example, a study by Kuzilwa and de Grip (2018) found
that women who received training in transferable skills had higher employment rates and wages
compared to those who did not. Similarly, a study by Bartlett (2015) showed that the integration of
transferable skills into vocational training programs in South Africa led to improved job prospects for
women. Additionally, a study conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2020 found
that integrating transferable skills into vocational training programs significantly enhanced the
employability of women in Kenya. The study also found that women who participated in vocational
training programs that integrated transferable skills were more likely to find formal employment than
those who did not participate in such programs. Further, the study found that women who participated in
vocational training programs that integrated transferable skills earned higher wages than those who did
not participate in such programs. Andiema (2021) identified social-cultural factors, lack of role models,
and poverty as barriers affecting female students' participation in vocational education and training,
suggesting the need to make courses more attractive and remove barriers to enrollment and completion
for girls. Murgor (2013) compares technical and vocational skills acquired by male and female students in
TVET institutions and suggests the need to diversify vocational training and improve access and retention
of girls and women in various fields.

Ngware (2002) highlighted that there is a need for expanding skill training opportunities for females in
technical education programs so as to meet the demand of competitive labor markets. Sarwar (2021)
assessed the impact of a women's skill development training program and found that certain trades were
more popular among certain groups of people than others. For instance, computer application and
stitching/cutting were identified as popular trades among women. Paryono (2014) discusses the
integration of transferable skills, referred to as life skills, in the technical and vocational education and
training system in Brunei Darussalam. Juan-Vigaray (2012) examines the acquisition of transferable skills
by university students and finds that effort, measured in terms of hours of independent learning, is
significantly higher among female students.

Aḥmad (2020) and Ahmed (2021) both highlight the socio-economic and demographic empowerment of
women through Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs. In their studies they
emphasize factors such as self-employment, parents' education, and institutional affiliation as contributors
to women's empowerment. Pappas (2017) focuses on the role of ICTs in creating new opportunities for
women's employability and entrepreneurship which requires emphasizing the acquisition of e-skills.
Mahazir (2019) examines gender differences in employability skills among vocational students and finds
that male students perceive themselves as more competent in hospitality employability skills when
compared to females. Mbarika (2006) emphasizes the importance of providing women with sufficient
technical skills and addressing structural barriers, such as gender discrimination and inadequate public
policies, to enable their integration into the formal ICT work sector.

Faulkner (2019) discusses how other countries are increasing the employability of females through
technical training programs and government policies. Abid (2020) examines the role of vocational and
technical training in achieving gender equality and empowering women in Sindh, Pakistan.

Another study conducted by the World Bank in 2019 found that integrating transferable skills into
education and training programs can significantly enhance the employability of women in Kenya,
particularly in male-dominated industries. The study found that women who participated in education and
training programs that integrated transferable skills were more likely to enter male-dominated industries,
such as construction and manufacturing, than those who did not participate in such programs, and earned
higher wages than those who entered female-dominated industries. Transferable skills play a critical role
in increasing girls' and women's employability chances and earnings (Lowe, 2019). Additionally, the
Republic of Kenya (2020) pointed out that women were underrepresented in the transport sector implying
there was a shortage of women role models in the transport sector especially in senior roles giving rise to
pay gap while the disadvantaging the few female workers in the sector.

About 20 percent of Kenya's population comprises 15-24-year-old males and females, a potential asset to
the Kenyan economy if they can gain economic independence by securing well-paying jobs upon their
education graduation. Over 21 percent of youths in developing countries, of which three quarters are
women, are not in employment (UNICEF, 2019). This predisposes the youths especially women to harsh
environments as they try to fend for themselves amidst the inequality in access to education, training and
employment opportunities. According to Hall (2017), Kenya's economic growth benefits the older
generation leaving the young active generation unable to contribute to economic development. Further,
Kenyan education has previously had limited emphasis on transferable skills required in the labor market,
explaining higher levels of unemployment among youths. However, UNICEF (2019) indicated that 39 per
cent of employers attributed the unemployment in various economies to skills deficits. This is evidenced
by the low enrollment rates for the youths, The country has 3.3 percent of women youths, and 4.7 percent
of men youths enrolled in tertiary education. As a result of limited education, the majority of the girls and
women end up seeking employment in labor intensive low paying jobs.

Transferable Skills and Employment of Women and Girls

According to KICD (2016), all learners should be equipped with entrepreneurial and managerial skills to
be self-reliant and in order to create jobs. According to Nyerere and Warira (2017) transferable skills
prepare girls and women to find employment and create quality jobs. The skills acquired enhance women
and girls productivity thus supporting them in contributing to the country's socio-economic development.
Transferable skills, including problem-solving, negotiation, managing emotions, empathy, and
communication, help connect, reinforce and develop other foundational skills such as literacy, numeracy,
digital and job-specific skills (UNICEF, 2019). Suriyani (2019) notes that employers prioritize
transferable skills such as adaptation, flexibility, and willingness to learn and keep learning. Most
employers therefore want employees who will be effective in today's changing economy. Assan and
Nalutaaya's (2018) case study found that employers are interested in consistency, reliance, excellent
communication, and presentation skills. Although many youths in Kenya are keen on the acquisition of
soft skills, the majority cannot access such skills to increase their employment opportunities. Thus, Assan
and Nalutaaya (2018) recommend integrating employability programs into the secondary education
curriculum and tertiary levels to address unemployment among Kenyan youths.

Efforts are needed to improve the employability skills of women and girls, especially in fields
traditionally dominated by men (Mvunabandi et al., 2023). Girls and women face challenges in their well-
being, mental health, education, employment, and independence, which affect their sustainable
development of career pathways. Due to these challenges, women are underrepresented in fields such as
engineering, manufacturing, construction, and science, and barriers need to be overcome to promote their
participation and utilize their skills (Tabassum, 2019).

Matching industry needs and skills

Jayaram (2012) found a growing gap in the world between employers' needs and skills students acquire at
the secondary and tertiary levels of education. KICD, in 2016 indicated that in 2009, secondary education
curriculum content relegated practical skills necessary for economic development to non-examinable
subjects; hence most secondary level graduates lacked adequate skills and competencies while joining the
job market. Nyerere (2018) notes that Kenya is not building sufficient and relevant competencies and
skills of the youth and that efforts made by the government on equipping youths on transferable skills are
concentrated on the out-of-school youth. An earlier study investigating skills gap analysis for graduates of
youth polytechnics, vocational training colleges, and out-of-school youths established that besides low
technical skills, graduates also had weak work attitudes, communication, and social skills (Republic of
Kenya, 2012). The Kenya decent work country program 2013–2016 recommended improvement on
youths and women industrial training relevance to reduce their skills mismatch in the labor market
(Republic of Kenya, 2013).

Impact of Soft skills on Labour outcomes

According to UNICEF (2019), the development of effective transferable skills requires learning
environments where learners can participate feeling physically, socially, and emotionally safe and where
reinforcement of skills is done through positive interactions with adults and peers. Studies in Kenya
confirm life skills training has a positive impact on youth. Ondieki et al. (2019) research on consequences
of integrating CAP YEI's proven life skills curriculum in selected Vocational Training Centres (VTC's) in
Kenya found a positive trend with the treatment group. In Ondieki et al. (2019) research, life skills
offered to students were attributed to the observed positive trend in the treatment group. Moreover, White
(2018) found that youth’s livelihoods programs positively affected both young men's and women's access
to income-generating opportunities. Murgor's (2017) study, on the other hand, found that TVET
institutions did not inculcate soft skills content required for survival in self-employment. According to
Murgor, time management was ranked highest but did not affect employment. Correspondingly, White
(2018) noted that few programs provided catch-up basic education, often a blockade to labor market
success, especially for young women. Iioetonma (2020) points out that both job-specific and transferable
skills are vital for successful and resilience in employment. Even then, Mungai and Ogot (2012) observed
that ethnic, cultural influences play a more significant role in women's inclinations towards
entrepreneurship and their view of their community perception on the same as gender. Moreover,
UNESCO (2019) notes that harmful social norms can inhibit education change from being realized
among women, given the cultural opinion of women as wives, caregivers, and domestic workers.

Sub-Saharan Africa remains far from parity at all education levels (UNESCO, 2019). Drawing from the
international human rights instruments such as the Vienna Declaration on Human Rights, the Convention
on eliminating all forms of discrimination against women, and the Beijing Platform for Action, the
Kenyan government commits to improving women's status (Friedrich, 2006). The constitution of Kenya
article 35 (1) reiterates that women have equal treatment with men, including the right to equal
opportunities in political, economic, and social activities (Republic of Kenya, 2010). Notwithstanding,
technical and vocational programs remain a male stronghold (UNESCO, 2019), while young women in
rural areas constitute the most significant proportion of the unemployed Kenyan youths, and their equals
in urban locations are most likely to be unemployed (Hall, 2017). In a study of women entrepreneurs with
at least a bachelor's degree aged 26-30 years, all married women with at least two children, Sadera et al.
(2019) found that they were good in marketing, record keeping, decision making, critical thinking, and
planning. They, however, needed training in written communication and managerial skills. Participation
of women in education from an early age has been poised to enhance their economic opportunities, labor
productivity and widen both the taxpayers' base and social protection contribution.

Programs tailored to benefit young women have been found to have a positive influence on their
attitudinal outcomes, psycho-social, economic and cognitive skills (Dupuy et al., 2018). The survey by
Dupuy et al (2018) confirmed that the life skill programs on girls scarcely served the most vulnerable
girls and that the commonly taught skills included social and interpersonal skills.

Further, Iioetonma (2020) observes that investment in education to enhance employment opportunities
better results for long-term economic empowerment for young women than investing in education to
strengthen entrepreneurship. According to Iioetonma, equity investment in education and training should
enable adolescent girls to access secondary and tertiary education, develop foundational, digital,
transferrable, and job-specific skills to secure decent and productive jobs and entrepreneurship ventures.
Further, World Bank Group (2019) notes that individuals with higher education levels are more likely to
be formally employed. However, Mutuku et al. (2015) observed that 76.9 percent of the female
entrepreneurs went into business without prior business skills and rarely actively searched for
entrepreneurial knowledge or skills hence the need to integrate transferable skills in training. Cusolito and
Maloney (2018) argue that more than the basic education, technological expertise, managerial
capabilities, and forbearance for risk are the crux to successful entrepreneurship.

Despite numerous research being conducted on the impact of transferable skills on labor outcomes, there
is no disaggregated data on transferable skills and employment by gender to evaluate gender specific
issues that affect women and girls employment rates. Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the
essential soft skills that the training institutions should focus on. This study aims to shed more light on the
impact of transferable skills on labor market outcomes among girls and women and provide insights into
the transferable skills debate.
Theoretical framework(insert a diagram)

Methods

Research design
This study used the mixed approach by incorporating both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Project
evaluation data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. A mixed method design was
used for purposes of triangulation. Given that the study was conducted post evaluation, it did not have
baseline survey data, therefore an ex-post baseline evaluation using a retrospective approach was
computed. In the absence of a true baseline, the questionnaire was tailored to allow beneficiary recall. A
key design consideration of impact evaluation study was the identification of a valid control group that
could generate a suitable counterfactual outcome.

Control and Treatment Group: In the evaluation projects, the research team sampled youth who were
not considered for the project but from the project locality as the control group. This control group
became part of the population that did not receive any treatment (which in this case was not benefiting
from the projects). The treatment group constituted beneficiaries randomly selected from the list of the
pool of graduates who were trained by CAPYEI. The target group was the cohort that was enrolled in
2019.

Sampling Methods
The study employed randomization in selection of respondents. In the first stage, regions were selected
and then the beneficiaries from those regions were randomly selected from a list of participants of
CAPYEI graduates. A total of 518 respondents (Benefiaries 204 and Non-beneficiaries 314) were
involved during the study.
Data Collection exercise
Data was collected by trained enumerators in three main study sites; Kisumu, Mombasa and Nairobi with
a number from 8 counties (Vihiga, Siaya, Kwale, Kakamega, Kiambu, Busia and Migori) bordering the
three main study sites where the participants had relocated or had come from. These sites were selected
due to their presence as CAPYEI training sites (Vocational training centers and demonstration centers).
The survey was conducted between 1 st December and 15th December 2022. The interviews were
conducted in the selected sites by the trained Research Assistants (RAs) who were provided with a
randomized list of beneficiaries as supplied by CAPYEI to identify the beneficiaries while the control
group was composed of the non-beneficiaries of the program within the programme age range within the
target areas. Data collected was cleaned, coded and analyzed using STATA version 14. The results are
presented in tables and charts.
Results

Descriptive Statistics: Socio economic characteristics of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries

Table 1 provides the socio economic characteristics of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. According
to the results 58 and 49 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries were male respectively with an
average age of 25 years respectively. The results further show that over 70 percent of the respondents
were single (both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries). In regard to the highest education, 13 and 36
percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries respectively had completed secondary education, 54
and 32 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries respectively had completed college education. In
terms of employment, 45 percent and 35 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries were
employed with 31 and 36 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries being unemployed.
Beneficiaries in business made on average Kshs 19,953 (USD 1 142.5) while non beneficiaries made Kshs
20,609 (USD 147.2). From the analysis there was a slight difference between beneficiaries and non-
beneficiaries on expenditure at Kshs 13,726 (USD 98) and Kshs 15,559 (USD 111.1), respectively.
Table 1: Socio economic characteristics of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries

Beneficiaries Non-beneficiaries Chi square /

(n=204) (n=314) t-statistic

Gender (1=Male) 58.33 49.36 3.99**

Age (years) 24.62 (2.45) 24.80 (2.68) 0.75

Marital Status 73.05 76.43 2.39

(1=Single) (%)

Highest level of
education

Primary 2.94 2.23

Secondary 12.75 35.67

TVET 27.94 13.38 79.98***

College 54.41 31.53

University 1.96 17.20

Household size 3.33(2.35) 3.27 (2.34) -0.28

(number)

1
1USD=Kshs 140
Employment status
(1=unemployed)

Employed 44.61 35.03 4.78**

Self-employed 25.49 29.30 0.89

Unemployed 31.37 35.67 1.08

Income (Kshs)
(Salary/Business
income)

Employed 18,644.23 (16,294.27) 30,997.83 (37461.811) 0.29

Self-employed 19.953.29 (18,916.35) 20,609.00 (13,064.17) 2.26**

Expenditure 13,726.00 (9,546.31) 15,559.23 (12,943.41) 1.74*

Figures in parenthesis represent standard deviation.

Significant levels; *<0.1, **<0.05, ***<0.01
Source: Survey, 2022

1. Nature of transferable Skills

The analysis also considered the respondents’ evaluation of their possession of key soft skills. The results
indicate positive self-evaluation on most of the selected soft skills. For instance, over 80 percent of both
the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries indicated that they possessed communication, teamwork,
interpersonal, Decision making, prioritization, assertiveness and negotiation skills while 58 percent and
63 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries respectively indicating that they possessed ICT skills
(Figure 1).
Figure 1: Self-evaluation on possession of selected soft skills (%)
 Self-evaluation on possession of selected soft skills (%)

ICT 63
58
Leadership 75
82
Prioritization 80
88
Entrepreneurship 83
92
Interpersonal 83
94
Negotiation 87
95
Teamwork 87
95
Assertiveness 83
96
DecisionMaking 89
97
Communication 98
98
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Non-beneficiaries Beneficiaries

2. Empirical estimation
To evaluate the impact of transferable skills on women employment rates and earnings, the study used
propensity score matching (PSM) method. PSM mimics random assignment by comparing outcomes of
the transferable skills beneficiaries receiving the benefits with outcomes of the selected control group
after matching the two groups on various observable demographic and socio-economic characteristics
(Dehejia & Wahba, 2002). PSM also addresses one of the challenges in impact evaluation i.e.
constructing a proper counterfactual (i.e. treated as control) to measure what would have been the
outcome for the treated had they not been treated. PSM is a good option for obtaining a proper
counterfactual through matching a treated beneficiary of transferable skills with a control with similar
pre-intervention characteristics. The observation units with matched characteristics are assumed to have
an equal chance of being a participant or a non-participant. Impact evaluation utilizes a quasi-
experimental design involving groups of those who have benefited from the program and those who have
not.
PSM makes the following assumptions; Unconfoundedness or absence of selection bias; and Common
support. A balance test was carried out in the matched sample. Using the matched data, calculation of
average treatment effects of the treated (ATT) was undertaken, standard errors and/or test for other
heterogeneous treatment effects.
The outcome indicators included are: Employment rates (Employed=1, otherwise=0); Uptake of
entrepreneurship opportunities (Own a business=1, otherwise=0); Incomes (from employment and
entrepreneurship) (Monthly income);
Treatment effects
Table 2 presents the PSM results for the impact of transferable skills on income for the formally
employed, self-employed, engaged (formally employed and self-employed), and income for female
respondents. According to the results, beneficiaries were about 13 percent more likely to be employed
than non-beneficiaries, however, these results were not statistically significant. In regard to self-
employment, beneficiaries were about 4 percent more likely to be self-employed than non-beneficiaries,
however, the results were also not statistically significant. Additionally, in respect to engagement,
beneficiaries were about 15 percent more likely to be engaged (formal employed or self-employed) than
non-beneficiaries. These results were statistically significant at 5 percent. In regard to income, non-
beneficiaries earned Kshs 4,360 (USD 31.1) more than beneficiaries with the results being statistically
significant at 10 percent.

Table 2: Impact of transferable skills on women Employability: PSM results

Formally Self-Employed Employed Income (Kshs)

Employed
(Self + Formal)

ATE

Beneficiary vs non- 0.128 0.035 0.149** -4360.543*

Beneficiary (0.082) (0.081) (0.070) (2258.712)

Observations 244 244 244 181

Standard errors in parentheses

Significant level; *p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01

V. Discussion

Women represent almost half of the world's population and their inclusion in such as employment is
crucial for economic development. Gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls are
prerequisites to the realization of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Geewg et al., 2022).
Although general education is mandatory in Kenya, technical education is necessary to acquire the skills
required for the advanced and dynamic job market (Abid et al., 2020).

Addressing gender inequality requires targeted interventions aimed at ensuring that women and girls are
empowered to compete favorably with men and boys in the labour market. As indicated by research,
women are more likely to be unemployed, underemployed, or engaged in informal work, with limited
access to formal employment opportunities when compared to men. As such addressing these challenges;
unemployment, underemployment, or engagement in informal work, strategies such as integrating
transferable skills into education and training programs have been identified as critical. Integrating
transferable skills into education and training programs has enhanced employability of women indicating
the positivity of the interventions in bridging the skills gap and supporting economic growth at the
household level which later translates to local economic growth. The findings of the study corroborate
World Economic Forum (2020) findings that transferable skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving,
communication, and teamwork are vital in the workforce. Focus on the transferable skills has been
necessitated by the dynamic nature of the labor market and future outlook.

The findings of this study corroborate what other studies have found. Previous research studies have
shown that education and training programs that incorporate transferable skills improves employability
outcomes as women who had received training and education incorporated with transferable skills had
higher employment rates and wages compared to those who did not (Mvunabandi et al., 2023; Kuzilwa
and de Grip, 2018; Bartlett, 2015). Integration of transferable skills into vocational training programs
leads to improved job prospects for women, significantly enhances the employability of women (Bartlett,
2015). Unfortunately, previous studies indicated that women who participated in vocational training
programs that integrated transferable skills earned higher wages than those who did not participate in such
programs while this study indicated that they earned less (Ondieki et al., 2018). Some of the reasons for
the differences could be accounted to the nature of employment graduates of vocational technical
education are linked to or are employed in. The nature of employment had a lower wage rate than the
control group.

Limitations of the study

The study did not focus on the entire Kenya and therefore may lack generalizability of the findings.
However, the major counties were covered in this study hence generalization of results made possible.

Conclusion

In Kenya, gender inequality remains a significant challenge necessitating design and development of
interventions aimed at bridging the gap. Among the inequalities that women face are limited employment
opportunities with those employed likely to be underemployed, or engaged in informal work, while
majority have limited access to formal employment opportunities. Therefore, the ongoing focus on
integrating transferable skills into education and training programs will go a long way in leveling the
playing field of employees irrespective of gender. As discussed, transferable skills such as
communication, problem-solving, teamwork, leadership, and time management can be applied in various
settings, regardless of the job or industry. The overall aim of the integration is to address not only the
present needs but also develop a skilled workforce for the future where the demand for such skills is
projected to increase. As interventions are implemented they also play a critical role in realizing SDG 4
which focuses on ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning
opportunities for all. In the current dynamic labor market, employers continue to value transferable skills,
with communication, teamwork, and problem-solving skills being the most highly sought after.

This paper aimed at presenting evidence of the performance of integrating transferable skills in education
and training on enhancing employability of women in a highly competitive labor market. Using an
intervention by one of the NGO (CAP YEI), Basic Employability Skills Training (BEST), an adaption of
the training model targeting youths aged 18-35 years particularly girls who have been marginalized for a
long time for training in technical and transferable skills. The programme has so far trained over 90,000
youths and majority have been able to join secure employment and others began their own businesses
indicating development of entrepreneurial skills. The evaluation found out that despite there being no
marked differences in the basic demographics, the labor outcomes were varied between the beneficiaries
of the programme and the non-beneficiaries. For instance, 45 percent and 35 percent of the beneficiaries
and non-beneficiaries were employed with 31 and 36 percent of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries
being unemployed. Beneficiaries in business made on average Kshs 19,953 (USD 142.5) while non
beneficiaries made Kshs 20,609 (USD 147.2). From the analysis there was a slight difference between
beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries on expenditure at Kshs 13,726 (USD 98) and Kshs 15,559 (USD
111.1), respectively.

The findings of this study corroborate what other studies have found; education and training programs
that incorporate transferable skills improves employment outcomes as women who had received training
and education incorporated with transferable skills had higher employment rates and wages compared to
those who did not. Unfortunately, previous studies indicated that women who participated in vocational
training programs that integrated transferable skills earned higher wages than those who did not
participate in such programs while this study indicated that they earned less. The differences could be
attributed to the nature of employment graduates of vocational technical education have as some have
lower wage rate that the control group.

Suggestions for future research

More programs on transferable skills should be evaluated in future because this study only conducted a
case study of CAP YEI programme to assess if the nature of transferable skills offered by other
programmes is similar to the one evaluated in this study. Future studies could expand the scope to
consider the different industries given that different industries pay differently.

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