Human Anatomy and Physiology

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Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Definition of

various terminologies
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter-1
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 1 Topic : Scope of Anatomy
and Physiology Definition of various terminologies
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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy:
Anatomy is a branch of science in which deals with the internal organ
structure is called Anatomy.
• The word “Anatomy” comes from the Greek word
“ana” meaning “up” and “tome” meaning “a
cutting”.
• Father of Anatomy is referred as “Andreas Vesalius”.
Physiology:
 In the physiology we deals with the
working principle of different body systems and
interaction between each other.
 In the physiology we will discuss about metabolic
pathway of body system and their activities.
Scope of Anatomy and Physiology–
(A) Branch of Anatomy:
 Development biology/Embryology—
 In this branch of Anatomy we deals with the, structural changes
and structural development of sexual gametes and embryo development.
 Sequential development of embryo is.
Gamete formation—Fertilisation—Fallopian
development of fertilise egg—Implantation—Embryo
formation—Foetus development.
(2) Cell biology
 In the cell biology we will study
about structural changes and structural development of
cell during cell division or cell development.
 Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit
of living things.
(3) Histology-
 Histology is the study of structural changes and structural development
of Tissues.
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 A group of cell having similar structure and act together to perform specific
person is
Called tissue. It is four types.
o Epithelial tissue.
o Connective tissue.
o Muscular tissue.
o Nervous tissue.
(4) Gross Anatomy
 In the gross anatomy we deals with the structure of the body that are visible to
naked eye.so it is also called Macroscopic Anatomy.
(5) Topographic Anatomy
 In this branch we discuss about layering structure of body part, projection present
on skin, and
interconnecting structure of muscle, nerves and Arteries. It is also called as surface
Anatomy.
(6) Radiographic Anatomy
 Study of Anatomical structural by using radiographic technique is known as
radiographic Anatomy.
In this procedure x-ray are used for the structural representation of three
dimensional object in two dimensional image.
(7) Systemic Anatomy
In the systemic Anatomy we deals with Eleven different body system of our
body.
 Integumentary/Exocrine system
 Endocrine system
 Nervous system
 Lymphatic/Immune system
 Muscular system
 Skeletal system
 Respiratory system
 Circulatory system
 Digestive system
 Urinary system
 Reproductive system
(B) Branch of physiology—
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(1) Cell physiology:

 Study of cells functions, working principle and interaction of cells with each other
is called cell physiology.
(2) Endocrinology:
 Study of hormonal substances and their functions, how to control our body is
known as Endocrinology.
(3) Neurophysiology
 Study of nerve cell and their functions is called Neurophysiology. It is also known
as messenger physiology.
(4) Immunology
 Study of defensive mechanism in our body against disease causing agent or during
disease conditions is called Immunology.
(5) Cardiovascular physiology
 Study of working principle/ functions of heart and blood vascular system is known
as cardiovascular physiology.
(6) Respiratory physiology
 Study of working principle/functions of lungs and air passageway is known
as Respiratory physiology.
(7) Pathophysiology
 Study of functions change during the disease conditions and aging is
called pathophysiology.
Definition of various terms used in Anatomy—
 Anterior/ventral—Direction towards front of the body.
 Posterior/Dorsal—Direction towards back of the body.
 Superior/Cranial— Towards the head or upper/highest most point of the body of
the body proper. Example – Head, Neck.
 Inferior/Caudal—Away from head or lower/lowest most point of the body of the
body proper. Example- feet
 Proximal end—Starting end of the joint or attachments.
 Distal end—Ending end of the joint or attachments and most distant region of
proximal end.
Symmetry related terms used in Anatomy—
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 Asymmetrical—When the body parts not divided into equal half by cutting any
plane.
 Radial symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal half by cutting
any radial plane.
 Bilateral symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal half by cutting
any one radial plane otherwise not.
Abdominal quadrants and including organs in Anatomy—
 Right Upper Quadrants(RUQ)—Gall bladder, major parts of liver, minor parts of
stomach, small intestine, parts of pancreas.
 Left Upper Quadrants(LUQ)—Tip of liver, Spleen, major parts of stomach, parts
of pancreas.
 Right Lower Quadrants(RLQ)—Ascending colon, caecum, appendix, right
ovary, small intestine, uterus.
 Left Lower Quadrants(LLQ)– Descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ovary,
small intestine, urinary bladder, anus.
Abdominal region and including organs in Anatomy—
 Right Hypochondriac Region—some part of liver, right kidney, gall bladder,
parts of large/small intestine.
 Epigastric Region—major parts of liver, stomach ,adrenal gland, some parts of
pancreas, spleen, duodenum.
 Left Hypochondriac Region—liver tips, stomach, spleen, pancreas, some part of
left kidney, large/small intestine.
 Right Lumber Region—gall bladder, ascending colon, small intestine, right
kidney.
 Umbilical Region—transverse colon, small intestine (duodenum), umbilicus
(navel).
 Left Lumber Region—descending colon, left kidney.
 Right Iliac Region—appendix, caecum, starting of ascending colon.
 Hypogastric Region—urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, reproductive organs,
rectum, anus.
 Left Iliac Region—descending colon.
Different positions in Anatomy—
 Anatomical position—The body is erect the head facing forwards arms by the side
and palms of the hand facing forward is kncalled Anatomical position.
 Supine position—when a person laying on his/her back arms by the side palm
facing upwards and feet put together is known as supine position.
 Prone position—when a person laying on his/her face and chest arms by the side
palm facing upwards and feet put together is known as prone position.
 Lithomy position—When a person laying on his/her back and legs are temporarily
fit supported by stripe is known as lithotomy.These position mostly used in
delivering of baby.
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Different plane in Anatomy—

 Mid sagittal plane—this plane divide our body in left and right parts.
 Coronal plane—Coronal plane divide our body into front and back.
 Transverse plane—It is a horizontal imaginary plane which divide our body
superior and inferior parts.
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Cell
Human Anatomy And Physiology
D.Pharma 1st year notes According to PCI new Syllabus
10/6/2021
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 2
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Cell
The cell has been variously defined as the unit of structure and function in
animals and plants.
The smallest living unit capable of independent existence as a small mass of living
matter containing a nucleus or nuclear material.
History of cell
The cell was first discover and named by Robert Hook (1665) and first Saw living
cell by – Leeuwenhoek cell theory proposed by Schwann – 1839.
Electron Microscopic Structure of Cell

All the cells are made up of protoplasm a viscid granular substance which consist
of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
The protoplasm remain differentiated into an outer cytoplasm and the denser
inner nucleus. Surrounding the cytoplasm there is covering called Cell Membrane.
CELL MEMBRANE
 Cell Membrane is thin elastic and has highly complex structure composed
of proteins and lipids. It is a semi – permeable membrane, containing
‘pores’ that allow the passage of water, oxygen, co2 & some solutes in and
out of the cell and plays a vital role in maintaining the homeostatic balance
of the cell.
 The cytoplasm consists of a number of structures called the Organells.
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Fig of Cell
Mitochondria
 It is largest cytoplasmic organelles and energy house of the cell as it consist
of enzymes which convert chemical energy of the food nutrients into usable
energy from (T.P.) which is internally available for cellular activity.
 It is also known as Power house of the cell. ·
 Mitochondria is discover by Albert von Kolliker
 It appears like filamentous structure or rod shaped. It consists of oxidative
enzymes which convert chemical energy of the nutrients into form of A.T.P.
and this energy is available for cellular activity. The mitochondria supply
95% of cell energy and so called power house of the cell.
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Cytoplasm
 It is the region lying between the cell membrane and nucleus. The
cytoplasm contain Cell organ like – Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
Mitochondria.
Endoplasmic reticulum
 These are scattered in cytoplasm. They are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum depending upon the presence or absence of ribosomes which are
responsible for protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum is two type
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without

the presence of ribosomes. They found Lipid
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum with the
presence of ribosomes. They found Protein
Lysosomes
 They are minute structures containing enzymes that digest or remove the
particles which are useless or may be harmful to the cell. ·
 Lysosomes produce hydrolyzing enzymes such as phosphatase acid
ribonuclease.
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Golgi bodies
 They are the double membranous vacuolar channels which traverse the
cytoplasm. The membrane appears to be formed of phospholipids,
proteins, and a number of enzymes.
 Golgi bodies act as a sort of intercellular pump that regulates the
movement of fluids in the cell and expulsion of secretary products from the
cell.
 Golgi bodies synthesise polysaccharide part of glycoprotein secretion.
Centrosome
 This lies close to the nuclear and is made up of two centrioles, small
structures that play a major role in initiating cell division.
 It is enveloped by a porous nuclear membrane that separates it from the
surrounding cytoplasm.
 During cell divisions, it breaks up and soon after the mitosis it is
reconstituted.
Nucleus
 It is a vital center of the cell.
 It controls both chemical reactions and reproduction of cell.
Chromosomes
 They are minute threads like structure within the nucleus and appear as a
mass of darkly-staining material called chromatin. ·
 Chromosomes determine the specific characteristics of the cell and
hereditary characters pass from one generation to the next generation.
Cell Junction & Transport across Cell Membrane
Cell Junction
 Cell Junction are the modified structure of the cell membrane which
communicate the Neirbouring cell.
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 Cell Junctions are mostly abundant in Epithelial tissue and connect through
glycoproteins called cadherin
 Cell junction is true for the animal cell because plasmodesmal connations
are found in plant for commenieeting the Neighboring cell.
Type of Cell Junction

1. Tight Junction
2. Adhering Junction / Desmosomes
3. Gap Junction / Communicating junction
1. Tight Junction :-
 Adjacent plasma membranes are joined tightly together
 This help to stop substances from leaking.
 It is permeable in for many ions
 Pass the ion through diffusion or active transport.
2. Adhering Junction:-
 It performs cementing keep neighboring cells.
 Adhering junction is defined as a cell junction whose cytoplasmic face is
linked to the actin cytoskeleton.
 Protein forms the encircling bands and attach to the extracellular material
 It stabilizes the surface of epithelia.
3. Gap Junction:-
 Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other, share
nutrients & transfer chemical / electrical signals
 Proteins form holes between adjacent animal cells allows various ions and
molecules to pass freely between cells.
 Abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle where they transmit
electrical activity
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 Assembly of six proteins that create gap between two plasma membranes
called Conn exons.
Regulation of Gap Junction communication

I. Intra Cellular Calcium
II. pH
III. Voltage
IV. Extracellular signals
Cell membrane
 Cell Membrane is the universal structure present in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
 Cell membrane possess lipid, Protein and carbohydrates
 Cell membrane contain lipid bilayer which is directly attached to protein
layer
 Total thickness of cell membrane is 75A.
Transportation through cell membrane-

 Passive Transport
 Active Transport
Passive transport
 Many molecules can move across the membrane without any energy
requirement
 Molecule transport higher concentration-> Lower concentration
 Water transport through membrane called diffusion
 Some carrier protein also help in the transportation and it is called facilitate
diffusion.
Active transport
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 Few molecules ions can move across the membrane by using the Energy
(A.T.P)
 Molecule move from lower concentration-> Higher concentration
 Example-> Sodium potassium pump (Na+/K+ Pump)
Endocytosis
 In this procedure bulk amount of solid & liquid material transports.
 Bulk structure are formed vesicles or bag like structures
 Easily diffuse to cell membrane
Exocytosis
 Removal of waste material from Cell through plasma membrane
 Maintain the Electrolytic balance
Cell Division
 Cell division is a very important process in all living organism.
 It is induce due to disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and cytoplasm
 The sequence procedure follow by the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells is termed cell cycle
 During the cell division DNA replication and cell growth also takes place.
On the basis of chromosome number cell follow two path for divisions
o Mitosis
o Meiosis
Mitosis
The cell cycle is devided into two basic phases
1. Inter Phase
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2. M Phase / Mitosis Phase
Inter Phase  Cell is metabolically active

 Cell growth also takes place
 Also called synthesis phase because DNA synthesis or

Inter Phase Inter Phase replication takes place in nucleus
 Centriole duplicate in cytoplasm
Inter Phase  Mitosis preparation phase.

 Protein synthesized during this phase
M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)

During M-Phase equal distribution of chromosome occurs in progeny cells
M.Phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement)
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 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
Prophase
 Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
 Centrosome move towards opposite poles of cell & radiates out
microtubules called asters.
 End of Prophase Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope
disappear.
Metaphase
 Easily study the morphology of chromosome
 Chromosome made up of two sister chromatids and join together by the
centromere.
 Small disc shaped structure present on the centromere called kinetochores.
 Spindle fiber attaches to the kinetochores and arranged the chromosome
at equator and forms the metaphase plate.
Anaphase
 Centromere split and chromatid separate with each other
 In the microscope single chromatid chromos structure appear on the
opposite poles.
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Telophase
 Chromosome lost their identity and form the cluster of chromatin
 Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex reform
 Also called opposite of prophase.
Cytokinesis
 After the distribution of genetic material all form the furrow in the plasma
membrane.
 The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately divide the cell into two
daughter cell.
Meiosis
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in
the production of haploid daughter cells.
• Into phase of this division some as mitosis division
M.Phase of this division divided into two parts
• Meiosis-I
• Meiosis-II
Meiosis-I :- further divided into four parts.

Prophase-I
• It is drvided into 5-steps.
• Leptotene
• zygotene
• Pachytene
• Diplotene
• Diakinesis
It this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the

homologous chromosomes.
Site of crossing over form the x-shaped structure are called chiasmata.
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Metaphase-I
• Anaphase-I
• Telophase-I
Cytokinesis occur at the end & form the two cells.
Meiosis-II :- Further Meiosis-II start after cytokinesis. If is also divided into four
stage.
Mitosis
Mitosis
Human Cell
Daughter cell
Chromosome =46
Chromosome =46
Meiosis
Human Cell
Chromosome =46
Only germ cell Daughter cell

Chromosome = 23
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General principle of Cell communication
Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect)
Attach to the cell membrane receptors
Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor
Activate the Gene
Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis)
 All cells have some ability to sense and respond to specific chemical, Neural signals.
 Signal transmitted through chemical messenger and receptor which are located on
the surface of cell.
 Two main types of chemicals signals generate in the cells-
 Cytoplasmic connection between cells
 Hormones communication
 Receptors are molecule generally made up of protein, that recieues the signal for cell
 Chemical messenger are bind to the cell receptors and perform the function
 Mainly three types of Receptors are present on the cell
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Ion-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors

Receptors
Hormone
Cytoplasmic Connection
Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific)
Then receptors are activated (Conformational change)
Then signal molecule bind with the receptor
Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus
Signal molecule bind to the receptor
To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein
Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs
Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give

response
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Initially two receptor domain are separated to each other
When signal molecule comes to contact then it form dimer
And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes)
Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response
Forms of intracellular signaling

In the cell communication intracellular signaling is known as very important
expect for living organisms.
There are four basic types of signaling found in the organisms.
(1)Paracrine signaling.
(2)Autocrine signaling.
(3)Endocrine signaling.
(4)Direct contact signaling.
1. Paracrine signaling— In this signaling , cell are cordinated with the

neighbouring cell by generating the potential gradient and altering the
behaviour of those cells.Chemical which are involved in the signaling
process is known as paracrine factors and it is transfer by diffusion process.
Once a signaling molecule binds to its receptor it causes a conformational
change in it that results in a cellular response.
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• The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different

responses (e.g.. acetylcholine). On the other hand, different ligands
binding to different receptors can produce the same cellular
response (e.g. glucagon, epinephrine).
• Example - Nerve and muscle signaling.
2. Autocrine signaling— It is also called as self signaling. Cell secrete the chemical
known as autocrine factors which co-ordinate the self cell and give the response.
• Example - Growth factors.
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3. Endocrine signaling— Hormone is required for this signaling. Hormones are

binding to the cell receptors and give the response.
4. Direct contact signaling — Cell are fuse to each other by the plasmodesmetal
connections in plant and transfer the signal from one cell to another cell. It is
mainly found in the plants.
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Tissue
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter - 1
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 3 Tissue
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Tissue
Tissue is defined as collection of cells which are similar in origin structure and function.
OR
A group of cells having the same origin, similar shape and specific common general
function is known as Tissues.
Cell is the structural and functional unit of the body and group of cell which is similar in
origin structure and function called tissue.
Group of Tissues which perform the special function is known as organ.
OR
Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function

within an organism.
OR
Tissues are the group of similar cell and perform a similar function and
interconnected by the non-living intercellular material or matrix.
 Study of tissue is called Histology.

 The word Histology was given by Mayr (1891).
 Father of Histology is Marcello Malpighi.
 The term tissue was coined by the Bichat.
Classification of Tissues
They are classified into four types:
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue
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A. Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissue provides the protective covering to the other tissue. Basically all types
of epithelium consist of the cells with minimum intercellular space and so help in
protection absorption, excretion and secretion.
 Due to presence on outer surface it does not contain blood vessels or capillaries. It
absorbs nutrients from the lymph vessels or connective tissue.
 Epithelial tissue is present on the basal membrane and lower the basal membrane
connective tissue are present. Due to involvement of the junction cell communicate with
each other.
 The word epithelial was introduced by the Ruysch.
It is developed by three primary germinal layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
Epithelial tissue classified into two types.
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Classification of Simple Epithelial tissue
Simple Epithelial Tissue:

The Simple Epithelium a single layer of cell called Simple Epithelial Tissue.
It divided into five.
1. Squamous Epithelium:
 It consists of one layer of flat cell, nucleus usually placed in the center of the cells.
 It is generally situated on basement membrane.
 These are present in the alveoli of the lungs.
 Henle’s loop of the nephron, the inner lining of the heart and inner wall of blood vessels
etc.
 These cell help in the filtrations, exchange of gases from blood and protect the internal organs.
Fig: Squamous Epithelium

2. Columnar Epithelium:
 They are composed of single layer of tall and slender cells and height is more than its breadth.
 Their nuclei are located at the base. Free surface may have microvilli.
 It is found in lungs and duct of glands.
 It also found in the lining of stomach and intestine and help in secretion and absorption.
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3. Cuboidal epithelium.
 These cells protect the organ and help in the secretion.
 It is formed of one layer of cubical cells which has the same dimension from each side.
This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephron in kidneys and its
main functions are secretion and absorption it also found in bronchioles, salivary glands,
thyroid etc.
 The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the kidney has microvilli.
Fig: Cuboidal Epithelium

4. Ciliated epithelium.
 These cells consist of 12-15 hairy structure called cilia. These are usually present in
respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, etc.
 There function is to move particles or mucus in specific directions over the epithelium.
 These help in the flow of mucous, and prevent the entry of bacteria, particles etc.
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Fig: Ciliated Epithelium

Compound epithelium.
1. Transitional Epithelium.
 It consist 3-4 layer of cells. These are known transitional because its nature is migrating
from simple to stratified epithelia cells.
 They are found in the pelvis of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethrae.
 These are helpful in protection of the organ. These also prevent reabsorption of excreted
material back to the system.
Fig: Transitional Epithelium

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2. Stratified squamous cornfield epithelium.

 It consists of many layers of squamous epithelial cells modified into keratinized cells due to
deposition of keratin.
 They are found in the skin, nails, and palms.
 These provide protection against atmospheric and mechanical pressure and injury etc.
3. Stratified squamous non- cornfield epithelium.
 They are similar in the structure as Stratified squamous cornfield epithelium except they do
not contain the keratinized cells.
 These are found in various mucous membranes. e.g. mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and
vaginal mucosa.
 These cells also provide protection and helpful in secretion of mucus etc.
4. Stratified columnar Epithelium.
 It consists of multiple layers of cells which has more height than the breath. These are
present in conjunctiva, pharynx and mucosa.
 These are helpful protection and secretion of various substances.
B. Connective tissue.
 Connective tissue is the type of primary tissues which provide the binding and supportive
function and provide the framework of the body.
 Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of multicellular
organisms.
 It is stored the fat and mainly present beneath the skin.

 In all connective tissue except blood, the cells secrete fibers provide strength, elasticity and flexibility
to the tissue.
 These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibers and act
as matrix (ground substances).
 On the basis of fibers arrangement it divided into two parts.
Loose connective tissue: - Cells and fibers loosely arrangement in a semi-fluid ground
substances. It contains the fibroblasts (fibers producing cells), microphages and mast cells.
Dense connective tissue: -Cells and fibers are compactly packed in this tissue.
Example—Tendons (join bone to muscle).
 Connective tissue can be divided into following groups:

1. Areolar tissue
2. Adipose tissue
3. Fibrous tissue
4. Elastic tissue
5. Lymphoid tissue
6. Reticular tissue
7. Cartilages
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8. Bone
9. Blood
10. Lymph
Areolar tissue :-
 It consist loosely arranged tissue and usually present throughout the body. These are present
in subcutaneous sub mucous between muscle and nerves.
Adipose tissue:-
 They are also known as dosing tissue and present in subcutaneous tissue. They usually
contain cells containing free fat inside the cell. The excess of nutrients which are not used
immediately are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue. The cells are generally
large rounded or oval in shape.
 Adipose tissues present the organs from injury and gives shapes to limbs, store the energy
and regulate the body temperature.
Fibrous tissue:-
 Fibrous tissue is also known as white ‘Fibrous’ tissue as they are composed of mainly
white Fiber of collagen cells like fibroblast, histiocytic, basophils, mast cells.
 Deprived the strong to the tissue and from the ligaments and tendons, diameter and neural
canal.
 It function is to connect the different tissues and the different part of the body to provide
mechanical protection against stretch and pressure.
Elastic tissue:-
 They are mainly consist elastic fibers and present in the walls of arteries and in the air
tubes of respiratory track and some ligament.
 They provide supportive muscular strength and help in the maintaining the erect position of
the spine.
Lymphoid tissue:-
 Lymphoid tissue contains lymph, lymph gland, lymphatic vessels and present in small
intestine, pharyngeal tonsils etc.
 They supply lymphocytes to the blood and provide the protection against bacterial
infections.
Reticular tissue:-
They are similar to the areolar tissue except lymphocyte cells presents in a very large number and forms
the bulk of tissue. They are present in spleen, liver, lymph gland, bone etc.
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Cartilages:-
 Cartilage is a connective tissue and elastic in nature. It contain large quantity of matrix. They
are usually found at the joints between the bones. These are covered by a membrane
perichondrium.
 Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
The Cartilage are three types.
1- Hyaline cartilage
2- Fibrocartilage
3- Elastic cartilage
Bone:-
 Bones are the hardest connective tissue which consistent the skeleton. It contains ground
substance and bone cells. Calcium salts are present in the ground substance.
 Bone cells are three types.
1. Osteoblast
2. Osteoclasts
3. Osteocyte
 Bone can also divided into two types:
1. Compact bone (e.g. Long bones)
2. Cancellous bone(Spongy bones)
 Compact bones consists of Haversian canals runs longitudinally. It contains blood and
lymph capillaries and nerves. Surrounding this canal layer of bones deposited in
concentric circles and space between two layers called lacunae contain lymph and bone
cells(Osteocytes).
 Canaliculi is present between lacunae and Haversian lymph carrying the nourishing
material through this canaliculi.
 Bones provided the frame work of the body and help in protection and locomotion.
Blood:-
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue distributed in blood vessels and pumped by heart.
 The ground substance of blood is watery fluid called plasma and various types of cells are suspended
in it. These are:-
A) Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
B) Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)
C) Blood platelets.
 Leucocytes are various types e.g. Neutrophils, acidophilus, monocytes and lymphocyte
etc.
 Blood is helpful in.
 Transportation of gases e.g. O2,CO2
 Transportation of nutritive substance and hormones etc.
Lymph:-
 Lymph is modified tissue containing 94% water and 6% solids and only lymphocytes are
present in the form of cells.
 Lymph is provides the protection against infection.
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C. Muscle tissue
Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel manners. These fibres are
composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
 Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to their
uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion
 Muscle tissue plays an active role in the movement of the body.
Muscle tissue divided into three types.
(1) Skeletal muscle tissue.
(2) Smooth muscle tissue.
(3) Cardiac muscle tissue
(1) Skeletal muscle tissue: - These tissues are closely attached to skeletal bones. In a typical
muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres are bundled together in a
parallel fashion.
(2) Smooth muscle tissue: — Smooth fibres taper at both ends and do not show striations. Smooth
muscle as involuntary as their functioning cannot be directly controlled.
 The wall of internal organs such as blood vessels, stomach, and intestine contains this type of
muscle tissue.
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(3) Cardiac muscle tissue: —It is only present in the heart. It is also an involuntary tissue and it is
self-regulated. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membrane of cardiac muscle cell and appear like
striped muscle.
D. Nervous Tissue
 They are specialized tissue for reception discharge of stimuli and transmission. Nerve
Tissue consists the nerve cells and nervefibres.
 Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which
constitute the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons.
 cell body -----The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and nucleus
and also certain granular bodies called Nissls granules which are helps in the stimulus
conduction.
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 Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of
the neural system protect and support neurons.
 cell body -----The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and nucleus and also
certain granular bodies called Nissls granules which are helps in the stimulus conduction.
 Nerves system is composed three type.
Nerve cell- Each nerve cell has a nucleus highly specialized protoplasm. The body of the nerve
cell gives rise to nervefibres.
 Axon – It is the main fiber when arises from the body of each nerve cell. Impulses pass
through the axon in one direction only.
 Dendrites – These are short fibres arising from the body of the nerve cell. They conduct
impulses towards the cell body synopses is the junction between axon of one nuroneand
dendrites of another called dendrites.
 Cell body— The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles, nucleus, and certain
granular bodies called Nissls granules
Fig; Structure of neuron
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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Chapter-4— Osseous System/Skeleton system.
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body and composed of
Bone, cartilage, joints, ligaments, tendons accounts for about 20% of body mass.
➢ Bone—Bone is rigid connective tissue that constitutes the minerals, calcium

phosphate, collagen. Bone protects the various organs of the body, produce
the blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body.
It is composed of around 270 bones and reduces to around 206 bones by
adulthood after some bones get fused together.
➢ Cartilage—Cartilage is the non vascular type or supporting connective
tissue which provide the flexibility to the body organs and joining the one
organ to another. Cartilage occurs only in isolated areas, such as the nose,
parts of ribs, and joints.
➢ Ligaments—Ligament is also a fibrous type of connective tissue and
connects the one bone to another bone.
➢ Joints—joint or articulation is connect the one bone to another and provide
the bending ability.
➢ Tendons— Tendon is a cord of strong flexible connective tissue, which
joins the bone to the body muscle.
Human skeleton system divided into two parts—
1. The Axial skeleton.

2. The Appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton.
Axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body and protects the brain, spinal
cord, and the organ in the thorax. It provides support to the head, neck, and trunk.
Axial skeleton are composed by the 80 bones segregated into three major regions.
Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter-3 Noteskarts.com Page 1

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A. Skull.
B. Vertebral column.
C. Thoracic cage.
Skull bone.
Most of skull bone are flatted and firmly united by interlocking joints called
sutures but mandible bone which is connected to the rest of the skull freely
movable bones. The skull region articulates with the superior region of vertebral
column with the help of two occipital condyles (Dicondylic skull).
The skull is the most complex structure of the human body. It consists of 22 bones
and forms the hard protective outer covering for brain tissue. It is further divided
into two parts.
➢ The cranial bone— Cranial bone consists of 8 number of bones.

Frontal bone(1), Parietal bone(2), Temporal bone(2), Occipital bone(1),
Sphenoid(1), Ethmoid(1).
➢ The facial bone—Mandible(1), Vomer(1), maxilla(2), Zygomatic bone(2),

palatine bone(2), Nasal bone (2), Lacrimal bone(2), inferior nasal concha(2).
Functions of Skull bone—
➢ It provides the framework for the face and cranial.

➢ Provide the opening for food and air passage.
➢ Bones contains the cavities for special sense organ of sight, taste and smell.
➢ Socket formation for the teeth
➢ Protect the most important processing unit of brain.
Sutures of the skull bone—
➢ Coronal suture— Parietal bone and Frontal bone.

➢ Sagittal suture— Parietal bone and parietal bone.
➢ Lambdoid suture— Parietal bone and Occipital bone.
➢ Squamous suture—Parietal bone and Temporal bone.

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Note—Some associates bones are present in the skull. It does not count in the
skull bone.
➢ Ear ossicles/Auditory ossicles— Ear ossicles help in the hearing process. It

consists of three bones: - Malleus(hammer), Incus(Anvil), Stapes(Stirrup).
➢ Hyoid bone— It is small bone present at the joint end of tongue and
provide the joint surface for tongue.
Vertebral column.
Vertebral column also called as spine or spinal column, it consists of 26 irregular
serially arranged unit called as vertebrae and dorsally placed. In the fetus and
infants, the vertebral column consists of 33 separate bones or vertebrae. In adult
age , nine of these eventually fuse to form two composites bones, the sacrum and
coccyx the remaining 25 bones persists at individual vertebrae separates by
intervertebral discs.
All vertebrae have a common pattern. Each vertebra consists of a body or Centrum
anteriorly and a vertebrae arch posteriorly. Together, the body and vertebrae arch
enclose an opening called the vertebral foramen. Successive vertebrae foramen of
the articulated vertebrae from the long vertebrae canal, through which the spinal
cord passes.
➢ The Vertebral column differentiated into—

Cervical (7), Thoracic (12), Lumber (5), Sacral (1-Fused), Coccygeal (1-
Fused).
Functions of vertebral column—
➢ The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves
as the point of attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back.
➢ The vertebral column extends from the skull to pelvis, where its transits the
weight of the trunk to the lower limbs.

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Thoracic cage bone.

Thoracic cage consists, thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, the ribs laterally, and
sternum anteriorly.
Sternum— It is also called breast bone. Sternum is a flat bone about 15cm long
present on the anterior position of the thoracic cage. it is forms by the fusion of
three bones- Manubrium, the body, and Xiphoid process.
➢ The manubrium articulates via its clavicular notches with the clavicle bone
laterally and just below this, it also articulates with the first two pairs of ribs.
➢ Body forms the major portion of the sternum and it’s providing the
attachment site for three to seven ribs.
➢ Xiphoid is the end or small portion of sternum and serve as an attachment
point for some abdominal muscles.
Ribs— 12 pairs of ribs present in the human body. Each rib is posteriorly
connected with vertebral column and anteriorly sternum.
➢ First seven pair of ribs are called true ribs or vertebrosternal ribs because
they are attached to the thoracic vertebrae anteriorly and sternum posteriorly
with the help of hyaline cartilage.
➢ The 8th , 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum
but join the seven rib with the help of hyaline cartilage these are called
vertebrochondral (False) ribs.
➢ Last 2 pair (11th and 12th ) of ribs are not connected ventrally and are
therefore called floating ribs.
Function of thoracic cage— It protects the vital organs (Heart, lungs, and blood
vessels). It provide the support for shoulder , upper limbs and also provide
attachment points for many muscle of the neck, back, chest, shoulder.

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The Appendicular Skeleton.

Bones of the limbs and their girdle are collectively called the Appendicular
skeleton. Appendicular skeleton consists of—
1. Pectoral girdle.
2. Upper limbs.
3. Pelvic girdle.
4. Lower limbs.
Pectoral girdle.
Each pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle bone (anterior) and a scapula (posterior).
➢ Clavicles or collar bone are slender S-shaped bone. They are articulate
posterioraly with scapula and arms and anterioraly with sternum.
➢ Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal parts of the
thorax between the second and seventh ribs.
➢ Scapula consists of three structure—Spine, acromian process, coracoid
process.
➢ The acromian articulates with the acromial end of the clavicle forming the
acromioclavicular joints.
➢ Below the acromian present a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joints.
Functions of pectoral girdle—
➢ The pectoral girdle attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and
provides attachment site for many muscles that move the upper limbs.
➢ The socket of shoulder joint allows the upper limbs articulation and degree
of mobility.

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Upper limbs.
Each upper limbs consists 30 bones. It is categories into three parts.
a. Arm—Humerus is sole bone of arm, its proximal end articulate to the

glenoid cavity of the scapula.
Humerus head consists of lesser tubercle, and just inferior to this lateral
greater tubercle. It helps in muscle attachment.
V-shaped deltoid tuberosity are present in the midway, they provide the
roughed attachment site for the deltoid muscle of the shoulder.
b. Fore arm— Forearm consists of two parallel bone radius and ulna. Their
proximal end articulate with the humerus and distal end forms joints with
bones of wrist.
The radius and ulna articulate with each other by radioulnar joints and they
are connected along their entire length by a flat flexible ligament, the
interosseous membrane.
c. Hand— Its consists of 3 types of bone.

• Carpal— Carpal consists of eight numbers of bones which are
closely united by the ligaments. [Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,
pisiform] [trapezium, trapezoid, capitates, hamate].
• Metacarpals—Metacarpal consists of five bones. The base of the
metacarpals articulates with the carpals and head articulate with the
phalanges of fingers.
• Phalanges— Phalanges consist of 14 bones. Except for the thumb
each fingers has three phalanges- Distal, middle, and proximal. The
thumb has no middle phalange.

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Pelvic Girdle/Hip girdle.

Pelvic girdle consists of irregularly shaped three separated bones during childhood,
the ileum, ischium, and pubis. In adults, these bones are firmly fused and their
boundaries are indistinguishable. Each hip unites with its partner anteriorly and
with the sacrum posteriorly.
➢ Ilium— the Ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the
hip bone. The broad posterolateral surface of the ilium, the gluteal surface is
crossed by three ridges, posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal line, to which
the gluteal muscle attaches.
➢ Ischium— it is the general l-shaped or arc shaped bone. It has a thicker
superior body adjoining the ilium and a thinner inferior ramus. The ramus
joins the pubis anteriorly.
➢ Pubis—it forms the anterior portion of the hip bone. It is V- shaped bone.
The body of the two pubis bones are joined by a fibro cartilage, disc forming
the midline pubis symphysis joints.
Functions of pelvic girdle—
The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton transmits the
complete weight of the upper body to the lower limb, and supports the visceral
organs.
It also support provide during the birth of baby.
The Lower Limb bone.

Each Lower limb consists of 30 bones. It is divided into three segments.
1. Thigh— The femur is the sole bone of the thigh, it is the longest, largest
bone of the body. It length is roughly ¼ of a person height.
➢ Proximally the femur articulates with the hip bone. The ball like head of
femur has a small central pit called fovea capitis.

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➢ Thigh consists of lateral greater trochanter and posteromedial lesser

trochanter, these projection serve as sites of attachment for thigh muscles.
Note: - The patella is a cup shaped bone enclosed in the tendon that secures the
anterior thigh muscles to the tibia. It protects the knee joints anteriorly and
improves the leverage of the thigh muscles acting across the knee.
2. Leg—Leg consists of the two parallel bone, the tibia and fibula, these
bones are connected with each other by the help of interosseous membrane.
Proximally tibia attach to the femur bone and distally with the talus bone of
the foot at the ankle.
3. Foot— It consists of the three bones.
• Tarsals— it consists of the seven bones that form the posterior half of
the foot. Body weight is carried primarily by the two largest posterior
tarsal.
The talus which articulate with the tibia and fibula superiorly and
strong calcaneous , which form the heel of the foot and carries the
talus on its superior surface.
• Metatarsals— The metatarsus consists of five small bone called
metatarsals. The first metatarsal, which play an important role in the
supporting body weight.
• Phalanges— 14 phalanges of the toes are present in the foot. These
are three phalanges in each digit except for the great toe the hallux.
The hallux has only two, proximal and distal.
Movement.
Movement is the characteristic feature of the living organisms, by the movement
of limbs, jaws, eyelids, tongue, etc human beings perform walking, running,
climbing, flying, swimming, locomotion.
Locomotion and movement are linked term but all locomotion’s are movement but
all movement are not locomotion.

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Types of movement present in human being—

A. Amoeboid movement— Some specialized cells in our body like
microphages and leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movement. It is
perform by the pseudopodia formation by the streaming of protoplasm.
Cytoskeleton elements like microfilaments are also involved in amoeboid
movements.
B. Ciliary movement— Ciliary movement occurs in the most of our
internal tubular organs which are lined by ciliated epithelium. The co-
ordinate movement of cilia in trachea helps us in removing dust particles.
Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the
ciliary movements.
C. Muscular movement—Movement of our limbs jaws, tongue, etc require
muscular movement. The contractile property of muscle is effectively
participating in the locomotion and other movements by human being and
majority of multi cellular organisms.
Joints/Articulations.
The study of joints is called→Anthrology.

Replacing diseased joints with an Artificial joint is called→Arthroplasty.
Joints are point of contact between bones or between bones and cartilage. Forces
generated by the muscles are used to carry out movement through joints. Where
the joint act as a fulcrum. Our joints have two fundamental functions, they give our
skeletal mobility and they hold it together. Joints are divided into two categories—
A. On the basis of function of joint it is divided into three parts.

I. Synarthroses— It is the immovable type of joint present in the
fibrous joints. It is mainly present in the axial skeleton.
II. Amphiarthroses— It is the slightly movable type of joint present in
the cartilaginous joint. It is also restricted in the axial skeleton.

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III. Diarthroses— It is the movable type of joint present in the synovial

joints. Movable joint predominate in the appendicular skeleton
(limbs).
B. On the basis of structure of joint it is divided into three parts— The
structural classification mainly based on the material binding the bone
together and whether, or not a joint cavity is present. Only synovial joints
have a joint cavity.
I. Fibrous joint— In this joint bones are joined by the collagen
fibers of connective tissue and do not allow any movement. Fibrous
joint further classified into three parts—
➢ Sutures— This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones
which fuse end- to- end with the help of dense fibrous
connective tissue. The wavy articulating bone edge interlock
and the junction is completely filled by a less amount of very
short connective tissue fibers. During middle age the fibrous
tissue ossifies and the skull bones fuse into a single unit. At
the puberty stage, the closed sutures are called synostoses.
➢ Syndesmoses— In syndesmoses the bones are connected
exclusively by ligaments cord or band of fibrous tissue. The
connecting fibers are always longer than those in suture and
allowed large amount of movement than suture.
➢ Gomphosis— A gomphosis is a peg- in –socket fibrous joint.
The only example is the articulation of the tooth with its bony
alveolar socket.
II. Cartilaginous joint— In this joint bone are joined together with the
help of cartilage. Like, fibrous joints, they lack a joint cavity and are
not highly movable. The two types of cartilaginous joint shows—
➢ Synchondroses— The hyaline cartilage plate are joined the
bone to each other.
Example- Joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and
the manubrium.
Epiphyseal plate in long bone of children.
Noteskarts.
➢ Symphyses— A joint where fibro cartilage unites the bone as a

symphyses, since fibro cartilage is compressible and acts as a
shock absorber and permits a limited amount of movement of
joint.
Example- Joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral
column (Intervertebral joint).
Pubic symphysis of the pelvis.
III. Synovial joint— Synovial joint are characterized by the presence of

a fluid filled synovial cavity between the articulating surfaces of the
two bones. This arrangement permits the considerable movements.
Synovial cavity contains a small amount of slippery synovial fluid
occupies all free spaces within the joint capsules. Synovial fluid has a
viscous due to hyaluronic acid secreted by cells in the synovial
membrane, but it thins and become less viscous during joint activity.
On the basis of movement synovial joints are classified in many

parts-
a) Ball and socket joint— The head of one bone is ball-shaped are articulates
with a cup shaped socket of another bone. These joint are allow wide range
of movements including, Flexon, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation,
and circulation. Example: - Between humerus and pectoral girdle, between
femur and pelvic girdle.
b) Hinge joint— The articulating ends of the bone fits together like a hinge
on a door, and movement is therefore restricted to flexon, extension.
Example: - Knee joint, Elbow joint, Ankle joint, inter phalangeal joint.
c) Gliding joint— The articular surface are flat or very slightly curved and
slide over one another, but the amount of movement possible is very
restricted, this group of joints is the least movable of all the synovial joints.
Example: - between carpal bone, between tarsal bone, between vertebral
body and cartilaginous disc.

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d) Pivot joint— These joints allow a bone or a limb to rotate. One bone fit
into a hoop-shaped ligament that holds it close to another bone and allows
it to rotate in the ring. Example- between atlas and axis of cervical
vertebrae.
e) Condyloid joint— A condyle is a smooth rounded projection on a bone
and in a condyloid joint, it sits within a cup-shaped depression on the other
bone. Example: - Metacarpals and phalanges of hand, Metatarsals and
phalanges of foot, Condylar process of the mandible and the temporal bone.
f) Saddle joint— The articulating bones fit together like a man sitting on a
saddle. The most important saddle joint is at the base of the thumb,
between the trapezium of the wrist and the first metacarpal bone.
Disorders of the bone and joints.
1. Arthritis—Inflammation of the joint.

2. Rheumatoid Arthritis— It is the chronic progressive inflammatory
autoimmune disorder in which the body immune system attacks its own
tissue. The initial trigger for this reaction is unknown but various bacteria
and viruses have been suspected.
➢ Rheumatoid arthritis begins with inflammatory of the synovial
membrane of the affected joints. Inflammatory cells migrate
into the joint cavity from the blood and unleash a deluge of
inflammatory chemicals that destroy body tissue when release
in large amount.
➢ For the Rheumatoid treatment many steroidal and non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs helps in decreasing pain and
inflammation, increasing joint mobility. More powerful
immune suppressants (Methotrexate) act to slow the auto
immune reaction.

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3. Osteoarthritis— This is a degenerative non-inflammatory disease that

results in pain and restricted movement of affected joints in which,
progressively loss or degeneration of articular cartilage, resulting in the cyst
formation, limitation of motion, deformity, and progressive disability at the
margin of joints. Inflammation may or may not be present in the affected
joints.
4. Psoriasis arthritis— Psoriasis is one of a group of disorders known as the
spondylo arthropathis. Psoriatic arthritis affects some people who have
psoriasis, a disease that cause red patches of skin topped with silvery scales
at the joint points. It also causes the itching and some time inflammations
are appear.
5. Bursitis—Bursitis is a painful condition that affects the small fluid filled

sacs called bursae. Bursae are fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane
and containing synovial fluid. The most common locations for bursitis are in
the shoulder, elbow and hip.
6. Gout— Uric acid is the normal waste products of nucleic acid metabolism is
ordinarily excreted in urine without any problems. However, when blood
levels of uric acid rise excessively, it may be deposited as needle-shaped
urate crystal in the soft tissue of joints.
➢ An inflammatory response follow, leading to agonizingly painful
attacks of gouty arthritis or gout. The initial attack typically affects on
joint often at the base of the great toe.
➢ Gout is for more common in men than in women because men
naturally have higher blood levels of uric acid. Untreated gout can be
very destructive, the articulating bone ends fuse and immobilize the
joints.
➢ Patients are advised to drink plenty of water and to avoid excessive
alcohol consumption. Several drugs colchicines, non-steroidal, anti-
inflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids, and others the terminate or
prevent gout attacks.
Noteskarts.
7. Lyme disease— Lyme disease is an inflammatory disease caused by

spirochete bacteria transmitted by the bite of ticks that live on mice and deer.
It often results in joint pain and arthritis especially in the knees, and is
characterized by a skin rash, flu-like symptoms and foggy thinking.
Antibiotic therapy is the useful treatment.
8. Osteoporasis— Age related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass

and increased chances of fractures. It is widely seen in the female than male
due to decreased levels of estrogen in female.
9. Paget’s disease— Paget’s disease is a disorder of bone remodeling, where

the normal balance between bone building and bone breakdown becomes
disorganized and both osteoblasts and osteoclasts become abnormally active.
The bone deposited is soft and structurally abnormal. This predisposes to
deformities and fractures, commonly of the pelvis, femur, tibia and skull.
10.Reiter’s syndromes— This syndrome may be precipitated by Chlamydia

trachomatis infection that affected joints are usually those of the lower limb.

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Hematopoietic System
Introduction:- Hematopoietic System is consists of the blood and
blood components forming elements (tissue, organ) which include the
bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes etc. in this chapter we will
discussed about blood and their composition and their role in our body.
Hematopoietic System regulates in transportation of nutrients materials
and gaseous exchange and it is also acts as connecting link between the
one organ to another organs.
Haemopoetic system also participates in the defense mechanism by
producing the different types of immune regulating materials
(antibodies), and prevents the microbial growth during any infection or
manifestation.
 Consisting materials—
 Haemopoetic organ— Bone marrow, lymph nodes, Thymus,
Spleen, Haemopoetic glands.
 Haemopoetic material—
 Connecting link— Arteries and veins
 Fluid material— Blood, lymph
Composition and functions of bloods

-:Blood:-
 Blood is a special type of fluid connective tissue which consisting

of clear straw colored watery non- living fluid matrix (Plasma) and
living blood cells (formed elements).
 Blood is the most commonly used body fluid for circulating any
materials from one organ to another organ.
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 Blood constitutes about 8 percent of the total body mass and it has
a slightly alkaline PH ranging from 7-7.5. The color of blood
varies with its oxygen content, when saturated with oxygen it is
bright red, when unsaturated with oxygen it is dark red.
 The blood volume is 5-6 liters in adult male and 4-5 liters in adult
female.
Composition of blood —
Blood plasma—plasma proteins, inorganic salts, nutrients,
principally from digested foods, waste materials, hormones, gases.
Formed elements— RBCs, WBCs, Platelets.
Blood Plasma
Plasma is the straw colored fluid constituting nearly 55 percent of the
blood. 90-92 percent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8
percent of it. Blood cells and plasma can be separated by centrifugation
or by gravity when blood is allowed to stand. The cells are heavier than
plasma and sink to the bottom of any sample.
Plasma proteins—
1. Albumins—These are most abundant plasma proteins about 60
percent of total and their main function is to maintain normal
plasma osmotic pressure.
2. Globulins— Globulins primarily are involved in defense
mechanism of the body and play an important role in immunity.
3. Fibrinogen— These proteins are responsible for the coagulation of
the blood.
SERUM—Serum is plasma from which clotting factors have been
removed.

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Function of blood— Blood performs a number of functions, all

concerned in one
way or another with transporting substances, regulating blood
levels of particular substances, or protecting the body.
 Transport—
Transporting the oxygen and carbon dioxide from the lungs to
other parts of organ.
Transports the nutrients and wastes material from metabolic sites
to eliminating sites.
Transports hormones from the endocrine organs to their target
organs.
 Regulation—
It regulates the fluid volume by releasing the inorganic salts (Na+,
Ca2+, K+, HCO3- etc.) and maintain the normal PH in body tissue.
Maintain body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat
throughout the body and to the skin surface to encourage heat loss.
 Protection—
Prevent blood loss, when a blood vessel is damaged, platelets
and plasma proteins initiate clot formation, halting blood loss.
Prevent the infection by producing the antibodies and leukocytes
cell, which help defend the body against foreign invaders such as
bacteria and viruses.

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RBC
Characteristics of RBC—
 Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells are the most abundant of all the
cells in blood. These are devoid of nucleus in most of the
mammals.
 Healthy adult man has on an average 4.5-5.5 millions of RBC/mm3
of blood. They are about 7.5µm in diameter and shape like
biconcave discs with depressed center. They have a red colored,
iron containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the
color and name of these cells. A healthy individual has 12-16gm of
hemoglobin every 100ml of blood.
 RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults
(development of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis) and have
an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in
the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
Functions of RBC—
 RBC helps in the transportation of the gaseous from lungs to tissue
and tissue to lungs in the form of oxy-hemoglobin (oxygen binds
to the hemoglobin) and carbamino-hemoglobin (carbon dioxide
binds to the hemoglobin) respectively.
 RBCs contain the antigens (A, B and RH factor) on the surface and
helps in the blood groups determination.
WBC
Characteristics of WBC— White blood cells are also known are
leukocytes, these cells have an important function in defense and
immunity, they are colorless due to lack of heomoglobin.

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Leucocytes are the largest blood cell but they account for only about 1%
of the blood volume. They contain nuclei and some have contains
granules in their cytoplasm. The average number of WBCs present in the
human blood about 6000-8000 leucocytes mm-3 .
Leucocytes are generally short lived. We have divided into two main
categories—
1. Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear leucocytes) —All
granulocytes have multilobed nuclei in their cytoplasm. Their
names represent the dyes they take up when stained in the
laboratory. Eosinophils take up the red acid dye (eosin), basophils
take up alkaline methylene blue and neutrophils are purple
because they take up both dyes. Granulocytes are divided into
three parts—
a. Neutrophils— These are active scavengers of the body and
protect the infection and remove the debris and dead cells
from damaged tissue by engulfing or phagocytosis.
Neutrophils are the most abundant cell 60-65 percent.
b. Basophils— Basophils are closely related with allergic
reactions. It also secretes the histamine, serotonin, heparin
etc, and is involved in inflammatory reactions. Basophils are
least in number about 0.5-1 percent.
c. Eosinophils— Eosinophils number about 2-3 percent, resist
infections and are also associated with allergic reactions.
2. Agranulocytes— They have a large nucleus and no cytoplasmic

granules. It is also divide into two parts—

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a. Monocytes— These are largest of the white blood cells. The

number of monocytes about 6-8 percent. It prevent the
infection by engulfing or phagocytosis the microbes.
b. Lymphocytes— Lymphocytes are of two major types-
B-lymphocytes, T- lymphocytes are responsible for immune
response of the body. The number of lymphocytes about 20-
25 percent.
Functions of WBC—
 WBCs play an important role in the defensive mechanism and
protects our body from the invading organisms or foreign bodies.
Platelets
Characteristics of Platelets—
Platelets are also called thrombocytes, are very small discs 2-4µm in
diameter cell fragment derived from the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in
red bone marrow. Platelets cytoplasm is packed with granules containing
a variety of substances that promote blood clotting, which cause
hemostasis. Blood normally contain the 150000-350000 platelets mm-3
The life span of platelets is between 8 and 11 days and those not used in
hemostasis are destroyed by macrophages, mainly in the spleen. Some of
platelets are stored within the spleen rather than in the circulation, this is
an emergency store that can be released as required to control excessive
bleeding.
Functions of Platelets—
✓ Platelets are the responsible for blood coagulation/blood cloating by

the formation of fibrin net.

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✓ Platelets is useful for the repair of the endothelium and other

structure of the ruptured blood vessels.
✓ by the property of agglutination, platelets encircle the foreign bodies

and destroy them.
Hemopoiesis
The process by which the formed elements of blood develop is called
hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis. Before birth, hemopoiesis first occurs in
the yolk sac of an embryo and later in the liver, spleen, thymus, and
lymph nodes of a fetus. Red bone marrow becomes the primary site of
hemopoiesis in the last 3 months before birth, and continues as the
source of blood cells after birth and throughout life.
Process of Hemopoiesis—
 Erythrocyte production begins when the myeloid stem cells
(Haemopoetic stem cell) transforms into proerythroblast.
 After maturation on proerythroblast in turn give rise to basophilic
erythroblasts that produce huge number of ribosomes.
 Basophilic erythroblasts synthesis huge amount of haemoglobin
and iron and transforms into a poly chromatic erythroblast and
finally matures into orthochromatic erythrocyte.
 After the maturation or processing of orthochromatic erythroblast,
its nucleus degenerates and is pinched off , allowing the cell to
collapse inward and eventually assume the biconcave shape and
finally convert into reticulocyte.
 Fully mature reticulocyte converts into erythrocyte within two
days.

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 The entire process from Haemopoetic stem cell to reticulocyte

takes about 15 days. Reticulocytes account for 1-2 percent of all
erythrocytes in the blood of healthy people.
Regulation of the haemopoiesis— Red cell numbers remain fairly
constant, because the bone marrow produces erythrocytes at the rate at
which they are destroyed. This is due to a homeostatic negative feedback
mechanism. The hormone that regulates red blood cell production is
erythropoietin, produced mainly by the kidney. The primary stimulus to
increased erythropoiesis is hypoxia, i.e. deficient oxygen supply to body
cells. Hypoxia can result from anaemia, low blood volume, poor blood
flow, reduced oxygen content of inspired air (as at altitude) or lung
disease. Each of these leads to erythropoietin production in an attempt to
restore oxygen supplies to the tissues
Blood Clotting
Blood clotting is a mechanism by which the blood loss restricted during
the injury or trauma by the formation of fibrins mesh or blood clot (dark
reddish brown color scum). During this process platelets play a vital role
because it contains the clotting factors. Blood clot prevents the microbial
activity at the infected area.
Blood clotting helps in the haemostatic mechanism of the blood by the
formation of the fibrin mesh. Haemostatic mechanism divided into three
steps during any injury or trauma.
 Vasoconstriction—
 Platelet plug formation—
 Blood clotting or coagulation.
Factor of blood clotting—

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In our all (except tissue factor) normally circulate in blood in inactive

form. Although vitamin K is not directly involved in coagulation but
responsible for synthesis in many coagulating factors. In our body
various clotting factors are responsible for blood clot and it works on
many steps—
Clotting factors
S.No Clotting factors Sources
I Fibrinogen. Liver
II Prothrombin. Liver
III Tissue factor (thromboplastin) Damaged tissue cells
IV Calcium ion (Ca+2 ) Bone,
plasma,supplement
V Proaccelerin or labile factor or AcG Liver, platelets
VII Proconvertin or stable factor or Liver
SPCA
VIII Antihaemophilic factor-A (AHF-A) Liver
IX Christmas factor, PTC, AHF-B. Liver, lung capillaries
X Stuart factor, Prower factor, Liver
thrombokinase
XI PTA, AHF-C Liver
XII Hageman factor, AHF-D Liver
XIII Fibrin stabilizing factor (FSF) Liver, bone marrow.

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Mechanism of blood clotting—
Blood groups
Types of blood groups.
ABO Grouping
ABO Blood group--In ABO system two types of antigens are present in
the surface of RBCs (antigen A and antigen B) and two types of
antibody are present in the plasma (antibody A and antibody B).
Blood group system are discovered by the Karl landsteiner in 1901.
Determination of ABO blood groups depends upon the immunological
reactions between the antigen and antibody. Based on the presence or
absence of antigen A and antigen B, blood is divided into four groups
given in the table.

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Blood Antigens Antibodies Donor’s

Group on RBCs in Plasma Group
A A B A,O
B B A B,O
AB A,B × AB,A,B,O
O × A,B O
 RH (Rhesus) Grouping—
Rh factor- Rh factor is an antigen, present on the RBCs. This
antigen was discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener. It was first
discovered in the Rhesus monkey and hence the name Rh factor.
The person whose contains the Rh antigen, then their blood group is
define as Rh positive blood group and whose person not contains the
Rh antigen, then their blood group is define as Rh negative blood
group.
Among Indian population 85% of people are Rh positive and 15% of
people Rh negative.
Importance of Blood Group
 By the blood group determination we find out suitable donor and
suitable recepient and remove the agglutinations problem with any
other groups of blood.
 By the the group determination we conclude that-
A-O- is the universal donor blood group because it does not contains any
antigen (A and B) and Rh factors on the RBCs surface.
B- AB+ is the universal acceptor blood group because it does not
contains any antibody (A and B) and Rh factor in the plasma of blood.

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 In the blood transfusion blood group play an important role and

prevent the severe diseases like Agglutinations, jaundice, Cardiac
shock, kidney arrest etc.
Deficiency disease of blood and blood groups

I. Anemia- Anemia is the blood disorder characterized by the
reduction in RBCs and hemoglobin content. It is induce due to the
excess loss of blood from the body, decrease production of RBCs
or Increased destruction of RBCs.
 Common symptom include- discolor in skin(pale yellow), leg
cramps, dizziness, easy fatique and loss of energy etc. It is many
types-
1- Hemorrhagic anemia.
2- Hemolytic anemia.
3- Aplastic anemia.
4- Nutrition deficiency anemia.
II. Hemophilia - It is an inherited(x-linked congenital) bleeding

disorder arises due to lack of plasma coagulation factors (VIII-type
A and IX-type B) . In hemophilic condition patient looses their
blood clotting ability so the excessive blood loss appear in the
body.
III. Polycythemia vera - It is also a blood disorder in which the body

produce more amount of blood cell. It is arises both by the

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physiological activity (exercise, hypoxia) as well as pathological

activity (cancer of Bone marrow).
IV. Sickle cell disease - It is a type of autosomal recessive disorder. It

is caused by the mutation in the hemoglobin β- gene found on
chromosome 11. This result in a defective hemoglobin formation
and RBCs become stiff and assume sickle shape. Due to their
abnormal shape it is not utilised by the body and easily distructed
by spleen.
V. Leukemia- Leukemia is a cancer of blood forming cells in the

bone marrow. It is arising from a single lymphoid stem cell with
impaired maturation and accumulation of the malignant cells in the
bone marrow.
VI. Thalassemia- Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder in which

the body produces an abnormal form of hemoglobin which results
in excessive destruction of red blood cells and further leads to
anemia. Thalassemia is of two types-
1. Alpha (α) thalassemia.
2. Beta(β) thalassemia.
VII. Erythroblastosis Foetalis-

 It is a mismatching blood group disorder observed between the Rh
-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh +ve blood of the foetus.
Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of
the mother in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well
separated by the placenta. However, during the delivery of the first

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child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to

small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such cases,
the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her
blood.
 In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the
mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and
destroy the foetal RBCs.
 This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and
jaundice to the baby.
 This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
 This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the
mother immediately after the delivery of the first child.

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Human Anatomy And Physiology Chapter – 6

Lymphatic System
Lymph and lymphatic system, composition, function and its
formation.
Structure and functions of spleen and lymph node.
Lymphatic system
Lymphatic system is a closed system of lymph channels or
lymph vessels through which the lymph flows. It arises from the tissue
spaces and allows the lymph flow towards the blood.
Lymphatic system works as one way system because lymphatic vessels
are more porous and allows the fluid to move into the lymph capillaries
and not allows in the opposite direction.
Lymphatic system participate in our immunity system and prevent
against any infections or disease because it contains the lymphocytes
cell and other antibodies molecules.
Lymph-
Lymph is a clear to white fluid formed from intestinal fluid and flow in
the lymphatic system. About 120ml of lymph flows into blood per hour.
Out of this, about 100ml/hour flow through thoracic duct and 20ml/hour
flow through the right lymphatic duct.

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Composition of Lymph-
It is formed by 96% water and 4% solids. Some blood cell are also
present in lymph. Solid substances present in the form of--
Organic substances- proteins, lipids, aminoacids, carbohydrates,
enzymes, clotting factors
Inorganic substances- Na+,Ca+2,Cl-, HCO3-
Cellular compounds- Macrophages,monocytes,plasma cells.
Formation of Lymph-
When the blood passes through blood capillaries in the tissue to venous
end of capillaries from the arterial end. Then major part of fluid flow
and small amount of fluid passes into lymph capillaries, which have
more permeability than blood capillaries.
Factor responsible for lymph formation-

 Interstitial fluid pressure.
 Blood capillaries pressure.
 Permeability of lymph capillaries.
 Function activities of tissue.
Functions of lymph-
 Lymph contains the lymphocytes and macrophages and other
phagocytosis cell which helps in removing the bacteria, foreign
bodies and helps in the immunity.
 Lymph is rich source of protein and minerals so it helps in the
redistribution of fluid in the body parts.
 Lymph flow is responsible for the maintence of structural and
functional integrity of tissue. Obstruction to lymph flow affects

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various tissue, particularly myocardium, nephrons, and hepatic

cells.
Spleen
Introduction - Spleen is highly vascular lymphoid organ present in the
body. It is situated in left hypochondriac region that is upper left part of
the abdomen, behind the stomach and just below the diaphragm.
The spleen is part of our lymphatic system, which fights against the
infection and keeps your body fluids in balance.
Structure of Spleen-
It is the similar structure to lymph node and covered by an outer serous
coat and an inner fibromuscular capsule. From the capsule, trabeculae
and trabecular network arises.
The parenchyma of spleen is divided into red pulp and white pulp.
Red pulp- Red pulp consists of venous sinus and cord of structures such
as blood cells, macrophages and mesenchymal cells.
White pulp- The structure of white pulp is similar to that of lymphoid
tissue. It has a central artery, which is surrounded by splenic corpuscles
or Malpighian corpuscles. These corpuscles are formed by lymphatic
sheath containing lymphocytes and Macrophages.
Functions of Spleen-
 Spleen play an important role in the hematopoietic function in
embryo.
 Spleen are also called graveyard of RBCs because it participate in
the destruction of RBCs and other old blood cells.

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 Spleen stored the large amount of RBCs so it act as reservoir

function. The RBCs are released from spleen into circulation
during the emergency conditions like hypoxia and hemorrhage.
 It plays important role in the defense mechanism. The microphages
in splenic pulp destroy the microbes and other foreign bodies by
phagocytosis.
 It is also participate in the the excretory process and helps in the
ions balance.
Lymph nodes-
 Lymph nodes are small glandular structures located in the course
of lymph vessels. The lymph nodes are also called lymph glands or
lymphatic nodes.
 Lymph node receives lymph by one or two lymphatic vessels
called afferent vessels.
 Lymph nodes are present along the course of lymphatic vessels in
axilla, elbow, knee, and groin. Lymph nodes are also present in
certain points in abdomen, thorax, and neck, where many lymph
vessels join.
Structure Of Lymph Nodes.

Lymph nodes are generally bean in shaped. Each lymph nodes
constitutes masses of lymphatic tissue, covered by a dense connective
tissue capsule. The structures are arranged in three layers namely cortex,
paracortex and medulla.
Cortex- Cortex of lymph consists of the lymphoid follicles. During any
antigens entry follicles starts proliferation and distribute to different

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different area where cause the infection. Cortex also contain some B
lymphoid cell and macrophages which also participate against infection.
Paracortex- paracortex is in between the cortex and medulla. Paracortex
contain T lymphocytes.
Medulla- Medulla contains B and T lymphocytes and macrophages.
Blood vessels of lymph node pass through medulla.
Functions of lymph nodes-

✓ When lymph passes through the lymph nodes, it is filtered that is the
water and electrolytes are removed. But, the proteins and lipids are
retained in the lymph.
✓Bacteria and other toxic substances are destroyed by macrophages of

lymph nodes are called barriers.

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Chapter-7 | Cardiovascular
system
 ● Anatomy and Physiology of heart
 ● Blood vessels and circulation (Pulmonary, coronary and systemic
circulation)
 ● Cardiac cycle and Heart sounds, Basics of ECG
 ● Blood pressure and its regulation
Cardiovascular system:
 The cardiovascular system consists of the blood, the heart and blood vessels.
 The heart beats about 100,0000 times every day.
 Which adds up to about 35 million beats in a year and approximately 2.5
billion times in an average lifetime.
Anatomy of heart:
 The heart is located in the mediastinum about two thirds of its mass is to the
left of the midline.
 It apex is the pointed inferior part its base is the broad superior part.
 The heart shape is relatively small roughly the same size (but not the same
shape) as our closed fist.
 It is about Long-12cm & Wide- 9cm
 Its Broadest point and 6cm thick with an average mass of 250g in adult
female and 300g in adult males.
 The heart chambers include two superior chambers the right and left atria
and two inferior chambers the right and heart include the auricles (Flaps of
each atrium that slightly increase their volume)

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 The coronary sulcus between the atria and ventricles and the anterior and
posterior sulci between the ventricles on the anterior and posterior surfaces
of the heart respectively.
 The right atrium receive blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena
cava and coronary sinus. It is separated internally from the left atrium by the
interatrial septum which contains the fassa ovalis. Blood exits the right
atrium through the tricuspid value.
 The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium. It is separated
internally from the left ventricle by the interventricular septum and pumps
blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary veins and exits
through the bicuspid (mitral) valve.
 The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood through the aortic valve into the
aorta.
 The thikness of the myocardium of the four chambers varies according to the
chamber's function. The left ventricle with the highest work load has the
thickest wall.
 The fibrous skeleton of the heart is dense connective tissue that surrounds
and supports the values of the heart.
Chambers of the Heart:-

The heart has four chambers.
1. Right Atrium
2. Left Atrium
3. Right Ventricle
4. Left Ventricle

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Blood vessels:
 A vessel in the human or animal body in which blood circulates.
 They help deliver oxygen to vital organs and tissues, and also remove waste
products.
 The vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called arterioles.
 Your body contains about 60000 miles of blood vessels.
There are three types of blood vessels:-
1. Arteries: they carry blood away from your heart.
2. Veins: They carry blood back toward your heart.
3. Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, connect arteries and veins.

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Pulmonary Circulations/ Systemic Circulations:

 The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood into the Systemic
Circulations to all tissue of the body except the air sacs (alveoli) of the
lungs.
 The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary
circulation to the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs.

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Coronary Circulation:
 Nutrients are not able to diffuse quickly enough from blood in the chambers
of the heart to supply all the layers of cells that make up the heart wall.
 For this reason the myocardium has its own network of blood vessels.
 The coronary arteries branch from the ascending aorta and encircle the heart
like a crown encircles the head.
 The right and left coronary arteries deliver blood to the heart. The coronary
veins drain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus.
Cardiac cycle:
 A single cardiac cycle includes all the events associated with one
heartbeat/min 72-75.
 A cardiac cycle lasts 0.8 sec.
 A cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole of the atria plus systole and
diastole of the ventricles.
 There are typical changes in pressure and blood flow during the cardiac
cycle in large veins such as the vena cava.
 Such oscillations in pressure and flow may, at times, be transmitted to more
peripheral vessels.
 There are three positive pressure waves (a, c, v) in the central veins
corresponding to changes in pressure changes in the atria. Thea wave is
caused by atrial contraction at end diastole.

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Heart sounds:
 The sound of the heart beat comes primarily from blood turbulence caused
by the closing of the heart values. Smoothly flowing blood is silent.
 There are four heart sounds but in a normal heart only the first and second
heart sounds (S1 and S2) are loud enough to be heard through a stethoscope.
 The timing of heart sounds relative to other event in the cardiac cycle.
 The first sound (S1) which can be described as a Lubb sound is louder and a
bit longer than second sound.
 S1 is caused by blood turbulence associated with closure of the AV values
soon after ventricular systole begins.
 The second sound (S2) which is shorter and not as loud as the first sound can
be described as a Dupp sound.
Basics of ECG (Electrocardiogram) :-

 They generate electrical currents that can be detected at the surface of the
body. An ECG is recording of these electrical signals.

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 The ECG is a composite record of action potentials produced by all the heart
muscle fibers during each heart beat.
 There are two ways to learn ECG interpretation — Pattern recognition (the
most common) and understanding the exact electrical vectors recorded by an
ECG as they relate to cardiac electrophysiology — and most people learn a
combination of both.
Blood pressure and its regulation

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Blood pressure:
 Blood pressure is the pressure of blood pushing against the walls
of your arteries. Arteries carry blood from your heart to other parts
of your body.
 Your blood pressure normally rises and falls throughout the day.
 Blood pressure is determined both by the amount of blood your
heart pumps and the amount of resistance to blood flow in your
arteries.
 The more blood your heart pumps and the narrower your arteries,
the higher your blood pressure.
 A blood pressure reading is given in millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg). It has two numbers.
 Systolic pressure. The first, or upper, number measures the
pressure in your arteries when your heart beats.
 Diastolic pressure. The second, or lower, number measures
the pressure in your arteries between beats.

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Respiratory system
 Respiration is the action of breathing.
 Exchange of gases during internal and external respiration is the major function of the respiration
system
 Respiration system includes the vocal cords for producing sound ,lungs for controlling body ph
level and olfactory bulbs for smelling.
 Respiration include the ventilation of lungs for inward and outward movement of air alveolar air.
 Excretion of water vapour.
 Supplying air to the larynx for voice production.
Anatomy of respiratory organs and their functions.

Parts of respiratory system
The human respiratory system consists of following organs-
1. Nose
1. 2.pharynx(throat)
2. Larynx (voice box)
3. Trachea(windpipe)
4. Bronchi and bronchioles
5. Lungs
6. Alveoli
1. Nose
 Nose is present between the forehead and the upper limp, which receive the inhaled air and forms
a passage for the air to reach the nasal cavity or nasal chamber.
 Nose performs the process of worming , moistening and filtering of the inhaled air .
Structure-
 The nose is divided into an external (the nose ) and an internal (nasal activity)
 Nose is the bony and a carillaginous structure .
 Its bony part is made up of the frontal ,nasal and maxillae bone.
 Nasal cavity is a large irregular shoped cavity . divided by septum.
 At the base of nose , two opening seoerated by nasal septum cartilage.
Diagram

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Function -
 Respiration is the major pathway for the inhaled air is middle meatus this produce nasal cycle.
 Air conditioning
 Air at - 5°to 55° temperature reach the nasopharynx at 31°-37° temp .the turbinates make the
inhaled air water saturated so that the lungs receive 100 % humid air
Defence-
The mucociliary system hold back 95% of the air particles (including )bacteria and viruses and convey
them to the nasopharynx.
2. Pharynx
 Pharynx is a funnel shaped tube extending from the internal nares to the posterior part of
oesophagus and anterior part of larynx .
 It is made up with skeleton muscles
Structure -
It can be divided into three parts
1. Nasopharynx -
It is the part of pharynx lies immediately posterior to the nasal cavity .
2. Oropharynx -
This is part of pharynx lies immediately posterior to the oral cavity .
3. Hyoopharynx or laryngopharynx -
This part of pharynx lies just inferior to the oropharynx and superior to the oesopharynx.
Function -
 It have the respiratory or digestive both function so it provide passageway for the air and food.
 The epithelium of the oral and pharyngeal part is supplied with olfactory nerve ending for
sensation of taste .

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 The tonsils (part of lymphatic system from a ring where the oral cavity joins the pharynx and
provides protution against foreign attacks of antigens.
3. Larynx
 It is present as a triangular chamber in the front upper part of neck.
 A prominent elevation called the adom's apple.
Structure
 Larynx is present in the anterior neck at the 3rd to 6th cervical vertebral level . it joins the
hypopharynx with trachea.
 It skeleton is made up of 3 single (thyroid , cricoid and epiglottis ) and 3 paired (arytenoid ,
corniculated , and cuneiform ) cartilages.
Epiglottis:- It is the leaf like cartilage which cerves the larynx.
Diagram
Function
Sound production -
 Sound possesses pitch , volume and resonance (or tone)

 This pathway is present between larynx and trachea .
 The air inhaled is humidified filtered and warmed as it passes through the larynx.
4. Trachea-
 Trachea is known as windpipe .
 It is 10-11 cm long continuous poathway from the larynx .
 It lies in the median plane in front of the oseophagus

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Structure
 Trachea is composed of 16-20 C -shaped structure
 The trachea are covered by following three tissue layer-
1. Outerlayer- Made up of fibrous and elastic tissue.
2. Middle layer - Made up of cartilage and bands.
3. Inner layer- Made up of ciliated columnar epithelium containing goblet cells
Diagram
Function
 The cartilage and elastic tissue of trachea are arranged such that they prevent kinking and
obstruction of the airway.
 It act as a mucociliary .
 It warms ,humidified and filter the inhaled air .
5. Bronchi and bronchioles

 Bronchi (Singal bronches are airway passage in the respiratory tract .they carry the inhaled air
into lungs.
Structure
 Bronchi are made up of complete cartilage rings the right left bronchus are different from each
other as the format is shatter and wider.

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Diagram
Function
 They provide a passageway for the air .
 They warms and humidify particulate matter
 They generate cough reflex.
6. Lungs
 Lungs are present in the thoracic cavity as two cone -shaped lobes separated by the heart and
other structure of mediastinum.
 Lungs extending from the diaphragm reach up to slightly above the clavicles .
 In the medial surface of left lung , cardiac notch ,is present , which is a concave area holding the
heart.
Structure
It have the following parts -
1.Apex- Lungs have a round apex which extend up to the root of neck .
2.Base- Lungs have a concave and semilunar base which is associated with the thoracic surface of the
diaghromy.
3.costal surface – Lungs have a concave costal surface which is associated with the costal cartilages , ribs
and intercostal muscles.
4. Medial surface - Lungs have a concave medial surface which has a somewhat triangular shaped hilium

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Diagram
Functions
 They alter the blood pH by altering the partial pressure of carbon dioxide .
 They filter out small blood clots formed in the veins .
 They filter out gad micro-bubble formed in the venous blood stream
 They alter the blood concentration of some biological substance and drugs .
 They form a soft, shock-absorbent protective layer for the heart.
 The bronchial secretion contains immunoglobulin-A , which provides protection against
respiratory infection.
7. Aleoli
 The final termination of respiratory bronchioles are the alveolar ducts which is turn from alveoli
surrounded by capillaries .
 These are the hollow cavity found in the mammalian lunga .
 Pulmonary alveoli are the spherical projection of respiratory bronchioles.
Structure
 A human lung has around 300 million alveoli each of them covered with a thin capillary
occupying 70% of its area some alveolar walls have pores between the alveoli , these pores are
called kohn.

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Diagram
Function
 They functionalise external resoiration means resoiration occurs between alveoli or blood by
diffusion .
 It works for projection against microbes.
Regulation Mechanism or respiration

 The process by which the respiratory organs allow the air to move in and out of the lungs is
termed as breathing .it is a simple give and take process , since oxygen -rich air is taken in form
the atmosphere and in exchange carbon dioxide -rich air is given out to the atmosphere to be
utilise by the plants for photosynthesis .breathing process continues throughout the life of an
organism.
 Breathing rate is the number of times an individual breathes in a minutes.
 For example, breathing rate increases on walking fast ,running ,ir after a heavy exercise ,
and decrease when in a relaxed state.
The two phases of breathing process are discussed here.
1. Inhalation or inspiration- The series of event includes
 On contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals , the thoracic cavity increases in size.
 The lungs also attain the new increases size of the thoracic cavity as they are tightly adhered to
the thorax walls
 As a result. the gas pressure with in the lungs decreases and a partial vaccume is produced to
suck air into lungs.
 Air moves into to the lungs till the intrpulmonary and the atmospheric pressure attains
equilibrium.

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2. Expiration or Exhalation -This includs-
 On relaxation the inspiratory muscles gains back their resting length , the rib cage descends, and
the lungs recoil.
 Thus, the gases form with in flow out to equalise the pressure both inside and outside the lungs.
Diagram
 The interpleural pressure is always negative ,and prevent the lungs from collapsing.

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Respiratory volumes and capacities –

Respiratory volumes:
 Lung volumes are also known as respiratory volumes.
 It refers to the volume of gas in the lungs at a given time during the respiratory cycle.
 Lung capacities are derived from a summation of different lung volumes.
 The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about 6 litres of air.
 Lung volumes measurement is an integral part of pulmonary function test.
Respiratory capacities:
 Respiratory capacity (pulmonary capacity) is the sum of two or more volumes.
 Factors such as age, sex, body build, and physical conditioning have an influence
on lung volumes and capacities.
 Lungs usually reach their maximumin capacity in early adulthood and decline with age after that.

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Chapter-9 Human Anatomy & Physiology
Digestive System
 The food provides nutrients are utilised by the cell for the production of
energy. The digestive system transfer nutrients from the external
environment ( in the form of food ) to the internal environment (via
ingestion of food )
Anatomy and physiology of GIT

The gastrointestinal or digestive tract or alimentary canal begin at the mouth and
terminates at the anus.
Different part of alimentary canal includes -
1. Oral cavity (mouth)

2. Oesophagus
3. Pharynx
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
7. Accesary organs
1. Oral cavity
 Oral cavity forms the first part of canal surrounded by various muscles and
bones.
 The roof of oral cavity form by palate.
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Teeth - Food is taken in the mouth and chewed with the help of teeth to convert it
in smaller particle.
The process is known as mastification.
Teeth can functionally divided in two parts -
a) Deciduous teeth ( baby or milk teeth ,20 in no.)

b) Permanent teeth(adult teeth ,32 in no.)
Types and function of teeth
Incisors - These teeth aid in biting off large pieces of food.
Cupsids/canins - These conical shaped teeth aid in grasping and tearing of food.
Biscuspids/ premolars - These teeth help in grinding the food ,they are absent in
the children (after 9 year of age)
Molars - These are the largest teeth and are present at the back of the mouth .
Tongue - It is muscular organ situated on the floor of mouth , which help in

chewing and swallowing the food (deglutition).
A test bud is a saclike oval shaped structure of about 50 micron meter in size.
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Diagram of teeth and tongue
Pharynx
Pharynx (throat) is a funnel shaped tube extending from the internal nares to the
posterior parts of oesophagus and anterior of larynx .
Function -
 Passageway for the air and food.

 Taste sensation.
 Warming and humidifying.
 Hearing.
Oesophagus
 Food pipe is cv a long muscular tube which forms a passage for the food to
pass from the pharynx to the stomach.
 The oesophagus joins the stomach at the gastro-oesophageal junction
Function-
 A wave of peristalsis is stimulated when the bolus is present in the pharynx

thus, it is propelled to the stomach via oesophagus .
Stomach
 Stomach is a hollow ,muscular, bag like structure .
 Stomach lies between the oesophagus and the small intestine .
 The second phase of digestion (after mastification ) takes place in the
stomach.
Function -
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 It provides highly acidic environment due to gastric acid production and

secretion , which is able to breakdown large molecules in to smaller
molecules .
Small intestine
 Sall intestine is a portion between the stomach and the large intestine .
 In adult it measure about 7 cm in length and 2-3 cm in diameter .
 It is a long ,highly convoluted tubes in the digestive system that absorbs
about 90% of the nutrients from the ingested food.
 It is the main site of absorption .
 The presence of villi and microvilli increase the surface area available for
nutrients absorption.
Structurally the small intestine can be divided into 3 parts-
- Duodenum
- Jejunum
- Ileum
Function -
 It provide site for absorption for the process of chemical digestion of

carbohydrates.
 It secrets the significant hormones , cholecystokinin and secretin.
Large intestine
 large intestine forms the last part of alimentary canal .it extent caecum to the
anus while.including the ascending colon , transverse colon , descending
colon sigmoid colon and the rectum .
 It is about 1.5 m in length and 6-7 in diameter.
Comprises of following parts
o Rectum - It act to store the faecus temporarily

o Anus - It is the external opening of rectum .it surrounded by spincter
muscles, which control its opening and closing.
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Function -
o It forms the site for absorption of water, glucose and salt.

o Its walls form the site for excretion of excess amount of calcium, iron and
drugs of heavy metals.
Anatomy and function of accessory glands
 Accessory organ of digestion are organ that secrets substances needed for
the chemical digestion of food but through which food does not actually pass
as it is digested .
 The accessory glands of digestive system consist of salivary glands ,
pancreas , liver and gall bladder.
Salivary glands
 Salivary glands present in the form of 3 large multicellular pairs-
a) Parotid glands - It is largest salivary gland located anterior to the ear on

either side and responsible to produces serous secretion . secretion is occur
through the parotid duct.
b) Submandibular glands - These are second largest glands and are also
paired ,located below mandible .secretion of these gland is mix type both
serous and mucous secretion .
c) Sublingual glands - It is smallest and also paired . these glands secrets
mucous .these are ductless glands , each gland opens into the flow of the oral
cavity.
Function of salivary glands -
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 Cleaning effect of washing away food debris.

 Make swallowing food easier.
 Antibacterial effect of fighting off bacteria entering the mouth.
 pH buffering effect that prevents caries effect of promoting remineralization
of teeth.
Pancreas
 Pancreas is an organ and a gland that produce and release substance in the
body.
 It is an elongated digestive gland .its size 6-10 inch and its weight is 65 gm.
 It is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen and close to the
duodenum.
 It is largest gland of digestive system.
 It is the mixed gland producing both endocrine (Insulin, glucagon) and
exocrine ( pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes ) secretion .
Structure -
Pancreas has a head the part lying with in duodenal curvature , a body and a tail
connecting the pancreas to the spleen.
pancreatic islets , also known as islets of Langer Hans make up endocrine portion
of the pancreas .
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Diagram of Pancreas
Function -
 The enzyme secreted in the pancreas help in breakdown of carbohydrates,

fats, proteins and acid in the duodenum.
 The pancreas also secrets a bicarbonate to neutralise stomach acid in the
duodenum.
 The hormones secreted in the pancreas are insuline and glucagon ( which
regulate the level of glucose in the blood .
Liver
 Liver is the largest gland of the human body .

 It form the second largest organ which performs many essential biological
function such as detoxification of organism , synthesis of protein ,
biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth .
 It also filters the blood coming from the digestive tract , before passing it to
the rest of the body .
Structure -
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 Liver is divided into two major lobes and two minor lobes .
 On the inferior surface of the liver , a porta is located which forms an entry
and exit point for various vessels , ducts and nerves .
Function-
 The liver has a wide range of function processes of nutrients from food .
 Stores sugars for later use.
 Production of biles and cholesterol.
 Removing various toxins and combating infection .
 Processing and stroage of vitamins and other essential nutrients .
 Maintaing level of fats , amino acid and glucose in the blood .
 Proteine synthesis .
 Manufacturing and regulating hormones including these that helps platelets
(blood clotting ) formation .
Gall bladder
 Gall bladder is a pear shaped organ .

 This membranous muscular sac like structure is nearly 8 cm in length and 4
cm in width .
 Gall bladder function to store and concentrate bile which is produce by the
liver and helps in digestion process.
 It has a capacity of about 70 ml
Structure
 Gall bladder comprises of a fundus (broad part) the body (central part) and
the neck (tapered parts).
 Wall of gall bladder is lined by three layer of tisssue-
- An inner mucosal layer
- A muscularis layer
- An outer Layer of serosa
Function -
 It store the bile till required by the intestine for digestion.
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 Gall bladder can remove toxins from the blood and ingested food.
 The alkaline nature of bile helps in neutralization of the hydrochloric acid in
stomach during starvation.
 It can also emulsify the dietary lipid or fatty substances.
Physiology of digestion and absorption-
The process of digestion can be divided into the following steps;
Ingestion:
- In this step, food enters into the alimentary canal throughs the mouth and is
chewed and mixed with saliva containing enzymes ptyalin or amylase
.Breakdown of carbohydrates and lipid starts. The process of chewing
increase the surface area of the food and the food mixed with saliva is called
bolus.
Propulsion-
Tongue and pharyngeal muscles propel the bolus into the oesophagus. This
phenomenon of swallowing is the last voluntary acts up to defecation and is an
example of propulsion.
Mechanical and chemical digestion -
- Mechanical digestion is a physical process that does not affect the chemical
nature of the food instead, it breaks food in smaller particles to increase both
surface area and mobility.
- Chemical digestion of the food starts in the mouth. In this process, the
complex food particles are broken down into their chemical building blocks
by the various digestive secretions.
 Absorption - The food that has been disintegrated into simpler units is of no
value unless it enters the blood circulation and its nutrients are utilised.
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 Active transport - Movement from an area of lower concentration to the

area of higher concentration.
 Passive diffusion - In this types of absorption substances moves from an
area of lower concentration to the area of higher concentration.
 Facilitated diffusion - Movements of substance form the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration .
 Defecation - It is the final step in which the undigested material are
voluntarily removed from the body as faecus.
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Chapter-10
Skeletal muscles
 Histology
 Physiology of muscle contraction
 Disorder of skeletal muscles
Histology of Muscles
The scientific study of muscles is known as myology. The primary function of
muscle—the transformation of chemical energy into mechanical energy to
generate force, perform work, and produce movement. In addition, muscle
tissues stabilize body position, regulate organ volume, generate heat, and propel
fluids and food matter through various body systems.
Properties of muscles—
 Electrical excitability.
 Contractility.
 Extensibility.
 Elasticity.
Classification of muscular tissue—
a. Depending upon striations.
 Striated muscle. Example- skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle.
 Non-striated muscle. Example- smooth muscle.
b. Depending upon control.
 Voluntary control. Example- skeletal muscle.
 Involuntary control. Example- cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.
c. Depending upon situation.
 Skeletal muscle.
 Cardiac muscle.
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 Smooth muscle.
Features of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle fibres.
Features Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle
Location Associated with bone In the heart In the visceral organs
Shape Cylindrical and unbranched Branched Spindle- shaped

Number of nucleus More than one One One
Striations Present Present Absent
Action Voluntary action Involuntary action Involuntary action
Control Only neurogenic Myogenic Both
Structure
Skeletal muscle.
Skeletal muscle is situated in associated with bones forming the skeletal system.
It forms about the 40% to 50% of body mass. It is a type of voluntary and
striated muscle. These muscles are supplied by somatic nerves.
Structure of skeletal muscle—
Muscle mass or muscle tissue is made up of a large number of individual
muscle cells or myocytes. The muscle cells are commonly called muscle fibres
because these cells are long and slender in appearance. Skeletal muscle fibres
are multinucleated and are arranged parallel to one another with some
connective tissue in between.

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 Muscle mass is separated by the fibrous tissue layer known as fascia,

beneath the fascia muscle is covered by a connective tissue sheath called
epimysium.
 Muscle fibres are arranged in various groups called bundles or fasciculi,
which is covered by connective tissue sheath called perimysium.
 And each muscle fibres are covered by a connective tissue layer called
the endomysium.
Cell membrane of muscle fibres is called sarcolemma present beneath the
endomysium. Cytoplasm of the muscle is known as sarcoplasm.
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION—
1. NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION—
Junction between terminal branch of the nerve fibre and muscle fibre.
Membrane of the nerve ending is called presynaptic membrane and
membrane of the muscle fibre is called post synaptic membrane. Space
between these two membranes is called synaptic cleft here
acetylcholinesterase is present. Transformation mechanism of signal is
occurring in many steps—
 Release of acetylcholine.
 Action of acetylcholine.
 Development of endplate potential.
 Destruction of acetylcholine.
2. MUSCLE CONTRACTION—
Structural and functional unit of the muscle contraction is Sarcomere.it is also
called the basic contractile unit of the muscle. Relaxed sarcomere length is
about 2 to 3 µ and it extends between two ‘Z’ lines of myofibril.

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Each myofibril consists of an alternate dark ‘A’ band and light ‘I’ band. In
middle of ‘A’ band, there is a light area called ‘H’ zone. In the middle of ‘H’
zone lies the middle part of myosin filament called as ‘M’ line. Myofilaments
are of two types—
1. Actin filaments.
2. Myosin filaments.
SARCOMERE A=A BAND I=IBAND.

1. Actin filament— Each actin filament consists of the 3 proteinous
molecules.
a. Actin molecule— Major constitutes of the actin filament. Each actin
molecule is called F-actin and it is the polymer of a small protein
known as G-actin. There are about 300 to 400 actin molecules in
each actin filaments. Each F-actin molecule has an active site to
which the myosin head is attached.
b. Tropomyosin— It situated along the double helix strand of actin
filament. In relaxed condition of the muscle, the tropomyosin
molecules cover all the active sites of F-actin molecules.
c. Troponin—it is formed by three subunits—
 Troponin I, which is attached to F-actin.
 Troponin T, which is attached to tropomyosin.
 Troponin C, which is attached to calcium ions.
2. Myosin filament— Each myosin molecule has two portions-
a. Tail portion— it is made up of two heavy chains, which twist
around each other in the form of a double helix.

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b. Head portion—myosin head has two attachment sites. One site is

for actin filament and the other one is for one ATP molecule.
Myosin head is absent in the central part of myosin filament that is
PART OF ACTIN FILAMENT TROPONIN SUBUNIT T, C, I.

in the ‘H’ zone.
MYOSIN FILAMENT
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION—

Mechanism of muscle contraction is best explained by sliding filament theory
which states that contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the
thin filament over the thick filament. Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal
sent by the central nervous system via a motor neuron.

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STAGES IN CROSS BRIDGE FORMATION, ROTATION OF HEAD AND BREAKING OF CROSS BRIDGE.
DISORDERS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES— common diseases of skeletal

muscles are—
1. Muscular dystrophy— it is characterized by progressive degeneration of
muscle fibres, without involvement of nervous system. Mostly it has
hereditary origin.
2. Myasthenia gravis— It is an autoimmune disease caused by due to the
development of autoantibodies (IgG autoantibodies) against the receptors
of acetylcholine. It is characterized, to the inability of neuromuscular
junction to transmit impulse from nerve to the muscle.
3. Disease involving muscle tone
 Hypertonia— Hypertonia or hypertonicity is a muscular disease
characterised by increased muscle tone and inability of the muscle
to stretch.
 Hypotonia— Hypotonia is the muscular disease characterised by
decreased muscle tone. The tone of the muscle is decreased or lost.
Muscle offers very little resistance to stretch.
 Myotonia— Myotonia is a congenital disease characterized by
continuous contraction of muscle and slow relaxation even after the
cessation of voluntary act.

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4. Lambert-Eaton syndrome— Lambert-Eaton syndrome is a disorder of

neuromuscular junction caused by development of antibodies against
calcium channel in the nerve terminal, resulting in reduction in the release
of quanta of acetylcholine. This disease is commonly associated with
carcinoma, so it also called as carcinomatous myopathy.
5. Mitochondrial myopathy— It is an inherited disease due to the defects
in the mitochondria of muscle fibres.

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Chapter-11
Nervous system
 Classification of nervous system
 Anatomy and physiology of cerebrum, cerebellum, mid brain
 Function of hypothalamus, medulla oblongata and basal ganglia
 Spinal cord-structure and reflexes
 Names and functions of cranial nerves.
 Anatomy and physiology of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (ANS)
Nervous system
The Nervous system is the too much advanced network of specialised cells called the neurones.
 With the millions of neurones, nervous system co-ordinate the body function and transmit signals
between the different body part.
 A signals nerve is a collection of various neurons.
Classification -
In human's nervous system is broadly classified into central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system.

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Central nervous system -

The Central nervous system consists of the brain (in the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (in the
vertebral column)
Inside the embryo the neural tube develops which arises because of unequal growth rate. These expansion
take the form of forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
1. Forebrain
a. Cerebral hemispheres
b. Basal ganglia
c. Hypothalamus
d. Thalamus
2. Midbrain
a. Tectum
b. Tegmentum
c. Cerebral peduclous
3. Hind brain
a. Cerebellum
b. Pons
c. Medulla
Peripheral nervous system -

PNS includes nerves extending between the CNS and other parts of the body . It namely acts to control
the voluntary functions of body.
 Sensory neurons - They carry information from the sensory tissues to the CNS in the firm of
stimuli .
 Motor neurons - They carry back information from CNS today the effector organ.
PNS further divided in two types -

A. Somatic nervous system -this system controls skeleton muscles and the external sensory organs.
B. Autonomic nervous system -This system controls involuntary action of the body by controlling
tyr involuntary muscles like smooth muscles and cardiac muscles . This further includes the
sympathetic nervous system andar parasympathetic nervous system .
Brain
Brain is very complex organ forming the center of nervous system . The average weight office the brain
in an adult man is about 1600 gm , while in adults female is 1450 gm

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Part of brain:
The adult brain is composed of the following 4 major parts
A. Cerebrum
B. Cerebellum
C. Diencephalon
D. Brain Stem
a. Medulla oblongata
b. Pons
c. Midbrain
Anatomy and physiology of cerebrum, cerebellum and midbrain - Cerebrum

 Cerebrum form the major portion of the brain . it is divided into two hemispheres known as a
cerebral hemispheres , which are positioned over the brain stem .
 The outer rim of cerebrum made up of grey matter and us known as cerebral cortex , and the
white matter lying beneath the cerebral cortex is known as cerebral medulla .
 The left and right cerebral hemisphere are separated from each other by a prominent longitudinal
fissure.
The fissure or sulcus further subdivided each of two hemispheres into four lobs -
A. Frontal lobs
B. Temporal lobs
C. Parietal lobs
D. Occipital lobs
Diagram of cerebrum

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Function
A. Frontal lobs-
 Controls voluntary activities if opposite half of the body.

 Control the spoken speech .
 Control emotional , concentration ,attention and judgement.
B. Parietal lobs-
 Perception of exteroceptive ( touch , pain and temperature )
C. Occipital lobs-
 Reception and perception of isolated visual impression of color , size , form , motion .
D. Temporal lobs
 Reception and perception of isolates auditory impression of loudness , quality and pitch .
Cerebellum
 Cerebellum appears as a distict structure forming lower part of the brain beneath the cerebral
hemispheres.
 The cerebellum is separated from the cerebrum by the transverse tissue.
Structure
Cerebellum is butterfly shaped and is located inferiorly to the posterior portion of the cerebrum and
posteriorly to pons and medulla oblongata.
The subdivision of cerebellum are shown in figure
Labelled diagram of cerebellum:

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Functions:
1. Body posture and equilibrium is maintained by the cerebellum. The muscles, joints, eyes, and the
ears bring in the sensory input for these functions.
2. In order to maintain the balance and equilibrium of the body, the cerebellum acts to influence
impulses leading to the skeletal muscle contraction. It is responsible for controlling and
coordinating the movements of several groups of muscles, resulting in smooth, even, and clear-
cut action.
3. The coordination of voluntary muscular movement is carried out by the cerebellum. Activities of
the cerebellum cannot be controlled voluntarily,
Midbrain
 The midbrain (or mesencephalon) comprises of tracts and nuclei .it divided into tactum and
peduncle it give way to the cerebral aqueduct .
 Cerebral peduncles make up the anterior part of the midbrain .they exist in pairs and contain large
ascending and descending tracts. The tract comprises of axon of motor neurons .
 The tectum makes up the posterior part of the midbrain . it consist of 4 round shaped elevation .
the two elevation positioned superioly are called superior colliculi . the other two elevation
positioned inferiorly are called inferior colliculi.
Diagram of midbrain
Functions
Midbrain performs the following functions:
1. Significant functions like eye movement and other functions of the visual and auditory systems
are controlled by the midbrain.

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2. Body movements are controlled by the red nucleus and the substantia nigra (parts of the
midbrain).
3. Since neurons producing dopamine are located in the substantia nigra, degeneration of these
neurons results in Parkinson's disease.
Functions of hypothalamus , medulla oblongata and basal ganglia

Hypothalamus -
 The hypothalamus is a structure deep within your brain. It’s the main link between your
endocrine system and your nervous system. Your hypothalamus keeps your body balanced in a
stable state called homeostasis.
Functions
1. Your hypothalamus receives chemical messages from nerve cells in your brain and from nerve
cells in your body (your peripheral nervous system), which is also responding to signals outside
your body.
2. Your hypothalamus’s main function is to react to these messages to keep your body in a stable
state or internal balance. Just like you may have a “smart control” system to seamlessly manage
all functions in your home, your hypothalamus is your body’s “smart control” coordinating
center. Your hypothalamus helps manage your:
 Body temperature.
 Blood pressure.
 Hunger and thirst.
 Sense of fullness when eating.
 Mood.
 Sex drive.
 Sleep.
3. Your hypothalamus performs many of its “body balancing” jobs either by directly influencing the
autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones. Your autonomic nervous system (bodily
functions that work automatically) control several important functions, such as your heart rate and
breathing (respiration).
4. your hypothalamys makes some hormones itself that are stored elsewhere (in your posterior
pituitary).
Sends signals (hormones) to your pituitary gland, which either releases hormones that directly affect a
part of your body or sends another signal (hormone) to a different gland in your body that then releases its
hormone

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Medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the bottom-most part of your brain. Its location means it’s where your brain and
spinal cord connect, making it a key conduit for nerve signals to and from your body. It also helps control
vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure.
Functions
Your medulla oblongata (med-oo-la ob-long-ah-ta), often just called the medulla, is a key part of your
nervous system.
It’s key not only because of its location but also because of what it controls.
Some of its jobs include:
 Manages heart, circulation and breathing. Your medulla is where your cardiovascular and
respiratory systems link together into a united system that controls your heart rate, breathing,
blood pressure and more.
 Manages other automatic processes. These are things that your body often does without you
having to think about them. Some examples include coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting
and maintaining your balance.
 Nerve connections. The vast majority of major nerves converge at your spine, carrying signals to
and from your brain. That means those signals must pass through your medulla. Four of your 12
cranial nerves (which connect areas of your throat and tongue directly to your brain) pass through
your medulla.
 Crossover point. your medulla is the location of a region called “the pyramids,” where most of the
movement-related nerves in your body crisscross. That crossover is why one side of your brain
almost always controls parts on the opposite side of your body.
Basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of brain structures linked together, handling complex processes that affect
your entire body. While best known for their role in controlling your body’s ability to move, experts now
know they also play a role in several other functions, such as learning, emotional processing and more.
Functions -
The basal ganglia are best known for how they help your brain control your body’s movements. However,
ongoing research continues to uncover other ways that the basal ganglia interact with other parts of your
brain. Though experts continue to uncover more about the inner workings of the basal ganglia, there’s
much about them that remains unknown.

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Movement
 The basal ganglia are a key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your body’s
voluntary movements.
 They can approve or reject movement signals that your brain sends, filtering out unnecessary or
incorrect signals.
 This lets you control certain muscles without also using other muscles that are nearby.
 If the basal ganglia approve a signal, it continues to the motor pathways, the nerves that
eventually carry the signal down your spinal cord and nerves to their destination muscle. If they
don’t approve the signal, they redirect it into an area where other brain cells dampen those signals
until they stop.
 The parts of your brain that process information from your senses, namely sight, sound, smell,
taste and touch, also send that information to your basal ganglia.
 That sensory information helps the basal ganglia refine your movements further.
Decision-making
Another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and risks. It also processes signals
that affect your emotions and your motivation. That means it also plays a role in learning and forming
habits, planning and carrying out tasks, and more.
Spinal cord structure and reflexes
 Spinal cord is the elongated part of the CNS extending from the lower end. It is cylindrical in
shape and includes the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal. It ranges from the level of the
upper border of the atlas to either the upper border or the lower border of vertebra, Spinal cord
forms the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain.
 The spinal cord and spinal nerve contain neural circuits responsible for rapid reaction towards
environmental stimuli.
External structure
 On viewing the spinal cord externally, two visible enlargements i.e. the cervical enlargement
(superior) and lumbar enlargement (inferior) are seen. From the cervical enlargement, arises the
nerves to and from the upper limb; and from the lumbar enlargement, arises the nerves to and
from the lower limbs.
Diagram of external structure

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Internal structure
Internally, the spinal cord is made up of grey and white matter . The grey matter is arranged in the shape
of H or a butterfly and is surrounded by the white matter. The grey matter is made up of dendrites,
neuronal cell bodies, non-myelinated axons, and neuroglia; and the white matter consists of bundles of
myelinated axons of neurons.
Diagram of internal structure

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Function
Sensory and motor tracts are contained within the white matter of the spinal cord.
1) The sensory tracts conduct nerve impulses towards the brain and the motor tracts conduct motor
nerve impulses from the brain to the effector organs.
2) The grey matter of the spinal cord forms the spot for integration (summing) of Excitatory and
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs, respectively).
3) CNS is connected to the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands all over the body via the spinal
nerves and their branches.
4) 4) All reflex activities are mediated through spinal cord.
Reflex action
 An action produced instantaneously and automatically without intentions, in response to a

mechanical stimulus (produced by stimulation of specific receptors) is termed as a reflex activity.
Given below are some examples of reflex actions:
 When pricked with needle, the hand is a spontaneously withdrawn.

 When a strong light is flashed, the eyes close spontaneously.
 When a decapitated frog is touched with an acid or a live electric wire, it spontaneously
withdraws its legs.
 Beating of the heart, peristalsis, secretions from glands, and other visceral functions.
 Coughing, sneezing, yawning, blinking of eyes, etc.

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Names and function of cranial nerves

Cranial nerve:
There are twelve pairs of nerves attached to the brain these may be sensory , motor and mixed .
Anatomy and physiology of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (ANS)
The sympathetic nervous system is one of the two branches of the autonomic nervous system. It is
responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response, which prepares the body for action in response to
stress or danger.
The anatomy of the sympathetic nervous system includes:
1. Sympathetic ganglia: These are clusters of nerve cells located outside of the central nervous
system. They are connected to the spinal cord via nerve fibers called preganglionic fibers.
2. Preganglionic fibers: These are the nerve fibers that connect the spinal cord to the sympathetic
ganglia. They originate in the spinal cord and travel to the ganglia, where they synapse with
postganglionic fibers.
3. Postganglionic fibers: These are the nerve fibers that connect the sympathetic ganglia to their
target organs. They leave the ganglia and travel to various organs, including the heart, lungs,
liver, and kidneys.

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4. Adrenal medulla: This is a specialized gland located above the kidneys that is connected to the
sympathetic nervous system. When activated, it releases hormones called adrenaline and
noradrenaline into the bloodstream, which prepare the body for action.

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The physiological effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) activation include:
1. Increased heart rate: The SNS increases heart rate and force of contraction, leading to increased
cardiac output and blood pressure.
2. Dilation of airways: The SNS dilates the airways in the lungs, allowing more oxygen to enter the
bloodstream.
3. Constriction of blood vessels: The SNS constricts blood vessels in some parts of the body, such
as the skin and digestive system, and dilates blood vessels in others, such as the muscles, to
increase blood flow and oxygen delivery.
4. Increased blood sugar: The SNS stimulates the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream,
increasing blood sugar levels for energy.
5. Increased sweating: The SNS stimulates sweat glands to produce more sweat, which helps to
regulate body temperature during physical activity.
6. Increased pupil dilation: The SNS dilates the pupils, allowing more light to enter the eyes and
improving visual acuity.
7. Decreased digestive activity: The SNS inhibits digestive activity, including the secretion of
digestive enzymes and the contraction of the stomach and intestines, in order to redirect blood
flow to the muscles and brain.
Anatomy and physiology of Parasympathetic Nervous System (PSNS):
The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two branches of the autonomic nervous system
(ANS), the other being the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). It is responsible for promoting rest,
digestion, and relaxation in the body. The PSNS is involved in the maintenance of internal homeostasis,
by regulating organ function, blood pressure, and heart rate.
Anatomy of the PSNS:
 The PSNS originates from the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord. The cranial outflow
arises from the brainstem and includes the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus
nerves. The sacral outflow arises from the sacral spinal cord segments S2 to S4. These fibers are
carried by the pelvic nerves to the pelvic organs.
 The PSNS fibers run in two sets of nerves: cranial and sacral. The cranial nerves include the
oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. The sacral nerves
include the pelvic splanchnic nerves.

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Physiology of the PSNS:

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 The PSNS functions to conserve and restore energy in the body. It promotes rest and relaxation
by slowing down heart rate, reducing blood pressure, and stimulating digestion.
 The PSNS uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) to communicate with its target organs.
ACh is released by the PSNS fibers and binds to specific receptors on the target cells, causing
various physiological effects.
Functions of the PSNS include:
1. Decreasing heart rate: The PSNS slows down the heart rate by reducing the firing rate of the
sinoatrial node, which is the heart's natural pacemaker.
2. Constricting the pupils: The PSNS constricts the pupils by stimulating the circular muscles of the
iris.
3. Stimulating digestion: The PSNS stimulates digestion by increasing the secretion of digestive
enzymes and increasing the motility of the gastrointestinal tract.
4. Promoting urination: The PSNS promotes urination by relaxing the smooth muscle of the bladder
and increasing the tone of the detrusor muscle.
5. Stimulating glandular secretion: The PSNS stimulates glandular secretion in various organs, such
as the salivary glands, the lacrimal glands, and the pancreas.

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Chapter-12 | Sense organs

Sense organs –
Anatomy and physiology of
● Eye
● Ear
● Skin
● Tongue
● Nose
Sense Organs:
 The sense organs are a group of specialized structures in the human body that are responsible for
detecting and processing sensory information from the external environment.
 They include the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, which work together to help us perceive and
respond to stimuli such as light, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
 Each sense organ contains specialized sensory receptors that detect specific types of stimuli, and
the information they gather is then transmitted to the brain for processing and interpretation.
 Understanding how these sense organs function and interact with each other is critical for our
overall sensory experience and ability to interact with the world around us.
The five main sense organs are:
1. Eyes - Responsible for vision
2. Ears - Responsible for hearing
3. Nose - Responsible for sense of smell
4. Tongue - Responsible for taste
5. Skin - Responsible for touch, pressure, temperature and pain sensations.

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1. Eye:
 The eye is a complex organ that plays a crucial role in vision. It consists of several structures that
work together to transmit light and images to the brain for interpretation.
Anatomy of the Eye:

 Cornea - the clear outer layer that covers the front of the eye and helps focus light
 Sclera - the white, protective outer layer of the eye
 Iris - the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and the amount of light entering
the eye
 Pupil - the adjustable opening in the center of the iris that regulates the amount of light entering
the eye
 Lens - the clear, adjustable structure behind the pupil that helps focus light onto the retina
 Retina - the inner layer of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) responsible
for detecting light and color
 Optic nerve - the nerve that carries signals from the retina to the brain
 Vitreous humor - the clear gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina
Fig: Anatomy of Eye

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Physiology of the Eye:

 The cornea and lens help focus light onto the retina, where photoreceptor cells detect light and
send signals to the brain.
 The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye by controlling the size of the pupil.
 The retina contains photoreceptor cells that convert light into electrical signals that are
transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve.
 The brain then interprets the signals as images.
 The muscles in the eye control eye movements and adjust the shape of the lens to maintain focus.
 The tear glands in the eye produce tears to keep the surface of the eye moist and provide
protection from foreign objects.
2. Ear:
The ear is a complex organ that plays a crucial role in hearing and balance. It consists of several structures
that work together to receive, transmit, and interpret sound waves.
Anatomy of the Ear:

 Outer Ear - the visible part of the ear that includes the pinna and the ear canal
 Pinna - the visible part of the ear that collects and directs sound waves into the ear canal
 Ear canal - the passage that carries sound waves from the pinna to the eardrum
 Middle Ear - the part of the ear that contains the ossicles (the malleus, incus, and stapes) and the
Eustachian tube
 Eardrum - the thin membrane that separates the outer and middle ear and vibrates in response to
sound waves
 Ossicles - the three small bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle ear that transmit sound
waves from the eardrum to the inner ear
 Inner Ear - the part of the ear that contains the cochlea, vestibular system, and auditory nerve
 Cochlea - the spiral-shaped organ that converts sound waves into electrical signals that are sent to
the brain
 Vestibular System - the part of the inner ear responsible for detecting changes in head position
and movement

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 Auditory Nerve - the nerve that carries signals from the inner ear to the brain
Fig: Anatomy of Ear
Physiology of the Ear:

 The outer ear collects and directs sound waves into the ear canal, where they reach the eardrum
and cause it to vibrate.
 The ossicles in the middle ear transmit the vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.
 The cochlea in the inner ear converts the sound vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to
the brain for interpretation.
 The vestibular system in the inner ear helps to maintain balance by detecting changes in head
position and movement.
 The auditory nerve carries signals from the inner ear to the brain, where they are interpreted as
sounds.
 The ear also helps regulate the pressure in the middle ear by equalizing the pressure between the
middle ear and the environment through the Eustachian tube.

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3. Skin
The skin is the largest organ in the human body and plays a vital role in protecting the body from external
harm. It also serves as a sensory receptor for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensations.
Anatomy of the skin:

 Epidermis - the outermost layer of the skin that provides a protective barrier
 Dermis - the underlying layer of the skin that contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and
sweat glands
 Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) - the deepest layer of the skin that contains fat and connective
tissue
Fig: Anatomy of the skin
Physiology of the skin:

 The epidermis provides a barrier to protect against external damage and prevent water loss.
 The dermis contains sensory receptors that detect touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
 The subcutaneous layer provides insulation and helps regulate body temperature.
 The skin also contains sweat glands that help regulate body temperature through sweating and oil
glands that keep the skin moisturized.
 The skin acts as a defense against infection by producing antimicrobial peptides and housing
immune cells.
 It also helps synthesize vitamin D in response to sun exposure.

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4. Tongue:
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth that plays a crucial role in taste perception, speech, and
swallowing.
Anatomy of the Tongue:

 Dorsum - the top surface of the tongue
 Ventral surface - the bottom surface of the tongue
 Papillae - small projections on the tongue's surface that contain taste buds
 Fungiform papillae - small, mushroom-shaped projections found at the front of the tongue
 Filiform papillae - thin, pointed projections that do not contain taste buds
 Circumvallate papillae - large, dome-shaped projections found at the back of the tongue
 Bottom of the tongue's tip direct attached to the floor of mouth by the short, thick or tight band of
tissue called lingual frenulum
Fig: Anatomy of the Tongue
Physiology of the Tongue:

 The tongue contains thousands of taste buds that detect different tastes, such as sweet, sour, salty,
and bitter.
 The tongue moves food around the mouth to help mix it with saliva, and its movements also play
a role in speech.
 The tongue helps move food to the back of the throat for swallowing.
 The tongue also helps regulate oral hygiene by moving food debris and bacteria out of the mouth.

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5. Nose:
The nose is a prominent organ in the face that plays a crucial role in the sense of smell and also helps to
filter and moisten inhaled air.
Anatomy of the Nose:

 Nostrils - the two openings in the nose where air enters and exits
 Nasal cavity - the interior space inside the nose, divided by the septum
 Olfactory epithelium - the specialized tissue in the nose responsible for detecting odors
 Nasal conchae - curved bony plates in the nasal cavity that help increase surface area for air
filtration
 Sinuses - air-filled cavities surrounding the nasal cavity
Fig: Anatomy of the Nose
Physiology of the Nose:

 The olfactory epithelium detects odors and sends signals to the brain to interpret as a specific
smell.
 The nasal cavity filters, warms, and moisturizes inhaled air to protect the lungs.
 The sinuses help reduce the weight of the skull and improve resonance for speech.
 The nose also helps to improve the sense of taste by providing a moist and warm environment for
taste buds in the mouth.
 Mucus in the nose traps dust, bacteria, and other particles, and the cilia in the nasal cavity move
the mucus towards the throat for removal.

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Chapter-13 Urinary system

Urinary system
Excretion is the process through which unwanted/toxic substances and
metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body and maintains our body in
homeostasis stage. Elimination process carry out through the— digestive
system, lungs, skin, liver and urinary system.
Anatomy and physiology of urinary system.
Introduction— Urinary/Renal system plays a major role in the urine formation
and urine elimination, normally urine output in person is about 1 to 1.5 L/day.
Urinary system consists of-
 A pair of kidneys.
 A pair of ureters.
 Urinary bladder.
 Urethra.
KIDNEYS— Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures, covered by
connective tissue capsule situated between the levels of last thoracic and third
lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each
kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3
cm in thickness with an average weight of 120- 170 g. There is a depression on
the medial border of kidney called hilum, through which renal artery, renal
veins, nerves, and ureter pass. Components of kidney are arranged in two
layers-
1. Outer cortex— It is dark and granular appearance and extends in
between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called columns of
Bertini.
2. Inner medulla— Medulla consists about 8 to 18 medullary or Malpighian
pyramids. Further it continuous in renal pelvis (expanded part of ureter)
by forming of 2 to 3 minor calyces and about 8 major calyces.

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LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF KIDNEY URINARY SYSTEM
NEPHRON.
Nephron is structural and functional unit of kidneys. Each kidney consists of 1
to 1.3 million nephrons. Nephron is divided into two parts—
 Renal corpuscle/Malpighian corpuscles— It is situated near the cortex
region of the kidneys and helps in the filtration of the blood. It is formed
by two portions-
1. Glomerulus— Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries enclosed by
Bowman’s capsule. It consists of glomerular capillaries interposed
between afferent arteriole on one end and efferent arteriole on
the other end.
2. Bowman’s capsule— It cover the glomerular capillaries and
continue with the tubular part.
 Renal tubule— It is the continuation part of the bowman’s capsule. On
the basis of structural and functional basis it again divided into the three
parts.
1. Proximal convoluted tubule.
2. Loop of Henle (descending limb and ascending limb).
3. Distal convoluted tubule.
4. Collecting duct.
Types of Nephrons—

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1. Cortical/superficial nephron— Renal corpuscle situated near the outer

cortex with short length of loop of Henle and helps in the urine
formation. Peritubular capillaries present all around the cortical
nephron.
2. Juxtamedullary nephrons— Renal corpuscle situated in inner cortex near
medulla with long length of loop of Henle and helps in the urine
formation and mainly in the urine concentration. Vasa recta capillaries
present all around the juxtamedullary nephron.
Physiology of urine formation.
When blood passes through glomerular capillaries the plasma is filter by the
filtering membrane into bowman’s capsule. Urine formation includes three
processes.
 Glomerular filtration—
 Tubular reabsorption.
 Tubular secretion.
1. Glomerular filtration— Glomerular filtration is the process through which
capillaries blood going to filter through filtering membrane. It’s also called
as ultrafiltration because minutes particle also filtered through it except
plasma protein and blood cells. The filtered fluid is called glomerular
filtrate.
 Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)— GFR is defined as the total amount
of filtrate form in all the nephrons of both the kidneys in the given
unit of time. Normal GFR is 125 ml/min or about 180 ml/min.
2. Tubular reabsorption— It is the process through which the needed/wanted
substances are absorb by the renal tubules and transported into back to the
blood. When the filtrate passes through the tubular part the large amount
of water, electrolyte, and others substances reabsorbed and resulting
qualitative and quantitative changes occurs. Sites of reabsorption—
 Proximal convoluted tubule— About 85% of the substances
reabsorbed by the PCT. Glucose, amino acids, sodium, potassium,
calcium, bicarbonates, chlorides, phosphates, urea, uric acid and
water are the major substances reabsorbed by the PCT.
 Loop of Henle— Sodium and chloride are main substances
reabsorbed from loop of Henle.

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 Distal convoluted tubule— Sodium, calcium, bicarbonate, and water

are reabsorbed from DCT.
 Collecting duct— Condition reabsorption happens in the collecting
duct because, water reabsorbed in the presence of Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), and sodium reabsorbed in the presence of
Aldosterone.
3. Tubular secretion— Tubular excretion is the process by which the
substances are transported from blood into renal tubules. It is also called
renal excretion. Site of secretion-
 Potassium is secrete actively by sodium-potassium pump in proximal
and distal convoluted tubules, and collecting ducts.
 Ammonia is secreted in the proximal convoluted tubule.
 Hydrogen ions are secreted in the proximal and distal convoluted
tubules. Maximum hydrogen ion secretion occurs in proximal tubule.
 Urea is secreted in the loop of Henle.
STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON
PARTS OF NEPHRON

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Renin - angiotensin system.

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus— it is specialised modification situated near the
glomerulus of each nephron. It is formed by the three different structures.
 Macula densa.
 Extraglomerular Mesangial cells
 Juxtaglomerular cells (Secrete renin).
Renin-angiotensin system—
Clearance tests and micturition.
Micturition
Micturition is the process by which urine is eliminated from the urinary
bladder. It is a reflex process.
 Urinary bladder— It is the triangular hollow organ, in which ureters
open. It is formed by smooth muscles called detrusor muscle and it
open into urethra via internal urethral sphincter.
 Urethra— Urethral structure and function different in the male and
female. In both, two urethral sphincters present in urinary tract.
 Internal urethral sphincter.
 External urethral sphincter.
 Urinary bladder and the internal urethral sphincter are supplied by
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of autonomic nervous
(Pelvic nerve) system. The external sphincter is supplied by somatic
nerves fibres (pudendal nerve).

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ECF-Extracellular fluid., ACE-Angiotensin-converting enzyme, GFR-Glomerular

filtration rate, ADH-Antidiuretic hormone, CRH-Corticotropin-releasing
hormone, ACTH-Adrenocorticotropic hormone.
Micturition reflex—
 Micturition reflex initiated by the
stimulation of stretch receptors situated
on the wall of urinary bladder and
urethra. When about 300 to 400 ml of
urine is collected in the urinary bladder.
 Then sensory impulses reach to spinal
cord through the sensory fibres of pelvic
nerve and motor impulse produce in the
bladder and internal urethral sphincter.
 Motor impulse cause the contraction in
detrusor muscle and relaxation in
internal sphincter so that, urine enters
the urethra from the urinary bladder.
 Once urine enters in urethra, then
urethral stretch receptors sense the
change and send sensory impulse to
spinal cord via pelvic nerve.
 Now the impulses generated from spinal centres inhibit pudendal nerve.
 So, the external sphincter relaxes and micturition occurs.
 During micturition, the flow of urine is facilitated by the increase in the
abdominal pressure due to the voluntary contraction of abdominal
muscle.

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Clearance test/Renal function test.

Properties of urine—
 Volume— 1-1.5 L/day.
 Reaction— Slightly acidic with PH 4.5-6.
 Specific gravity—1.010 to 1.025.
 Osmolarity— 1200 mOsm/L.
Examination of urine.
Routine examination of urine or urinalysis is a group of diagnostic tests
performed on the sample of urine.
1. Physical examination.
2. Microscopic examination.
3. Chemical examination.
Physical examination—
 Colour— Abnormal colouration of urine than straw colour is due to
several causes such as Jaundice, haematuria, haemoglobinuria.
 Appearance— Turbidity appears in both the physiological and
pathological conditions.
 Volume— Increase in urine volume indicates increase in protein
catabolism and renal disorders such as chronic renal failure, diabetes
insipidus and glycosuria.
 Specific gravity— It is low in diabetes insipidus, and high in diabetes
mellitus, acute renal failure and excess medication.
 PH— PH is useful in determining the metabolic or respiratory acidocis or
alkalosis.
Microscopic examination—
 Red blood cells— presence of red blood cells in urine indicates
glomerular disease such as glomerulonephritis.
 White blood cells— Number increase in acute glomerulonephritis,
infection of urinary tract, vagina or cervix.

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 Crystals— Abnormal crystals such as crystals of cystine and tyrosine

appear in liver diseases.
 Bacteria— Bacterial growth appears during the infections conditions.
Chemical examination—
 Glucose— Normal- 180 mg/dL
 Protein— Normal- 30 mg/day
 Ketone bodies—
 Urobilinogen— 1 to 3.5 mg/daily
 Bile salts, bilirubin, blood.
Plasma clearance—
 It is defined as the amount of plasma that is cleared off a substance in a
given unit of time. It is also known as renal clearance. It is based on Fick
principle.
C = UV/P
Where, C= clearance, U= concentration of substance in urine, V=
volume of urine flow, P= concentration of substance in plasma.

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Chapter-14
Endocrine system
Endocrine system (Hormones and their functions)

● Pituitary gland
● Adrenal gland
● Thyroid and parathyroid gland
● Pancreas and gonads
By Noteskarts.com

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Endocrine system
Introduction—Endocrine system is defined as the complex glandular
structure (cell modification or aggregation) which secrete the hormones and
neurotransmitter in the body and regulate the body physiology and major
participate in the defensive mechanism of the body.
Major endocrine gland

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Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers

and are produced in trace amounts. Most hormones enter interstitial fluid and
then the bloodstream. In endocrine system we have discussed about two types
of glands.
1. Exocrine glands—Exocrine glands secrete their products (enzymes) into
ducts, that carry the secretions into body cavities, into the lumen of an
organ, or to the outer surface of the body. Exocrine glands include
sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, and digestive glands
2. Endocrine gland—Endocrine glands secrete their products (Hormone)
into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells rather than into
ducts, so it is also called as ductless glands. From the interstitial fluid,
hormones diffuse into blood capillaries and blood carries them to target
cells throughout the body. It is depending upon the heart for distribution
of products.
Functions and Importance of Hormones—

Pituitary gland.
Introduction—Pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small endocrine gland located
in a depression called ‘sella turcica’ present in the sphenoid bone at the base
of skull. It is connected with the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk or
hypophyseal stalk. Pituitary gland is divided into two divisions.
1.Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis— It secretes many hormones and
regulates the other endocrine gland’s function, so it is also known as master
gland. Adenohypophysis consists of two portions, pars distalis and pars
intermedia. The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly called anterior
pituitary, produces.
 Growth/somatotropic hormone (GH/STH)— GH is responsible for the
general growth of the body. Over-secretion of GH stimulates abnormal
growth of the body leading to gigantism and low secretion of GH results
in stunted growth resulting in pituitary dwarfism.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)— TSH stimulates the synthesis and
secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.

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 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)— ACTH stimulates the synthesis

and secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from the
adrenal cortex
 Prolactin (PRL)— Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands
and formation of milk in them.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)— LH
and FSH stimulate gonadal activity and hence are called gonadotrophins.
In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones called
androgens from testis. In males, FSH and androgens regulate
spermatogenesis. In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature
follicles (graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum, formed
from the remnants of the graafian follicles after ovulation. FSH
stimulates growth and development of the ovarian follicles in females.
NOTE—Pars intermedia secretes the only one hormone melanocyte
stimulating hormone (MSH). MSH acts on the melanocytes (melanin containing
cells) and regulates pigmentation of the skin.
2.Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis— Also known as pars nervosa and it
release two hormone-
 Oxytocin— Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and
stimulates their contraction. In females, it stimulates a vigorous
contraction of uterus at the time of child birth, and milk ejection from
the mammary gland.
 Vasopressin— Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney and resorption of
water and electrolytes by the distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of
water through urine (diuresis). Hence, it is also called as anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH).
NOTE— Hypothalamus release the both type (stimulating as well as inhibitory)
Hormone through the portal circulatory system and regulate the functions of
Pituitary gland, so it called as master of master gland.

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a. Adrenal gland above kidney

Pituitary gland and
Hypothalamus relation b. sectional part of adrenal gland.
Adrenal gland.
Introduction— Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior
part of each kidney. The gland is composed of two types of tissues. The
centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, and outside this lies the
adrenal cortex.
Adrenal medulla— Adrenal medullary hormones are the amines derived from
catechol and so these hormones are called catecholamines.
1. Adrenaline or epinephrine.
2. Noradrenaline or norepinephrine.
3. Dopamine.
 Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly secreted in response to stress
of any kind and during emergency situations and are called emergency
hormones or hormones of Fight or Flight.

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 These hormones increase alertness, pupillary dilation, piloerection

(raising of hairs), sweating etc. Both the hormones increase the
heartbeat, the strength of heart contraction and the rate of respiration.
 Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an
increased concentration of glucose in blood. In addition, they also
stimulate the breakdown of lipids and proteins.
Adrenal cortex—The adrenal cortex can be divided into three layers, called
zona reticularis (inner layer), zona fasciculata (middle layer) and zona
glomerulosa (outer layer). The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones,
commonly called as corticoids.
 The corticoids, which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism are
called glucocorticoids. In our body, cortisol is the main glucocorticoid.
 Corticoids, which regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in our
body are called mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone is the main
mineralocorticoid in our body.
 Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and stimulates the
reabsorption of Na+ and water and excretion of K+ and phosphate ions.
Thus, aldosterone helps in the maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid
volume, osmotic pressure and blood pressure.
Applied physiology.
Pheochromocytoma— It as a condition characterized by hypersecretion of
catecholamines.
Thyroid gland
Introduction—Thyroid gland situated at the roof of the neck on either side of
the trachea. It has two lobes and both the lobes are interconnected with a thin
flap of connective tissue called isthmus.
The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues. Each thyroid
follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity. These follicular cells
synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3). In between the follicles, the parafollicular cells are
present. These cells secrete calcitonin. Iodine is essential for the normal rate of
hormone synthesis in the thyroid.

Noteskarts
Stages of synthesis of thyroid hormones— five stages.

 Thyroglobulin synthesis.
 Iodide trapping.
 Oxidation of iodide.
 Transport of iodine into follicular cavity.
 Iodination of tyrosine.
 Coupling reactions.
Functions of thyroid hormone.
 Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal
metabolic rate.
 It also supports the process of red blood cell formation.
 Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats.
 Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by
thyroid hormones.
 Thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin
(TCT) which regulates the blood calcium levels.
Disorder related to thyroid gland.
 Hyperthyroidism— Increased secretion of thyroid hormone is called
hyperthyroidism. It is caused by- Graves’ disease, Thyroid adenoma.
 Hypothyroidism— decreased secretion of thyroid hormone is called
hypothyroidism. It leads to myxoedema in adults and cretinism in
children.
 Goitre— Goitre means enlargement of thyroid gland. It occurs both in
hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.
 Goitre in hyperthyroidism— Also called as toxic goitre. It is the
enlargement of thyroid gland with increased secretion of thyroid
hormone, caused of thyroid tumor.
 Goitre in hypothyroidism— Also known as non-toxic
goitre/hypothyroid goitre. It is the enlargement of thyroid gland
without increase in hormone secretion

Noteskarts
Parathyroid gland.
Introduction— In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the back
side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland.
Each parathyroid gland is made up of chief cells, which secrete a peptide
hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH)/parathormone. The secretion of
PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions.
Functions of parathyroid hormone.
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca2+ levels in the blood.
 PTH acts on bones and stimulates the process of bone resorption
(dissolution/ demineralisation).
 PTH also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal tubules and
increases Ca2+ absorption from the digested food.
 It is, thus, clear that PTH is a hypercalcaemic hormone, i.e., it increases
the blood Ca2+ levels.
NOTE—Both PTH and TCT plays a significant role in calcium balance in the
body.
Disorder related to parathyroid gland.
 Hypoparathyroidism— less secretion of PTH is called
hypoparathyroidism. It leads to hypocalcaemia (decrease in blood
calcium level)
 Hyperparathyroidism— Hyper secretion of PTH is called
hyperparathyroidism. It leads in hypercalcemia (Increase in blood
calcium level).

Noteskarts
Pancreas.
Introduction— Pancreas is a composite gland which acts as both exocrine and
endocrine gland. The endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of Langerhans’.
There are about 1 to 2 million Islets of Langerhans in a normal human pancreas
representing only 1 to 2 per cent of the pancreatic tissue. The two main types
of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called α-cells and β-cells. The α-cells
secrete a hormone called glucagon, while the β-cells secrete insulin.
1. Glucagon.
 Glucagon is a peptide hormone, and plays an important role in
maintaining the normal blood glucose
Thyroid gland levels. Parathyroid gland
 Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells (hepatocytes) and
stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar
(hyperglycaemia).
 Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose uptake and utilisation. Thus,
glucagon is a hyperglycaemic hormone.
2. Insulin.
 Insulin is a peptide hormone, which plays a major role in the
regulation of glucose homeostasis. Insulin acts mainly on
hepatocytes and adipocytes and enhances cellular glucose uptake
and utilisation. As a result, there is a rapid movement of glucose
from blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes resulting in decreased
blood glucose levels (hypoglycaemia).
 Insulin also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen
(glycogenesis) in the target cells. The glucose homeostasis in
blood is thus maintained jointly by the two – insulin and glucagon.
NOTE— Prolonged hyperglycaemia leads to a complex disorder called

diabetes mellitus which is associated with loss of glucose through urine and
formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies. Diabetic patients
are successfully treated with insulin therapy.
Gonads.
In gonads we discuss about both testis and ovary.

Noteskarts
1. Testis— It performs dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as an

endocrine gland. Testis is composed of seminiferous tubules and stromal
or interstitial tissue. The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are
present in the intratubular spaces produce a group of hormones called
androgens mainly testosterone
Function of androgens.
 Androgens regulate the development, maturation and functions of the
male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
 These hormones stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary
hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
 Androgens play a major stimulatory role in the process of
spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa). Androgens act on the
central neural system and influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
 These hormones produce anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and
carbohydrate metabolism.
2. Ovary— Ovary is the primary female sex organ which produces one
ovum during each menstrual cycle. In addition, ovary also produces two
groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone. Ovary is
composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues. The estrogen is
synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing ovarian follicles. After
ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a structure called corpus
luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone.
Functions of estrogen.
 Estrogen produces wide ranging actions such as stimulation of
growth and activities of female secondary sex organs, development
of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of female secondary sex
characters (e.g., high pitch of voice, etc.), mammary gland
development.
 Estrogen also regulates female sexual behaviour
Function of progesterone
 Progesterone supports pregnancy. Progesterone also acts on the
mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like
structures which store milk) and milk secretion.

Noteskarts
Chapter-15
Human Anatomy and
Physiology
Reproductive system
 Anatomy of male and female reproductive system
 Physiology of menstruation
 Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
 Pregnancy and parturition

Noteskarts
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproductive system is one among the differs system in all, which maintains the
continuation of the generation. In these primary and secondary organs are
considered which are responsible for the gamete’s production/transformation
and transportation towards particular place where fertilisation and implantation
occurs.
Gonads are the primary reproductive organs which produce the gametes (egg or
ovum), a pair of testes produces sperms in male and a pair of ovaries produces
ovum in females.
Anatomy of Male Reproductive system.
Reproductive organ includes
1. Primary sex organs— Testes
are the primary sex organs or
gonads in males.
2. Accessory sex organs.
 Seminal vesicles.
 Prostate gland.
 Urethra.
 Penis.
Also classified as
 External genitalia— Scrotum,
penis, and urethra.
 Internal genitalia— Testis, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle,
ejaculatory duct, prostate, Cowper’s gland.
Testes are ovoid or walnut shaped bodies that are located and suspended in a
sac-like structure called scrotum. Testis is enclosed by the three layers
 Tunica vasculosa— Innermost covering made up of connective tissue and
it is rich in blood vessels.
 Tunica albuginea— It is the middle covering. It is a dense fibrous
capsule.
 Tunica vaginalis— outermost covering formed by mesothelial cells. It is
formed by the visceral and parietal layers, which allow the free
movement of the testes.

Noteskarts
NOTE— Anterior and lateral surfaces of testis are covered by all the three
layers. Posterior surface is covered by tunica albuginea only.
Structure present in the testes— Each testis has about 200 to 300 lobules.
 Seminiferous tubules— there are about 400 to 600 seminiferous tubules in
each testis. Its wall is formed by three layers.
a. Outer capsule or tunica propria.
b. Homogeneous basement membrane.
c. Complex stratified epithelium— it consists of two types of cells.
1. Spermatogenic cells or germ cells— It presents in the seminiferous
tubules are the precursor cells of spermatozoa. These cells lie
between the Sertoli cells.
2. Sertoli cells or supporting cells or nurse cells or sustentacular
cells— it provides support, protection, and nourishment for the
spermatogenic cells.
 Interstitial cells of Leydig

 Rete testis
 Vas efferens
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens

 Pathway for the passage of
sperms—
Seminiferous tubules→ rete testis→ vas efferens→ epididymis→ vas
deferens→ ampulla→ ejaculatory duct→ urethra.
Spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenesis is the process through which spermatogenic/germ cell
undergo the development and transformation and form the spermatozoa or
sperms cell in the testis. It takes 74 days for the formation of sperm from a
primitive germ cell. Spermatogenesis occurs in four stages-
1. Stage of proliferation.
2. Stage of growth.
3. Stage of maturation.
4. Stage of transformation.

Noteskarts
1. Stage of proliferation— Each spermatogonium contains diploid number

(23 pairs) of chromosomes, In which 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes
and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are one X
chromosome and one Y chromosome. In this stage spermatogonia divides
by mitosis and increase their number without any change in the
chromosomal number which is called as primary spermatocyte.
2. Stage of growth— In this stage, the primary spermatocyte grows into a

large cell. Apart from growth, there is no change in spermatocyte during
this stage.
3. Stage of maturation— after completion of full growth cell undergoes

meiotic or maturation division. It occurs into two phases.
 First phase—During this phase primary spermatocyte divides into
two secondary spermatocytes through meiotic division in that each
secondary spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the
number of chromosomes. 23 chromosomes include 22 autosomes
and a X or a Y chromosome.
 Second phase— During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte
undergoes second meiotic division, resulting in two smaller cells
called spermatids. Each spermatid has haploid number of
chromosomes.
4. Stage of transformation— In this stage no further division occurs, and

spermatids get transformed into mature spermatozoa this transformation
process is known as spermiogenesis. Finally mature spermatozoa released
from Sertoli cell into the lumen of seminiferous tubule and this process is
known as spermination.

Noteskarts
Spermatogenesis stages
Anatomy of Female Reproductive system.

Female reproductive system also comprises of primary sex organs and
accessory sex organs
1. Primary sex organs— Primary sex organs are a pair of ovaries, which
produce eggs or ova and secrete female sex hormones, the estrogen and
progesterone.
2. Secondary/accessory sex organs— It helps to carrying the ova and
fertilisation.
1. Fallopian tubes.
2. Uterus.
3. Cervix.

Noteskarts
4. Vagina (labia majora, labia minora and clitoris).

Mammary glands are not the female genital organs but are the important
glands of female reproductive system, which secretes the hormones and provide
the nourishment to growing baby after birth.
1. Fallopian tubes— Fallopian tube divided into four parts.
 Isthmus— It communicate the uterus.
 Ampulla— A lumen/space where commonly fertilisation takes place
 Infundibulum— fimbriated part communicate
 Fimbriae—It catch the ovum from the abdominal cavity during the
ovulation.
2. Uterus/womb— It is pyriform in shaped and dimension about 7.5 cm in
length, 5 cm in breadth, and 2.5 cm in thickness. It is divided into three
portions fundus, body, cervix. Uterus is made up of three layers.
 Serous or outer layer
 Myometrium or middle muscular layer
 Endometrium or inner mucus layer.
3. Cervix— It is the lower constricted part of uterus. It has two orifices.
 Internal orifice/supravaginal portion— which communicates with
body of uterus.
 External orifice/lower vaginal portion— which communicates with
vagina.
4. Vagina— Vagina is a short tubular organ. It is lined by mucus membrane,
which is formed by stratified epithelial cells. Vagina includes-
 labia majora.
 labia minora.
 clitoris.
OVARY
Ovary is the gonad or primary sex organs in females. A woman has two ovaries.
Ovaries is responsible for the production and development for the female
gamete (reproductive cell). It also acts as endocrine function in female by
releasing the female hormones. It is oval in shape and attached at hilum by the
ovarian ligament and mesovarium ligament. Each ovary has two portions-
 Medulla— it is the deeper portion of the ovary. It has the stroma of loose
connective tissues, blood vessels, lymphatics, nerve fibres etc.

Noteskarts
 Cortex— it is the outer broader portion and has compact cellular layers.
Cortex consists of the following structures
1. Glandular structures, which represent ovarian follicles at different stages
2. Connective tissue cells
3. Interstitial cells, which are clusters of epithelial cells with fine lipid
granules formed mainly from theca interna.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Noteskarts
Oogenesis.
Oogenesis is the process through which the female gametes going to develops
and transform into ovum. It happens into many stages.
Development of ovum and Graafian follicle
Stages of Oogenesis

Noteskarts
Physiology of menstruation.
Menstrual cycle is defined as the natural cyclic changes occurs in the female life
during the reproductive period. Menstrual cycle starts after the puberty called
menarche (at the age of 12 to 15 years it varies individual to individual).
Menstrual cycle stops/ceases in old age called menopause (at the age 45 to 50
years it also varies individual to individual). Menstrual cycle is usually 28 days
but it varies between 20 to 40 days under the physiological conditions. Four
types of physiological changes happen during the menstrual cycle—
 Ovarian changes.
 Uterine changes.
 Vaginal changes.
 Changes in cervix.
1. Ovarian changes— It occurs into two phases-
A. Follicular phase— it is also known as maturation phase. It extends from
the 5th day of the cycle until the time of ovulation. In this phase gamete
cell going to development and transformation into ovarian
follicle/glandular structure. Follicle development further divide into four
stages.
I. Primordial follicle— At the time of puberty, both ovaries contain
about 400,000 primordial follicles, which is incompletely
surrounded by the granulosa cells. At the onset of puberty, under
the influence of FSH and LH the primordial follicles starts
growing through various stages.
II. Primary follicle— Primordial follicle becomes the primary
follicle, when ovum is completely surrounded by the granulosa
cells. During this stage both follicle and ovum increase their size.
III. Vesicular follicle— Under the influence of FSH, about 6 to 12
primary follicles start growing and develops into vesicular
follicles. In this stage a follicular cavity or antrum is formed in
these liquor folliculi serous fluid is present.
 Ovum is pushed to one side and it is surrounded by
granulosa cells, which forms the germ hill or cumulus
oophorus. Further these cells become columnar and form
corona radiata.
 A narrow cleft appears between ovum and zona pellucida
called perivitelline space.
 Follicular sheath/theca folliculi/capsule is formed and it
divided into two layers - theca interna and theca externa.

Noteskarts
 Theca interna is the inner vascular layer with loose

connective tissue and secrete the female sex hormones
(mainly estrogen and less amount of progesterone).
IV. Matured follicle or Graafian follicle (A Dutch physician and
anatomist, Regnier De Graaf)— After about 7th day of menstrual
cycle, one of the vesicular follicles outgrowths and develops into
Graafian follicle and follicles degenerate by means of apoptosis. In
this stage ovum attain maximum size and zona pellucida, corona
radiata, theca interna becomes thicker and more prominent.
Ovulation— On the 14th day of menstrual cycle Graafian follicle ruptures and
discharge the ovum. It is influenced by the LH
B. Luteal Phase— luteal phase extends between 15th to 28th day of
menstrual cycle. During this stage, corpus luteum is developed and hence
this phase is called luteal phase.
2. Uterine changes—Uterine changes occurs in three phases
 Menstrual phase/period— After ovulation, if pregnancy does not occur
then thick endometrium going to shed or destruction and expelled out
through the vagina along with blood and tissue fluid this process is
called menstruation or menstrual bleeding. During normal
menstruation 35ml of blood and 35ml of serous fluid is expelled and it
lasts for about 4 to 7 days. The day when bleeding starts is
considered as the first day of the menstrual cycle.
 Proliferative phase— Proliferative phase extends usually from 5th to
14th day of menstruation that is between the day when menstruation
stops and the day of ovulation. It corresponds to the follicular phase of
ovarian cycle.
 Secretory phase— It extends between 15th to 28th day of the cycle that
is between the day of ovulation and the day when menstruation of next
cycle commences. After ovulation, corpus luteum is developed in the
ovary. It secrets the large quantity of progesterone (responsible for
enlargement of endometrial stroma and growth of glands) and small
amount of estrogen (responsible for proliferation of cells in uterus so
that endometrium become thicker).
3. Vaginal changes—During proliferative phase, mucus membrane thinner and
more alkaline due to influence of estrogen and helps in the survival and
motility of spermatozoa.
 During secretory phase mucus membrane thicker and more adhesive
due to the action of progesterone.

Noteskarts
4. Change in cervix— During proliferative phase, epithelial cells of vagina are

cornified due to influence of estrogen
 During secretory phase epithelium of vagina proliferates due to action
of progesterone.
Regulation of menstrual cycle—
Regulation of menstrual cycle is a complex process that is carried out by a well
organised hormonal system. Hormone involved in the regulation of menstrual
cycle are-
 Hypothalamic hormone (GnRH).
 Anterior pituitary hormone (FSH and LH).
Change in Endometrium
 Ovarian hormone (Estrogen and Progesterone).
Phases of Menstrual cycle.

Noteskarts
Pregnancy and parturition

Pregnancy is the developmental stage of embryo or foetus in the uterine
cavity after fertilisation in the female body. After the fertilisation, fertilised egg
implanted in the lining of the uterus and develops into placenta and embryo or
foetus.
NOTE- Ectopic pregnancy is one in which the fertilised egg implants in the
tissue outside of the uterus and the placenta and foetus begins to develop there.
Changes occurs during pregnancy—
 During the pregnancy ovulation or ovarian changes does not occurs.
Corpus luteum enlarges and secretes a large quantity of progesterone
and little estrogen, which are essential for maintaining the pregnancy (up
to 3 month).
 During three-month, endometrium becomes more thicker and going to
develops into placental connection. Placenta develops by the
trophoblastic cell of the morula (Foetal part) and decidua area of uterus
(Maternal part). After three month fully developed placenta form and
secretes the female hormone.
 During the pregnancy, due to influenced of the hormone uterus, vagina,
cervix, fallopian tube undergoes changes in the volume, size, glandular
nature etc.
 Size of the mammary glands increase because of development of new
ducts and alveoli, deposition of fat and increase vascularization.
Pigmentation of nipple and areola occurs.
Foetal growth during Pregnancy—
 12 weeks.
 Finger and toes are distinct.
 Placenta is complete.
 Foetal circulation is complete.
 Organ system are complete.
 16 weeks.
 Sex is differentiated.
 Heart beat is present.
 Nasal septum and palate close.
 Rudimentary kidneys secrete urine.
 20 weeks.
 Lanugo covers entire body.

Noteskarts
 Foetal movement felt by the mother.

 24 weeks.
 Skin appears wrinkled.
 Eyebrow and fingernails develop.
 28 weeks.
 Skin appears red colour
 Pupillary membrane disappears from eyes.
 The foetus has an excellent chance of survival.
 Eyes open and close.
 32 weeks.
 Eyelids open.
 Fingerprint are set.
 Vigorous foetal movement occurs.
 36 weeks.
 Lanugo disappears.
 Amniotic fluid decrease.
 40 weeks.
 Skin is smooth.
 Eyes are uniformly slate coloured.
 Bones of skull are ossified and nearly together at sutures.
Gestation period— It refers to the pregnancy period. In human female average
gestation period is about 280 days or 40 weeks from the last menstrual period
(LMP).
Pregnancy test— Test is used to detect or confirm pregnancy. The basis of
pregnancy tests is to determine the presence of the Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (HCG) in the urine of suspected woman.
Procedure.
 One drop of HCG antiserum is taken on a glass slide. One drop of urine
from the suspected woman is added and mix well.
 Now, one drop of latex particles is added to this and mixed.
 Finally observing the agglutination of latex particle added to mixer of
HCG antiserum and women urine. If agglutination occurs then pregnancy
negative otherwise pregnancy positive.
 Now a day, pregnancy card or strips are available in the market for
detecting the pregnancy.

Noteskarts
Parturition is the expulsion or delivery of the foetus from the mother body. It
occurs at the end of pregnancy (after 9 month). The process by which the
delivery of foetus occur is called labor. It involves various activities such as
contraction of uterus dilation of cervix and opening of vaginal canal. Parturition
occurs in three stages.
 First stage— Initially strong uterine contraction called labor contractions
commence. It arises from fundus and move downwards so that the head
of foetus is pushed against cervix and results in dilation of cervix and
opening of vaginal canal.
 Second stage—In this stage, foetus is delivered out from uterus through
cervix and vaginal canal. This stage lasts for about 1 hour.
 Third stage— during this stage, the placenta is detached from the decidua
and is expelled out from uterus. It occurs within 10 to 15 minutes after
the delivery of the child.
Hormones involved in the process of parturition.
Maternal Hormones
Foetal Hormones. Placental Hormones
 Oxytocin
 Prostaglandins  Oxytocin.  Estrogen
 Cortisol  Cortisol.  Progesterone
 Catecholamine  Prostaglandins  prostaglandins
 Relaxin

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NOTESKARTS

Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Definition of

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

(1) Cell physiology:

Different plane in Anatomy—

Electron Microscopic Structure of Cell

1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without

Cell Junction & Transport across Cell Membrane

Type of Cell Junction

Regulation of Gap Junction communication

Transportation through cell membrane-

2. M Phase / Mitosis Phase

Inter Phase  Cell is metabolically active

 Also called synthesis phase because DNA synthesis or

Inter Phase  Mitosis preparation phase.

M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)

M.Phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement)

M.Phase of this division divided into two parts

Meiosis-I :- further divided into four parts.

It this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the

Cytokinesis occur at the end & form the two cells.

Only germ cell Daughter cell

General principle of Cell communication

Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect)

Attach to the cell membrane receptors

Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor

Activate the Gene

Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis)

Ion-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors

Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific)

Then receptors are activated (Conformational change)

Then signal molecule bind with the receptor

Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus

Signal molecule bind to the receptor

To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein

Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs

Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give

Initially two receptor domain are separated to each other

When signal molecule comes to contact then it form dimer

And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes)

Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response

Forms of intracellular signaling

There are four basic types of signaling found in the organisms.

(4)Direct contact signaling.

1. Paracrine signaling— In this signaling , cell are cordinated with the

• The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different

• Example - Nerve and muscle signaling.

• Example - Growth factors.

3. Endocrine signaling— Hormone is required for this signaling. Hormones are

Group of Tissues which perform the special function is known as organ.

Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function

 Study of tissue is called Histology.

It is developed by three primary germinal layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)

Epithelial tissue classified into two types.

Classification of Simple Epithelial tissue

Simple Epithelial Tissue:

Fig: Squamous Epithelium

Fig: Cuboidal Epithelium

Fig: Ciliated Epithelium

Fig: Transitional Epithelium