UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT, KOLKATA

OF ENGINEERING &
Course Name : Object Oriented Programming using java
MANAGEMENT, KOLKATA
 A brief history of Java
– "Java, whose original name was Oak, was developed as a part of the Green
project at Sun. It was started in December '90 by Patrick Naughton, Mike
Sheridan and James Gosling and was chartered to spend time trying to figure
out what would be the "next wave" of computing and how we might catch it.
They came to the conclusion that at least one of the waves was going to be the
convergence of digitally controlled consumer devices and computers. “

 Applets and Applications

– "The team returned to work up a Java technology-based clone of Mosaic they
named "WebRunner" (after the movie Blade Runner), later to become
officially known as the HotJavaTM browser. It was 1994. WebRunner was just
a demo, but an impressive one: It brought to life, for the first time, animated,
moving objects and dynamic executable content inside a Web browser. That
had never been done. [At the TED conference.]"

Java Basics 2
What is Java?

Java is a programming language and a platform.

Java is a high level, robust, object-oriented and secure programming language.

Platform: Any hardware or software environment in which a program runs, is known as a

platform. Since Java has a runtime environment (JRE) and API, it is called a platform.

Java Example
Let's have a quick look at Java programming example. A detailed description of hello Java
example is available in next page.

class Simple{

public static void main(String args[]){

System.out.println("Hello Java");

}
3
}
 Application

According to Sun, 3 billion devices run Java. There are many devices where Java is currently
used. Some of them are as follows:

Desktop Applications such as acrobat reader, media player, antivirus, etc.

Web Applications such as irctc.co.in, javatpoint.com, etc.

Enterprise Applications such as banking applications.

Mobile

Embedded System

Smart Card

Robotics

Games, etc.

Types of Java Applications

There are mainly 4 types of applications that can be created using Java programming:
4
 Application

1) Standalone Application

Standalone applications are also known as desktop applications or window-based applications. These are
traditional software that we need to install on every machine. Examples of standalone application are Media
player, antivirus, etc. AWT and Swing are used in Java for creating standalone applications.

2) Web Application

An application that runs on the server side and creates a dynamic page is called a web application.
Currently, Servlet, JSP, Struts, Spring, Hibernate, JSF, etc. technologies are used for creating web
applications in Java.

3) Enterprise Application

An application that is distributed in nature, such as banking applications, etc. is called enterprise application.
It has advantages of the high-level security, load balancing, and clustering. In Java, EJB is used for creating
enterprise applications.

4) Mobile Application

An application which is created for mobile devices is called a mobile application. Currently, Android and
Java ME are used for creating mobile applications.

5
 Application

Object-oriented

Java is an object-oriented programming language. Everything in Java is an object. Object-oriented means we

organize our software as a combination of different types of objects that incorporates both data and behavior.

Object-oriented programming (OOPs) is a methodology that simplifies software development and

maintenance by providing some rules.

Basic concepts of OOPs are:

Object

Class

Inheritance

Polymorphism

Abstraction

Encapsulation

6
Java Basics 7
8
 Application
Platform Independent

Java is platform independent because it is different from other languages like C, C++, etc. which are
compiled into platform specific machines while Java is a write once, run anywhere language. A platform is
the hardware or software environment in which a program runs.

There are two types of platforms software-based and hardware-based. Java provides a software-based
platform.

The Java platform differs from most other platforms in the sense that it is a software-based platform that runs
on the top of other hardware-based platforms. It has two components:

Runtime Environment

API(Application Programming Interface)

Java code can be run on multiple platforms, for example, Windows, Linux, Sun Solaris, Mac/OS, etc. Java
code is compiled by the compiler and converted into bytecode. This bytecode is a platform-independent code
because it can be run on multiple platforms, i.e., Write Once and Run Anywhere(WORA).

Secured

Java is best known for its security. With Java, we can develop virus-free systems. Java is secured because:

9
Java Basics 10
The Java ClassLoader is a part of the Java Runtime Environment that dynamically loads Java classes into the Java Virtual
Machine. The Java run time system does not need to know about files and file systems because of classloaders.

Java classes aren’t loaded into memory all at once, but when required by an application. At this point, the Java
ClassLoader is called by the JRE and these ClassLoaders load classes into memory dynamically.

11
Java Basics 12
Java Basics 13
 Application
Creating Hello World Example

Let's create the hello java program:

1. class Simple{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. System.out.println("Hello Java");

4. }

5. }

save this file as Simple.java

To compile:

javac Simple.java

To execute:

java Simple

Output:Hello Java
14
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
We must understand the differences between JDK, JRE, and JVM before proceeding further to Java. See the
brief overview of JVM here.

If you want to get the detailed knowledge of Java Virtual Machine, move to the next page. Firstly, let's see
the differences between the JDK, JRE, and JVM.

JVM

JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine. It is called a virtual machine because it doesn't
physically exist. It is a specification that provides a runtime environment in which Java bytecode can be
executed. It can also run those programs which are written in other languages and compiled to Java bytecode.

JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms. JVM, JRE, and JDK are platform dependent
because the configuration of each OS is different from each other. However, Java is platform independent.
There are three notions of the JVM: specification, implementation, and instance.

The JVM performs the following main tasks:

Loads code

Verifies code

Executes code

Provides runtime environment

15
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
JRE

JRE is an acronym for Java Runtime Environment. It is also written as Java RTE. The Java Runtime
Environment is a set of software tools which are used for developing Java applications. It is used to provide
the runtime environment. It is the implementation of JVM. It physically exists. It contains a set of libraries +
other files that JVM uses at runtime.

The implementation of JVM is also actively released by other companies besides Sun Micro Systems.
JDK

JDK is an acronym for Java Development Kit. The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a software development
environment which is used to develop Java applications and applets. It physically exists. It contains JRE +
development tools.

JDK is an implementation of any one of the below given Java Platforms released by Oracle Corporation:

Standard Edition Java Platform

Enterprise Edition Java Platform

Micro Edition Java Platform

The JDK contains a private Java Virtual Machine (JVM) and a few other resources such as an
interpreter/loader (java), a compiler (javac), an archiver (jar), a documentation generator (Javadoc), etc. to
complete the development of a Java Application.

16
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
Example to understand the types of variables in java

class A{

int data=50;//instance variable

static int m=100;//static variable

void method(){

int n=90;//local variable

}//end of class

17
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
Java Variable Example: Add Two Numbers

class Simple{

public static void main(String[] args){

int a=10;

int b=10;

int c=a+b;

System.out.println(c);

}}

Output:

20

18
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
Java Variable Example: Widening

class Simple{

public static void main(String[] args){

int a=10;

float f=a;

System.out.println(a);

System.out.println(f);

}}

Output:

1010.0

19
 Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM
Java Variable Example: Narrowing (Typecasting)

class Simple{

public static void main(String[] args){

float f=10.5f;

//int a=f;

//Compile time error

int a=(int)f;

System.out.println(f);

System.out.println(a);

Output:

10.510

20
 Java Type Casting

Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.
In Java, there are two types of casting:
Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size
byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type

double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

21
 How Java Works
 Java's platform independence is achieved by the use of the Java Virtual Machine
 A Java program consists of one or more files with a .java extension
– these are plain old text files
 When a Java program is compiled the .java files are fed to a compiler which produces a
.class file for each .java file
 The .class file contains Java bytecode.
 Bytecode is like machine language, but it is intended for the Java Virtual Machine not a
specific chip such as a Pentium or PowerPC chip

Java Basics 22
 More on How Java Works
 To run a Java program the bytecode in a .class file is fed to an interpreter which converts
the byte code to machine code for a specific chip (IA-32, PowerPC)
 Some people refer to the interpreter as "The Java Virtual Machine" (JVM)
 The interpreter is platform specific because it takes the platform independent bytecode
and produces machine language instructions for a particular chip
 So a Java program could be run an any type of computer that has a JVM written for it.
– PC, Mac, Unix, Linux, BeaOS, Sparc

Java Basics 23
 A Picture is Worth…
The output of the
compiler is .class
file

The Interpreter's are sometimes referred to as the Java Virtual

Machines
Java Basics 24
 So What!
The platform independence of Java may be a huge
marketing tool, but is actually of little use to people
learning Object Oriented Programming and Abstract
Data Types
What is of use is the simplicity of the Java syntax and
programming concepts
Java is a "pure" Object Oriented Language
– encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism
– all code must be contained in a class
– no free functions (functions that do not belong to some class)
like C++, although someone who wants to write messy Java
code certainly can
– Is OO the best programming paradigm?

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Computer Science
 HelloWorld.java
/**
* A simple program
*/

public class HelloWorld

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("HELLO CS307!");
}
}
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 26
Computer Science
 More on Java Programs
All code part of some class
public class Foo
{ //start of class Foo
/*all code in here!*/
} // end of class Foo
The code for class Foo will be in a file named
Foo.java
– just a text file with the .java extension
– a class is a programmer defined data type
A complete program will normally consist of
many different classes and thus many different
files
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 27
Computer Science
 Attendance Question 1
What does 6,967 * 7,793 equal?
A. 10,000
B. 23,756,201
C. 54,293,831
D. 2,147,483,647
E. - 2,147,483,648

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Computer Science
 Attendance Question 2
How many factors does 54,161,329 have?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 6
E. more than 6

Bonus question. What are they?

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Computer Science
 Example Problem
 Determine if a given integer is prime
– problem definition
– really naïve algorithm
– implementation
– testing
– a small improvement
– another improvement
– yet another improvement
– always another way ...
– what about really big numbers? (Discover AKS Primality Testing)

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Computer Science
 Error Types
 Syntax error / Compile errors
– caught at compile time.
– compiler did not understand or compiler does not allow
 Runtime error
– something “Bad” happens at runtime. Java breaks these into Errors and Exceptions
 Logic Error
– program compiles and runs, but does not do what you intended or want

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 Java Language
Review of Basic Features

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 Basic Features
Data Types
– primitives
– classes / objects
Expressions and operators
Control Structures
Arrays
Methods
Programming for correctness
– pre and post conditions
– assertions
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Computer Science
Java Data Types

Java Basics 34
 Data Types
Primitive Data Types
– byte short int long float double boolean char
//dataType identifier;
int x;
int y = 10;
int z, zz;
double a = 12.0;
boolean done = false, prime = true;
char mi = 'D';
– stick with int for integers, double for real numbers
Classes and Objects
– pre defined or user defined data types consisting of constructors,
methods, and fields (constants and fields (variables) which may be
primitives or objects.)
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Computer Science
 Java Primitive Data Types
Data Characteristics Range
Type
byte 8 bit signed integer -128 to 127

short 16 bit signed integer -32768 to 32767

int 32 bit signed integer -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

long 64 bit signed integer -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to-

9,223,372,036,854,775,807
float 32 bit floating point + 1.4E-45 to
number + 3.4028235E+38
double 64 bit floating point + 4.9E-324 to
number + 1.7976931348623157E+308
boolean true or false NA, note Java booleans cannot be
converted to or from other types
char 16 bit, Unicode Unicode character, \u0000 to \uFFFF
Can mix with integer types
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 36
Computer Science
 What are Classes and Objects?
 Class is synonymous with data type
 Object is like a variable
– The data type of the Object is some Class
– referred to as an instance of a Class
 Classes contain:
– the implementation details of the data type
– and the interface for programmers who just want to use the data type
 Objects are complex variables
– usually multiple pieces of internal data
– various behaviors carried out via methods

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Computer Science
 Creating and Using Objects
 Declaration - DataType identifier
Rectangle r1;
 Creation - new operator and specified constructor
r1 = new Rectangle();
Rectangle r2 = new Rectangle();
 Behavior - via the dot operator
r2.setSize(10, 20);
String s2 = r2.toString();
 Refer to documentation for available behaviors (methods)

Java Basics 38
 Built in Classes
Java has a large built in System
library of classes with lots Arrays
of useful methods Scanner
Ones you should become File
familiar with quickly
Object
String
Random
Math
Look at the Java API
Integer, Character, page
Double

Java Basics 39
 import
import is a reserved word
packages and classes can be imported to another
class
does not actually import the code (unlike the C++
include preprocessor command)
statement outside the class block
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.awt.Rectangle;
public class Foo{
// code for class Foo
}
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Computer Science
 More on import
can include a whole package
– import java.util.*;
or list a given class
– import java.util.Random;
instructs the compiler to look in the package for types it
can't find defined locally
the java.lang.* package is automatically imported to all
other classes.
Not required to import classes that are part of the same
project in Eclipse

Java Basics 41
 The String Class
String is a standard Java class
– a whole host of behaviors via methods
also special (because it used so much)
– String literals exist (no other class has literals)
String name = "Mike D.";
– String concatenation through the + operator
String firstName = "Mike";
String lastName = "Scott";
String wholeName = firstName + lastName;
– Any primitive or object on other side of + operator from
a String automatically converted to String
Java Basics 42
 Standard Output
To print to standard output use
System.out.print( expression ); // no newline
System.out.println( expression ); // newline
System.out.println( ); // just a newline

common idiom is to build up expression to be

printed out

System.out.println( "x is: " + x + " y is: " + y );

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Computer Science
 Constants
Literal constants - "the way you specify values that are
not computed and recomputed, but remain, well,
constant for the life of a program."
– true, false, null, 'c', "C++", 12, -12, 12.12345
Named constants
– use the keyword final to specify a constant
– scope may be local to a method or to a class
By convention any numerical constant besides -1, 0, 1,
or 2 requires a named constant
final int NUM_SECTIONS = 3;

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Computer Science
Expressions and Operators

Java Basics 45
 Operators
Basic Assignment: =
Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %(remainder)
– integer, floating point, and mixed arithmetic and
expressions
Assignment Operators: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
increment and decrement operators: ++, --
– prefix and postfix.
– avoid use inside expressions.
int x = 3;
x++;
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 46
Computer Science
 Expressions
Expressions are evaluated based on the
precedence of operators
Java will automatically convert numerical
primitive data types but results are sometimes
surprising
– take care when mixing integer and floating point
numbers in expressions
The meaning of an operator is determined by its
operands
/
is it integer division or floating point division?
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 47
Computer Science
 Casting
 Casting is the temporary conversion of a variable from its original
data type to some other data type.
– Like being cast for a part in a play or movie
 With primitive data types if a cast is necessary from a less
inclusive data type to a more inclusive data type it is done
automatically.
int x = 5;
double a = 3.5;
double b = a * x + a / x;
double c = x / 2;
 if a cast is necessary from a more inclusive to a less inclusive data
type the class must be done explicitly by the programmer
– failure to do so results in a compile error.
double a = 3.5, b = 2.7;
int y = (int) a / (int) b;
y = (int)( a / b );
y = (int) a / b; //syntax error

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Computer Science
 Primitive Casting Outer ring is most
inclusive data type.
double Inner ring is least
inclusive.
float
In expressions
long variables and
sub expressions
int of less inclusive
short, data types are
char automatically cast
From MORE to LESS to more inclusive.

byte If trying to place

expression that is
more inclusive into
variable that is less
inclusive, explicit cast
must be performed.
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 49
Computer Science
Java Control Structures

Java Basics 50
 Control Structures
linear flow of control
– statements executed in consecutive order
Decision making with if - else statements
if(boolean-expression)
statement;
if(boolean-expression)
{ statement1;
statement2;
statement3;
}
A single statement could be replaced by a statement
block, braces with 0 or more statements inside

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Computer Science
 Boolean Expressions
boolean expressions evaluate to true or false
Relational Operators: >, >=, <, <=, ==, !=
Logical Operators: &&, ||, !
– && and || cause short circuit evaluation
– if the first part of p && q is false then q is not
evaluated
– if the first part of p || q is true then q is not evaluated
//example
if( x <= X_LIMIT && y <= Y_LIMIT)
//do something

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Computer Science
 More Flow of Control
 if-else:
if(boolean-expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;
 multiway selection:
if(boolean-expression1)
statement1;
else if(boolean-expression2)
statement2;
else
statement3;
 individual statements could be replaced by a statement block, a set
of braces with 0 or more statements
 Java also has the switch statement, but not part of our subset

Java Basics 53
 for Loops
for loops
for(init-expr;boolean-expr;incr-expr)
statement;
init-expr and incr-expr can be more zero or more
expressions or statements separated by commas
statement could be replaced by a statement block
false
execute evaluate
init-expr boolean-expr skip to 1st statement after
body of loop
true
execute execute
body of loop incr-expr

Java Basics 54
 while loops
while loops
while(boolean-expression)
statement; //or statement block
do-while loop part of language
do
statement;
while(boolean-expression);
Again, could use a statement block
break, continue, and labeled breaks
– referred to in the Java tutorial as branching statements
– keywords to override normal loop logic
– use them judiciously (which means not much)

Java Basics 55
 Attendance Question 3
True or false: Strings are a primitive data type in
Java.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

56
 Attendance Question 4
What is output by the following Java code?
int x = 3;
double a = x / 2 + 3.5;
System.out.println(a);
A. a
B. 5
C. 4.5
D. 4
E. 5.0
Java Basics 57
Arrays

Java Basics 58
 Arrays in Java
 "Should array indices start at 0 or 1? My compromise of 0.5 was rejected
without, I thought, proper consideration. "
– S. Kelly-Bootle
 Java has built in arrays. a.k.a. native arrays
 arrays hold elements of the same type
– primitive data types or classes
– space for array must be dynamically allocated with new operator. (Size is
any integer expression. Due to dynamic allocation does not have to be
constant.)
public void arrayExamples()
{ int[] intList = new int[10];
for(int i = 0; i < intList.length; i++)
{ assert 0 >= i && i < intList.length;
intList[i] = i * i * i;
}
intList[3] = intList[4] * intList[3];
}
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Computer Science
 Array Details
all arrays must be dynamically allocated
arrays have a public, final field called length
– built in size field, no separate variable needed
– don't confuse length (capacity) with elements in use
elements start with an index of zero, last index is length -
1
trying to access a non existent element results in an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException (AIOBE)

Java Basics 60
 Array Initialization
Array variables are object variables
They hold the memory address of an array object
The array must be dynamically allocated
All values in the array are initialized (0, 0.0, char
0, false, or null)
Arrays may be initialized with an initializer list:
int[] intList = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13};
double[] dList = {12.12, 0.12, 45.3};
String[] sList = {"Olivia", "Kelly", "Isabelle"};

Java Basics 61
 Arrays of objects
A native array of objects is actually a native array
of object variables
– all object variables in Java are really what?
– Pointers!
public void objectArrayExamples()
{ Rectangle[] rectList = new Rectangle[10];
// How many Rectangle objects exist?
rectList[5].setSize(5,10);
//uh oh!
for(int i = 0; i < rectList.length; i++)
{ rectList[i] = new Rectangle();
}
rectList[3].setSize(100,200);
}

Java Basics 62
 Array Utilities
In the Arrays class, static methods
binarySearch, equals, fill, and sort methods for
arrays of all primitive types (except boolean) and
arrays of Objects
– overloaded versions of these methods for various data
types
In the System class there is an arraycopy method
to copy elements from a specified part of one
array to another
– can be used for arrays of primitives or arrays of
objects
Java Basics 63
 The arraycopy method
 static voidarraycopy(Object src, int srcPos,
Object dest, int destPos, int length)
Copies an array from the specified source
array, beginning at the specified position, to
the specified position of the destination array.
int[] list = new int[10];
// code to fill list
// list needs to be resized
int[] temp = new int[list.length * 2];
System.arraycopy(list, 0, temp, 0,
list.length);
list = temp;

Java Basics 64
 2D Arrays in Java
Arrays with multiple dimensions may be
declared and used
int[][] mat = new int[3][4];
the number of pairs of square brackets
indicates the dimension of the array.
by convention, in a 2D array the first number
indicates the row and the second the column
Java multiple dimensional arrays are
handles differently than in many other
programming languages.
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Computer Science 2D Arrays
 Two Dimensional Arrays
0 1 2 3 column
0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0
row
This is our abstract picture of the 2D array and treating
it this way is fine.
mat[2][1] = 12;

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Computer Science 2D Arrays
 The Real Picture
0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3
mat 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3
2 0 0 0 0
mat holds the memory address of an array with 3
elements. Each element holds the memory address
of an array of 4 ints
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Computer Science 2D Arrays
 Arrays of Multiple Dimension
because multiple dimensional arrays are
treated as arrays of arrays of
arrays……multiple dimensional arrays can
be ragged
– each row does not have to have the same
number of columns
int[][] raggedMat = new int[5][];
for(int i = 0; i < raggedMat.length; i++)
raggedMat[i] = new int[i + 1];

– each row array has its own length field

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Computer Science 2D Arrays
 Ragged Arrays
Ragged arrays are sometime useful, but
normally we deal with rectangular matrices
– each row has the same number of columns as
every other row
– use this a lot as precondition to methods that
work on matrices
working on matrices normally requires
nested loops
– why is this so hard?

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Computer Science 2D Arrays
 Enhanced for loop
New in Java 5.0
a.k.a. the for-each loop
useful short hand for accessing all elements in an
array (or other types of structures) if no need to
alter values
alternative for iterating through a set of values
for(Type loop-variable : set-expression)
statement
logic error (not a syntax error) if try to modify an
element in array via enhanced for loop

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 Enhanced for loop
public static int sumListOld(int[] list)
{ int total = 0;
for(int i = 0; i < list.length; i++)
{ total += list[i];
System.out.println( list[i] );
}
return total;
}
public static int sumListEnhanced(int[] list)
{ int total = 0;
for(int val : list)
{ total += val;
System.out.println( val );
}
return total;
}
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Computer Science
 Attendance Question 5
What is output by public void d2(int x){
the code to the right x *= 2;
when method d1 is System.out.print(x);
}
called?
A. 322 public void d1(){
int x = 3;
B. 323
System.out.print(x);
C. 363 d2(x);
D. 366 System.out.print(x);
}
E. 399
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 72
Computer Science
 Attendance Question 6
What is output int[] list = {5, 1, 7, 3};
by the code to System.out.print( list[2] );
System.out.print( list[4] );
the right?
A. Output will vary from one run of program to
next
B. 00
C. 363
D. 7 then a runtime error
E. No output due to syntax error
CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 73
Computer Science
Methods

Java Basics 74
 Methods
methods are analogous to procedures and functions
in other languages
– local variables, parameters, instance variables
– must be comfortable with variable scope: where is a
variable defined?
methods are the means by which objects are
manipulated (objects state is changed) - much more
on this later
method header consists of
– access modifier(public, package, protected, private)
– static keyword (optional, class method)
– return type (void or any data type, primitive or class)
– method name
– parameter signature

Java Basics 75
 More on Methods
local variables can be declared within methods.
– Their scope is from the point of declaration until the end
of the methods, unless declared inside a smaller block
like a loop
methods contain statements
methods can call other methods
– in the same class: foo();
– methods to perform an operation on an object that is in
scope within the method: obj.foo();
– static methods in other classes:
double x = Math.sqrt(1000);

Java Basics 76
 static methods
 the main method is where a stand alone Java program normally
begins execution
 common compile error, trying to call a non static method from a
static one
public class StaticExample
{ public static void main(String[] args)
{ //starting point of execution
System.out.println("In main method");
method1();
method2(); //compile error;
}

public static void method1()

{ System.out.println( "method 1"); }

public void method2()

{ System.out.println( "method 2"); }
}
Java Basics 77
 Method Overloading and Return
 a class may have multiple methods with the same name as long as the parameter
signature is unique
– may not overload on return type
 methods in different classes may have same name and signature
– this is a type of polymorphism, not method overloading
 if a method has a return value other than void it must have a return statement
with a variable or expression of the proper type
 multiple return statements allowed, the first one encountered is executed and
method ends
– style considerations

CS 307 Fundamentals of Java Basics 78

Computer Science
 Method Parameters
 a method may have any number of parameters
 each parameter listed separately
 no VAR (Pascal), &, or const & (C++)
 final can be applied, but special meaning
 all parameters are pass by value
 Implications of pass by value???

Java Basics 79
 Value Parameters vs.
Reference Parameters
 A value parameter makes a copy of the argument it is sent.
– Changes to parameter do not affect the argument.
 A reference parameter is just another name for the argument it is
sent.
– changes to the parameter are really changes to the argument
and thus are permanent

Java Basics 80
 Value vs. Reference
// value // C++, reference
void add10(int x) void add10(int& x)
{ x += 10; } { x += 10; }

void calls() void calls()

{ int y = 12; { int y = 12;
add10(y); add10(y);
// y = ? // y = ?
} }

12 12 12
y x y x

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Computer Science
Programming for Correctness

Java Basics 82
 Creating Correct Programs
 methods should include pre conditions and post conditions
 Preconditions are things that must be true before a method
is called
 Postconditions are things that will be true after a method is
complete if the preconditions were met
 it is the responsibility of the caller of a method to ensure the
preconditions are met
– the class must provide a way of ensuring the precondition is true
– the preconditions must be stated in terms of the interface, not the
implementation
 it is the responsibility of the class (supplier, server) to
ensure the postconditions are met

Java Basics 83