UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW AND LEGAL STUDIES

GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY

TOPIC:
ROLE OF MEDIA IN FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

SUBJECT: ELECTION LAW

Submitted by:

Akash Lakra
00616503820
BA.LLB (2020-2025)
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... 3

Role of media in Elections .................................................................................................... 4

1. Media as a Watchdog................................................................................................. 5

2. Media as a campaign platform: .................................................................................. 5

3. Media as open forum for debate and discussion/public voice ..................................... 5

4. Media as public educator ........................................................................................... 6

Traditional Media And Election ............................................................................................ 8

Social media: new way of political mobilisation .................................................................... 8

1. News Around the Clock ............................................................................................. 9

2. larger than life image of politician ............................................................................. 9

3. The Impact of Polls.................................................................................................. 10

4. Direct Interaction With Politicians ........................................................................... 10

5. Demographics and Targeting ................................................................................... 10

6. Social Media is creeping into mainstream media's political discussions ................... 11

Use of Social Media in Indian Elections .............................................................................. 11

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 12

Annexure 1 ......................................................................................................................... 13

Chai Pe Charcha .............................................................................................................. 13

Presence of Narendra Modi on Various Social Media Platforms ...................................... 14

Financial Expenditure...................................................................................................... 15

Benefits that Narendra Modi Reaped From a Perfect Social Media Marketing Planning .. 16

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 17

2
 ROLE OF MEDIA IN ELECTIONS

The media play an indispensable role in the proper functioning of a democracy and
democratic election is impossible without media. It has traditionally been understood to
refer to the printed press (newspapers, magazines) as well as mass media (radio and
television broadcasters etc.).1 In recent years however, the definition has become broader,
encompassing new media including online journalism, and social media. It is one of the
largest platforms for influencing public opinion. A free and fair election is not only about
the freedom to vote and the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a
participatory process where voters engage in public debate and have adequate
information about parties, policies, candidates and the election process itself in order to
make informed choices. Furthermore, media acts as a crucial watchdog to democratic
elections, safeguarding the transparency of the process. Indeed, a democratic election with no
media freedom, or stifled media freedom, would be a contradiction in terms.

The media are not the sole source of information for voters, but in a world dominated by
mass communications, it is increasingly the media that determine the political agenda. A
report by the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies put it this way:

“The media plays a major role in keeping the citizenry abreast of current events and raising
awareness of various issues in any society. It also has an extremely significant impact on the
public’s views and way of thinking. The media is the primary means through which public
opinion is shaped and at times manipulated. If this is the media’s role then in normal course
of events, it becomes even more vital in exceptional periods, one of which is electoral
junctures, when the media becomes a primary player. Elections constitute a basic challenge
to the media, putting its impartiality and objectivity to the test. The task of the media,
especially national media outlets, is not and should not be to function as a mouthpiece for
any government body or particular candidate. Its basic role is to enlighten and educate the
public and act as a neutral, objective platform for the free debate of all points of view.”2

1
Media and Election, available @ http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/me/onePage
2
Media and Parliamentary Elections in Egypt: Evaluation of Media Performance in the Parliamentary
Elections” Human Rights Movement Issues 26, (Cairo, Egypt: Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies, 2011),
27

3
So role of media in enabling full public participation in elections can be summarized as
following

1. MEDIA AS A WATCHDOG

These political journalists also facilitate the media's watchdog function. In this role, the
media function to protect the public from incompetent or corrupt political officials by
exposing illegal or unethical practices to the public. As a watchdog, the media act as the
public's protector or guardian. The public is then able to make informed decisions regarding
the ouster of officials or changing of inept practices.3

2. MEDIA AS A CAMPAIGN PLATFORM:

Candidates and Parties have an explicit right to provide the electorate information regarding
their attributes, political agendas, and proposed plans. Besides meeting directly with
members of the electorate, candidates and parties accomplish this task through campaigns via
media. It is paramount to democratic electoral processes therefore, that all candidates
and parties are provided equal access to media for this endeavour.4 Candidates and
parties use the mass media for campaigning through sponsored direct access spots, paid
political advertising, televised debates, use of social media, and other mechanisms. They
also hope the media will voluntarily cover them because of the newsworthiness of their
campaign activities.5 Political parties expend vast human and financial resources on planning
and executing mass media campaigns.6

3. MEDIA AS OPEN FORUM FOR DEBATE AND DISCUSSION/PUBLIC VOICE:

While candidate and party campaigns are of course a form of debate, there are also other
voices that are to be heard within public forums. The role of media in providing this
platform for debate and discussion is therefore vital. 7 Media provide a mechanism for
regular citizens to be heard and to therefore influence political agendas and campaign

3
Heather Satterfield, How Social Media Affects Politics, available @ https://sysomos.com/2016/10/05/social-
media-affects-politics/
4
Scott Entwistle, How social media and technology have changed the election process, available @
http://www.techerator.com/2012/10/how-social-media-and-technology-have-changed-the-election-process/
5
Ashley Dugger, The Role of Media in Elections & Other Government Activities, available @
https://study.com/academy/lesson/how-the-media-covers-elections-other-government-activities.html
6
Political Campaigning Planning Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Winning Elections (Washington DC:
National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, 2009)
7
Prof. Tawana Kupe, Role of Media in Election: A critical reflection, University of Witwatersrand
Johannesburg

4
platforms, and sometimes garnering support and influencing fellow voters. Forms can
include:

 Members of the public, lobby groups, experts with different perspectives, and
candidates being interviewed by the media for their views on certain policies;
 Talkback radio and television in which the public air their opinions;
 Contestants’ websites, social media networks, and so on, where the public can
interact with them directly;
 News reports on press conferences, protests and other events held by interest
groups;
 Media surveys of public opinion;
 Citizen journalism;
 Debates on blogs, Twitter, and social media sites;
 Letters to the editor.

This role as a forum for public debate is a complex one in post-conflict situations, as the
line between debate and conflict needs to be carefully managed by professional media, which
is not always present.8

4. MEDIA AS PUBLIC EDUCATOR:

Media’s role as a public educator is in essence a combination of media’s three other

roles with a few added aspects. For example, media ensures voters are provided
information necessary to fully evaluate the conduct of officials as well as the process at
large. Media as a campaign platform ensures the public is educated in political agenda’s of
all participating parties and candidates equally. Media as open forum for debate and
discussion ensures that voters can educate other voters, politicians, and officials.9

Media by performing above mentioned roles can occasionally shape public opinion, it has a
greater influence in communicating to voters, weather issues are important or not, about those

8
The Evolving Role of Media in Elections, available @ http://www.ifes.org/news/evolving-role-media-elections
9
Media Role In Elections, available @ https://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/media-role-in-elections-media-
essay.php

5
issues the media works more effectively by placing a spotlight on certain issues. 10 There are
certain ways through which media can influence voters and shape public opinions.11

1. Coverage/Non-coverage

The first way journalists get involved in elections is by choosing which candidates to cover
and how much. Those choices alone can have a huge effect on voter perceptions. 12 The news
media decides what to cover in their programming and what agenda or talking points to
include.13 By spotlighting what issues the public should focus on, the media helps to dictate
what issues voters should be concerned with in elections and what criteria they should use to
judge politicians by. Most of the new information voters receive over the course of a political
campaign is transmitted either by news media or through social networks such as
interpersonal discussion. The media can greatly influence the public by limiting coverage of
certain candidates. The media has the discretion to cover only the candidates it feels are
legitimate candidates and have a viable chance of winning the election. In this way, the media
acts as a filter, by narrowing down candidates and sifting out lesser-known candidates and
giving more coverage to the better-known.14

2. The Media's Influence on Campaigning

The media can greatly effect elections by generating attention. The media also influences the
public's perception on the viability of a candidate. If reports say a certain candidate is ahead
in an election, the public will come to accept that evaluation, which can greatly influence
how voters cast their ballots. For the most part, people do not want to waste time on
candidates they believe do not have a chance to win.15The media is more effective in
dictating what issues voters should view as important and less effective in shaping those
views. Since the media is practically the only way to get campaign information widely

10
Six ways the media influence elections, University of Oregon available
2http://journalism.uoregon.edu/news/six-ways-media-influences-elections/
11
Role of Media in Political Campaigns, available @ https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Role-of-Media-in-
Political-Campaigns-P3YZP4KTC
12
Role of Media in Electoral process
13
Jonathan Stray, How Does The Media Influence The Outcome Of An Election, available @
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/how-does-the-media-influence-the-outcome-of-an-election.html,
14
George Ogola, Why Role of Media is so Important For free and Fair Elections, available @
http://theconversation.com/why-the-role-of-the-media-is-so-important-to-free-and-fair-elections-77568
15
Dr. G. Palanithurai, Voters‘ reasoning of political participation‖, Monthly Public Opinion Surveys, 443,
xxxvii, no.11, august 1992

6
distributed, they influence what issues people should consider when evaluating a candidate
and what criteria to judge them by.16

TRADITIONAL MEDIA AND ELECTION

Within traditional media (print and broadcast), print media displays the greatest diversity of
all, in both ownership and content. Print media ranges from daily to weekly newspapers, from
news magazines to a range of special interest publications. Print media also includes one-off
publications such as fliers and leaflets. Out of all of the media formats, print media is also
the oldest, as written text on stone, cloth or paper.17

In today’s world print has a smaller audience than other forms of mass media. This is due in
part to literacy levels, access, and wealth. Simple personal preference is also a factor.18

Digital media has quick and wide reach whereas print media has more longevity, as it is
exists for longer periods of time. It transmit campaign propaganda to large numbers of
people. Newspapers present campaign messages in news columns, news features,
advertisements, and occasionally in full transcript. Magazines feature weekly summaries,
interviews, picture stories. In addition newspapers set the agenda in terms of topics and
debates for other media and for politicians. This may be due to the fact that print media can
often afford for more in-depth stories.19 While this influence may be changing with the new
media revolution, it probably still remains true to an extent They make it possible for the
politician to reach more people, quicker and more cheaply, than he could in any other way.
Television and radio present them in fifteen and five minute newscasts; in standard time
periods offered for sale; and in interviews, documentaries, panel shows, and debates.20

SOCIAL MEDIA: NEW WAY OF POLITICAL MOBILISATION

Social media has become so integrated into our daily life it is like an extension of the self.
Almost everyone has a public profile online, and, if not the whole population, there is strong
evidence from the 18-30 demographic that social media plays in the major leagues in real

16
Harwood I child, Public opinion nature, formation and role (Princeton, New Jersey,1965)
17
Benjamin I Page, “The Mass Media as Political Actors." Political Science and Politics Vol. 57, No.1. (Feb.,
1995): pp. 62 85
18
available @ http://indiacitypages.com/news-media/10040
19
Mccombs E. Maxwell and Donald L Shaw, The agenda setting function of the press, in David Graber‘s ed,
Media power in politics.(New Delhi: Mcmilan 1994)
20
Arvind Rajagopal, Politics after television, p.7(2004)

7
world events.21 It has also transformed the political landscape in India and around the globe.
Social media, is now a serious factor in political campaigns and in the way people think about
issues. Its effect has impacted the way candidate campaign for their election. It has become a
pioneering platform for politicians to build a strong bond with their voters and the same has
also become a medium to cease any boundaries between the two at a reduced cost and greater
reach than traditional media.22 Social media is not simply the next in a line of
communications technologies: it has also changed everyday activities and connected
people in a manner never before possible. The social media sites, blogs, email and other
new media platforms provides more avenues and possibilities for participatory
citizenship, information and knowledge sharing, and inclusion and empowerment.23

Candidates and their supporters constantly post their views on Facebook and Twitter. Each
party has its own pages, from which it broadcasts propaganda and requests for donations.
These are some of the leading ways that social media influences elections today.

1. NEWS AROUND THE CLOCK

One of the ways that social media has transformed politics is the sheer speed at which news,
poll results are shared. Whereas in the pre-internet days, people had to wait for the next
newspaper or TV news show to get the latest information, online news is a 24/7
phenomenon. Social media has taken this a step further. While users can access news on
many websites at any hour, most people spend more time on sites such as Facebook and
Twitter than they do on serious news or political websites. This means that they get all of the
latest trending news stories and opinions shared by online community whenever users log
in.24

2. LARGER THAN LIFE IMAGE OF POLITICIAN

Social Media is a public platform and since there are no regulatory guidelines or credible
cross checking tactics, political parties leave no stone unturned while boosting the image
of their own party. This has created a somewhat larger than life image of the leaders. The
evident number of likes, followers, connects on their social properties, shows who is more

21
David Nield, Social media and the future of elections, available @
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/connect/better-business/social-media-and-the-future-of-elections/
22
Brinda Magdalena, The Impact of Social Media on Election System,available @
https://www.webdefy.com/impact-of-social-media-on-indian-election-system/
23
Martin P Wattenberg, “From Parties to Candidates: Examining the Role of the Media.” The Public Opinion
Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 2. (Summer, 1982,): pp. 216-222
24
Vikrant Patil, Role of Social Media in Indian Politics, availalable @
https://www.digitalvidya.com/blog/social-media-politics/

8
popular. Everybody wants to get a piece of the most talked about politician, Arvind Kejirwal,
Shashi Tharoor are so popularly known now majorly because of social media.25

3. THE IMPACT OF POLLS

Political polls are an important part of every campaign. They are often confusing, because
you can often find multiple polls with contradictory results posted on the very same day. As
with other types of political news, the internet has greatly increased the number of poll
results we see each day. Social media has accelerated this even more. Not only do social
media sites report the results of polls, users can actually participate in Facebook polls. Polls
results have a big influence on elections. This is true even if they are flawed. A poll can be a
self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, if people think one candidate is far ahead in the race,
they might conclude there’s no point in voting for the other candidate. When people are
posting the latest poll results on social media throughout the day, there’s a great deal of
pressure on candidates to pull ahead of their opponents.26

4. DIRECT INTERACTION WITH POLITICIANS

One of the positive effects that social media has on politics is the opportunity for voters to
interact more easily with candidates and elected officials. Traditionally, if one wanted to meet
a politician or candidate, they have to attend a live event which is not possible for everyone to
do. With modern technology, it’s now possible to attend virtual events where voters can
participate in live streaming events and interact with politicians and candidates.27

5. DEMOGRAPHICS AND TARGETING

Targeting is used throughout the advertising industry to make sure that ads and
messages reach the right audience. Politicians do this as well. In the age of social media,
politicians and people running for office are able to target their campaigns. If a candidate
wants to address the concerns of women, college students, retired people, or any other group
of voters, they can tailor their messages. Just as advertisers on Facebook are able to use
analytics and targeted advertising, so can candidates and politicians.28

25
Bhuvanesh Kumar Sharma, Impact of Social Media on Voter's Behaviour:a Descriptive Study of Gwalior,
Madhya Pradesh,
available@https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311717978_Impact_of_Social_Media_on_Voter's_Behavi
our-a_Descriptive_Study_of_Gwalior_Madhya_Pradesh
26
Graham P. Ramsden, “Media Coverage of Issues and Candidates: What Balance is Appropriatein a
Democracy?” Public Opinion Quarterly. Vol.29, No. 1. (Mar., 1996): pp. 20-24
27
Your Thoughts: The Impact Of Social Media On Elections
28
Role of Social media In Election, available @ https://www.sidekickgh.com/the-role-of-social-media-in-
elections/

9
 6. SOCIAL MEDIA IS CREEPING INTO MAINSTREAM MEDIA'S POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS
News Channels or Print media have included some key hash-tags which create a hurricane of
tweets on Twitter, during the debate hour and go on for a few days. Social media has totally
seeped into mainstream media and is given the status of a public platform, to promote
discussions on such public platforms. Videos, images, important actions/activities are
discussed and promoted on these social sites through dedicated pages and accounts of the
parties.29

Politicians use social media to communicate with their audience and to call them either to
protest, or to vote. So, the use of has made it incredibly easy for a wide range political parties,
social activist, individual leaders are getting attention towards social media.

Hence, social media has emerged as an essential tool of communication and has created new
ways of political mobilizing and encourage social media users in political activities ranging
from joining their political groups by tweeting, status update, expressing supports through
blogs and videos on Youtube.

USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN INDIAN ELECTIONS

Social media was a popular word in Indian parliament election 2014. Political parties use
social media because traditional mass media communication medium are highly regulated by
election commission of India. For over a decade politicians have taken the web in an attempt
to better reach voters in our new media society. At first it was the use of static webpage to
promote campaign goals, promises and information. However, as social media or the social
networking sites (SNS) began to rise in popularity in the mid-2000, campaigns began in
earnest attempting to harness their power to reach more voters.30

For instance, the 2008 U.S. presidential election was the benchmark as the first election
to fully grasp the power and reach of the SNS’s to impact voters. The U.S. President,
Barack Obama’s campaign used Facebook in an exceptional ways to reach out the young

29
Jeffery J. Mondak, “Media Exposure and Political Discussion in U.S. Elections.” The Journal of Politics,
Vol. 57, No.1. (Feb., 1995): pp. 62-85
30
Rohan Swamy, Did Social Media Really Impact the Indian Elections?, available @
https://gadgets.ndtv.com/social-networking/features/did-social-media-really-impact-the-indian-elections-527425

10
voters. It worked, allowing him to win the votes nearly 70 percent of voters that were under
25 years old.31

In the 2014 Indian election, social media played a very imperative role such that the
Narendra Modi emerged as India’s Obama. The users has encouraged voting, using
images of their ink-stained fingers on Twitter and Instagram, to make a statement.32

Research done by foremost Psephologist says that through digital media he could convey his
message clearly. In other words social media platforms facilitate him deliver his message to
large people and with ease. Here are some of the ways social media was used by Narendra
Modi.33

Narendra Modi with his team was quite active on social media since 2009, but as BJP
declared him as Prime Ministerial candidate, upsurge use of digital media was seen. In
sixteenth general elections nearly 814 million of 125 crore populace were eligible to vote. In
order to reach out to huge mass or potential voters, all the channels of digital media as well as
offline medium were used so that could be accomplished to more voters.34 Annexure 1
describes in details the use of social media by Narendra Modi in 2014 election.

CONCLUSION

Media is essential for the working of a democracy and for the elction process It informs the
voters about candidates, and traits of candidates and and concern over certain issues,. Specific
positions of candidates and parties on issues are somewhat less likely to be taught by media.
Through free media, the press is able to influence voters by telling them what issues are
important at the time. Before the rise of modern electronic media, political information was
conveyed through the two mechanisms of the print media and direct personal contact. In those
days, newspaper readership was higher than today, but this still excluded a very large proportion
of the population that was either too poor to afford a newspaper or that simply could not read.
Hence direct personal communication assumed great importance. This would include public
political meetings addressed by candidates or hustings, where the different candidates would

31
India election results 2014: five reasons why Narendra Modi won, available @
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10836541/India-election-results-2014-five-reasons-
why-Narendra-Modi-won.html
32
How Social Media Played Imperative Role In Narendra Modi’s Historic Political Win, available @
https://digiperform.com/social-media-played-imperative-role-narendra-modis-historic-political-win/
33
Social Media for Political Mobilization in India: A Study, Journal of Mass Communication & Journalism.
34
Idrees Ali, Social Media Played Big Role in India’s Election,available @ https://www.voanews.com/a/social-
media-emerges-as-a-key-tool-in-indias-election/1931238.html

11
debate and be questioned. It would also include door-to-door canvassing by the candidate or party
activists, as well as leaflets and posters produced by the parties or candidates. But In
industrialized countries with extensive electronic media, these methods have declined
dramatically in importance. Now. With the changing politics of India political parties and
politicians have found a new ways of reaching out to a younger and aspiration
population. Social media is one such way 16th General Election of 2014 is one example
which demonstrate how the social media can be used to influence voters.

ANNEXURE 1

CHAI PE CHARCHA: to get support of lower income group and farmers Narendra Modi and
his team initiated programs like Chai Pe Charcha through live interaction.

Also, in order to augment the voter base website named India272.com, namonumber.com
was launched. On Facebook page “I support Narendra Modi” had become very popular
amid people. Along with make sure that large numbers of people come across with Modi’s
rallies and speeches whatsapp number 07820078200 was also launched to boost up the
campaign.

12
Advertising Gurus like Sam Balsara, Piyush Pandey and Prasoon Joshi had created catchy
slogans like “Janta Maaf Nahi Karege”, “Ache Din Anne Wale hai”. These catchphrases
became viral on social media as well. And “Ab ki Baar Modi Sarkar” had become a tag line
of BJP as well.

Facebook Page “I support Narendra Modi” has got about 8million likes, and slogan “har
har modi ghar ghar modi” went viral across social media platforms.

PRESENCE OF NARENDRA MODI ON VARIOUS SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS

Twitter

Narendra Modi has third largest followers on twitter after Amitabh Bachan and Shahrukh
Khan. At present he has around 13.7 million followers. Only his voice keeps a lot of weight
whether it is on online platform twitter or off-line. During elections he makes maximum use
of this platform to reach out to target masses. Most important thing being targeted heavily by
opponents he did not block a single person for opposing him on social media.

Facebook

13
Narendra Modi has got more than 29million likes on his page and most fascinating thing you
might have found on his FB page is that every post is written in English instead of Hindi.
Generally he speaks Hindi but however to hook up youth use English.

Youtube

Narendra Modi’s youtube channel has about 254611 subscribers and he constantly uploads
videos regarding any event. During elections he kept on uploading videos of his rallies for
viewers.

Google Plus

Google plus, social media platform where Narendra Modi enjoys 2,749,196 followers and
352,183,305 views and at present also he posts recent happenings to remain connected with
large populace.On all these platforms he writes down his deepest emotions about the policies
and concern about the world policies and poverty.

FINANCIAL EXPENDITURE:

BJP incurred 115$ million expenditure in 2014 election.

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BENEFITS THAT NARENDRA MODI REAPED FROM A PERFECT SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING
PLANNING:

 PM could valve about 12 crore first time voters

 United previous voters of the party

 Spread out party’s policies amid public 

 Create faith in populace about the party’s idea of growth

 Inspire youth to participate & to make difference

BJP has comprehensibly planned various campaigns for social media as well as implemented
successfully on social media. All possible digital platforms were used to convince people to
vote for the party. Most imperative thing about Modi’s campaign is that his team maintained
consistency throughout elections whereas competitors of Narendra Modi surrendered amid an
election campaigns. #Namo has become a household name or a name for which people
wanted to make him win.

15
 REFERENCES

 Media and Election, available @ http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/me/onePage

 Media and Parliamentary Elections in Egypt: Evaluation of Media Performance in
the Parliamentary Elections” Human Rights Movement Issues 26, (Cairo, Egypt:
Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies, 2011), 27
 Heather Satterfield, How Social Media Affects Politics, available @
https://sysomos.com/2016/10/05/social-media-affects-politics/
 Ashley Dugger, The Role of Media in Elections & Other Government Activities,
available @ https://study.com/academy/lesson/how-the-media-covers-elections-other-
government-activities.html
 Political Campaigning Planning Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Winning Elections
(Washington DC: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, 2009)
 Prof. Tawana Kupe, Role of Media in Election: A critical reflection, University of
Witwatersrand Johannesburg
 Dr. G. Palanithurai, Voters‘ reasoning of political participation‖, Monthly Public
Opinion Surveys, 443, xxxvii, no.11, august 1992
 Benjamin I Page, “The Mass Media as Political Actors." Political Science and Politics
Vol. 57, No.1. (Feb., 1995): pp. 62 85
 Martin P Wattenberg, “From Parties to Candidates: Examining the Role of the
Media.” The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 2. (Summer, 1982,): pp. 216-222
 Vikrant Patil, Role of Social Media in Indian Politics, availalable @
https://www.digitalvidya.com/blog/social-media-politics/

16
 How Social Media Played Imperative Role In Narendra Modi’s Historic Political
Win, available @ https://digiperform.com/social-media-played-imperative-role-
narendra-modis-historic-political-win/
 Social Media for Political Mobilization in India: A Study, Journal of Mass
Communication & Journalism.

17