- AIM OF EXPERI MENT

II EXPERIMENT No. 1 II
To find the pH of the followin g l .
(a) Dilute hydroch loric acidsam p es using pH paper/u niversal indicato r.
(b) Dilute NaOH solution
(c) Dilute ethanoi c acid solution
(d) Lemon juice
(e) Water
(f) Dilute sodium bicarbo nate solution

R:equiremen_ts. rr:e st tub~s , test tube stand, test tube holder, glass rod, dilute HCl , dilute NaOH
solu-
tion, dilute e th anoic acid solution, lemon juice, water, dilute sodium bicarbon ate solution, pH
booklet, universa l indicato r, distilled water. paper str ip
Theory. pH of a solution is given as
pH = log [H+<aq)
or pH = log [H Q+]
For neutral aqueous solution pH = 7 3

For acidic solutions , pH < 7

For basic or alkaline solutions , pH > 7 .
pH of a solution can be determin ed by using pH paper, universa l indicator or pH m et er.
Procedu re
1. Take six test tubes and mark them A, B, C, D , E, F .
2. Put dil. HCl, dil. NaO;H, dil. ethanoic acid solution, lemon juice, water and dil. sodium bicarbon
solution in test tubes A, B, C, D, E and F respectiv ely. ate
.
3. Take the strips of pH paper and dip in these solution s one by one and dry them.
4. Note the colour of pH paper in each case after drying.
5. Compare the colour develope d of the pH paper by comparin g it with the standard p H value
colour ch art.
6. Determi ne the approxim ate pH of the solution.
7. Dilute HCl, dil. ethanoic acid, lemon juice are acidic.
8. Dilute NaOH, sodium bicarbon ate solution are basic.
9. Water is neutral.

Oil. Oil. Oil.

Oil. HCI NaOH Ethanoic Lemon Water NaHCO
3
Sol. acid sol. Juice Sol.

A B C 0 E F

Fig. Determin ation of pH of different solutions

Observa tions
/
Test Sample Colour of Approx imate Nature of '
Tube pH paper pH sample

A Dil. HCl RBd t o/ ot1i I Acidic

B Dil. NaOH Oc,. ,,K i>lu~ to QV\'IL It/ Basic
C
D
Dil. CH 3 COOH
Lemon juice
(h•"r
Pfn ColotJlL
C~lwi• 3
2-
Acidic
Acidic
E Water e,.,~~" Coloun 1- Neutral
\..
F Dil. NaHC0 3 l ,·91,, I b~ titvJ 9 Basic
~

"
 P rec aut ion s
1. pH pap ers sho uld be kep t awa y from
fum es of che mic als.
2. Colour dev elop ed on the pH pap er sho
uld be com par ed car efu lly wit h tha t
3. Diff eren t r ods and wat ch glas ses sho of the cha rt.
uld be use d for test ing diff ere nt sol utio
ns.
 II EXPERIMENT No. 2 II
- AIM OF EXPERIMEN T
· ·d fd ·l HCl) b their reactions with :
To study the properties of aci s ,, i • Y
(a) litmus solution (blue/ red), (b) zinc metal (c) solid sodium bicarbonate .
Requiremen ts. Test tubes, blue and red litmus solutions, zinc metal pieces, sodium bicarbonate powder,

etc. Theory. Acids turn blue litmus solution red. The di~ut~ acid produces hydrogen gas with zinc metal and
decomposes solid sodium bicarbonate producing carbon d10x1de.

Procedure
Reaction of an acid with :
(a) Litmus solution
(i) Take two test tubes containing blue and red litmus solutions.
(ii) Add a few drops of dil. HCl in both the tubes.
(iii) It is observed that blue litmus turns red while nothing happens to red litmus.
Hence acids like HCl turn blue litmus solution red.
(b) Zinc metal
(i) Take a test tube and put 2-3 mL of dil. HCl in it.
(ii) Add a few zinc metal pieces into the test tube.
(iii) It is observed that vigorous chemical reaction occurs with the evolution of a colourless, odourless
hydrogen gas.
(iv) When a glowing match stick is brought near the mouth of the test tube, hydrogen gas burns with a
pale blue flame producing pop sound.
( v) The reaction taking place is
Zn+ 2HC1 (Dil.) ~ ZnCl 2 + H 2 i.
Therefore, acids (like HCl) liberate hydrogen gas on reacting with active metals.
(c) Solid sodium bicarbonate
(i) Take a test tube and add a small amount of sodium bicarbonate powder in it.
(ii) Add 1.m.L of dilute HCl in the test tube.
(iii) Brisk effervescence due to the evolution of a colourless, odourless gas.
(iv) Whe_n this ~as is passed through freshly prepared lime water it turns milky. Therefore, gas is CO., .
The react10n taking place is -
NaHCO 3 + HCl (Dil) ~NaCl+ H O + CO 2 i.
Therefore, sodium bicarbonate produces CO gas on rea~tion w ith dil. HCl.
2

Pale blue flame

CO2 gas

_____ .... --Oil. HCI

--Dil. HCI
- 1
Lime water
turns milky
Blue litmus
----- solution Zinc pieces ~l}:j.--Dil.H CI+
is turned red NaHC0 3
Fig. (I) Fig. (II)
Fig. (III)
Fig. (I) Acids turn blue litmus red Fig (In · ·
Fig. (III) Carbon di~xide .gas tzmc Pl~eces liberate hydrogen gas and
urns 1me water milky.
', I 46 ,
precautions
(1) Clean test tubes should be used.
(2) Freshly prepared lime water should be used.
(3) Dilute acid should be put on sodium bicarbonate.
(4) Hydrogen should be tested carefully because it burns in air with explosion.

II EXPERIMENT No. 3 II
-AIM OF EXPERIMENT
To study the properties of bases (dil. Na OH) by their reaction with.
(a) litmus solution (blue/red) (b) zinc metal and (c) solid sodium carbonate.
Requirements. Test tubes, blue and red litmus solutions, zinc metal pieces, solid sodium carbonate etc.
Theory. Bases turn red litmus solution blue, produce hydrogen gas with zinc metal and have no action
with solid sodium carbonate.
Procedure
Reactions of an acid with :
(a) Litmus solution
(i) Take two test tubes and add blue/red litmus solutions into them.
(ii) Add 2-3 drops of sodium hydroxide solution into these test tubes.
(iii) It is observed that red litmus solution turns blue but nothing happens to the blue litmus solution.
(iv) Therefore, bases like sodium hydroxide turn red litmus blue.
(b) Zinc metal
(i) Take a test tube and put a few zinc pieces in it.
(ii) To this add a sodium hydroxide solution and boil it.
(iii) H gas is produced.
9

(iv) when a glowing match stick is brought near the mouth of the test tube, hydrogen gas burns with a pale
blue flame producing a pop sound.
(v) The reaction taking place is

Zn+ 2NaOH
Boil
- - - Na 2Zn0 2 + H 2 •
I
Therefore, bases like NaOH liberate H 2 gas with metals like Zn.
(c) Solid sodium carbonate
(i) Take a small amount of Na 2 C0 3 in a test tube.
(ii) To this add a few drops of dil. NaOH solution.
(iii) No reaction takes place.

Pale blue
flame

Turns red NaOH solution

litmus blue in -water
~---:..-=:.-=:..-=::-
NaOH solution --+=
in water
------ :Zinc Pieces

Fig. (I) Fig. (II) jHeat

Fig. (I) NaOH solution in water and turns red litmus blue
Fig. (II) produces H 2 gas on boiling with zinc pieces.
Precaution s
(1) Clean test tubes should be used.
(2) Freshly prepared lime water should be used.
(3) Hy drogen should be tested carefully because hydrogen burns in air with explosion.
( 4) Small amount of reagents should be used in each experiment.
 II EXPERIMENT No. 4 II
-AIM OF EXPERIMENT

To per/or"!" a~d obser~e th e following reactions and classify them into :

ta) Combination Reaction
1
1 •
(b) Deconipos,·t;~01 R eact,ion
, ,, •
·
(c) Displacement Reaction (d) Double Displacement Reaction.
(i) Action of water on quick lime.
(ii) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals.
(iii) Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution.
(iv) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions.

Requirements. Clea n test t ubes, h ard glass t est tube, beakers, tongs, spirit lamp , quick lime, ferrous sulphate
crystals, iron nails, copper sulpha te, sodium sulphate and barium ch loride.
Theory . Chemical r eactions are mainly of four t ypes :
1. Displacem ent reactions. It is a rea ction when a more r eactive metal (or non-met al) displaces a less
reactive metal (or non-metal) from its salt solutions.
2. Combination reactions. It is a reaction in which two or more substances (elements or compounds) combine
to form a single product.
3. Decompos ition reactions. It is a reaction in which a single compound (reactant) breaks into two or more
simpler substances (products).
4. Double displacement reactions. It is a r eaction in which there is an exchange of ions between two
reactants.

Procedure

Experiment Observations Inference

(i) Action of water

on quick lime
Take about 30 ml of water A hissing sound is produced, Quick lime r eacts with water
in a beaker. To this a~d beaker becomes hot and a white to produce slaked lime.
about 5 g of dry powdered residue is produced in the beaker.
quick lime and observe. CaO(s) + H 2 O(1) - Ca(OH) 2 <s>
Quick Slaked
li ~ lime

It is a com binat io n reaction.

(ii) Action of heat on
ferrous sulphate crystals
Heat about 5 g of ferrous On heating ga ses SO 2 , SO 3 and On h eating ferrous sulphate crystals
sulphate crystals in a dry water vapours are produced a nd decompose.
test tube and observe. a reddish brown residue is left.
Heat
The gas produced has pungent 2FeSO 4 . 7H 2 O - - - -
(Light gree n)
suffocating smell and turns blue
litmus solution red. Fe 2 O 3 + SO 2 j + SO 3 i + 14H 2 O
F e rric
oxide
(Reddis h
brow n
residue)

It is a decomposition reaction.
 Obs erva tion s Infe renc e
Exp erim ent

(ii) Iron nails kept in

copp er sulp hate solu tion
Diss olve 5 g of copp er (i) The colour of the solu tion Iron is more reac tive than copper
sulphate in 30 ml of wate r chan ges from blue to and disp lace s copp er from copper
in a beaker. gree nish blue and then to sulp hate solu tion
Place clean iron nails in it. light green.
Fe(s) + Cu SO 4(a q ) ---;
Keep the beak er (ii) Iron nails get coat ed with
(B lu e)
undisturbed for about 3o a redd ish brow n depo sit of
minutes and observe. copper meta l. FeS 04(uq ) + Cu(aq ) t
Li gh t Redtli,-h
gree n brown

It is a disp lace men t reac tion .

(iv) Rea ctio n betw een so-
di um sulp hate and
bari um chlo ride solu tion

Take 5 ml of sodi um Bari um chloride reac ts with A whit e prec ipita te is prod uced
sulphate solution in a test sodium sulp hate solu tion to
tube and to this add abou t give a whit e prec ipita te of
5 ml of bari um chlo ride bariu m sulp hate and sodi um
solution and observe. chloride BaS 04<8 > t + 2Na Cl(aq )
It is a dou ble disp lace men t
reac tion .

Precautions
1. Ferrous sulphate crystals should be heat ed in a hard
glass test tube to avoi d crac king of the tube.
2. Dilute sulphuric acid should be adde d slowly to zinc
pieces beca use the reac tion is vigo rous and exot
3. Hydrogen gas should be detected carefully beca hermic.
use it is high ly infla mma ble.
 I EXPERIMENT No. 5 II
c::J AJ:\1 OF EXPERI ME NT
(i) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the followin g salt
solution s :

(a) ZnSO 4 (aq) (b) FeSO 4 (c) CuSO 4 (aqJ (d) Al2 (SO) 3 •
(ii) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreas ing order of reactivi ty
based on the above
results.
, pieces of Zn, Fe.
Require ments. Four test tubes, aqueous solutions of ZnS0 4 , FeS0 4 , CuS0 4 and AllSO,J 3
Cu, Al.
Theory. If a metal A displaces metal B from its salt solution
1.e., A +BC - A C + B !
then metal A is more r eactive than B.
A more reactive metal can displace less reactive metal from its salt solution.
e .g. Fe(s) + CuSO /aq) - FeSO laq) + Cu(s)
Procedu re
1. Take four test t ubes and mark them as A, B, C, D.
2. _Put about 20 mL of aqueous solutions of ZnS0 4 , FeS0 4 and CuS0 4 , AllSO,J 3 in
t h e test tubes A , B, C, D
respectiv ely.
3. Put a few zinc granules in tubes A, B, C and D and observe the test tubes A, B, C a nd D .
B, C and D.
4. Similarly, put a few iron filings in t he tubes A, B, C and D and observe the t est tubes A,
5. Similarly , put a few copper pieces in the tubes A , B , C and D and observe the test
tubes A, B, C and D.
test tubes A, B, C
6. Now, put a small amount of a luminium pieces in tubes A , B, C and D and observe the
andD .
bc OF PRACTICA L SCIENCE (X C.8 .S.E.)
 A
B C D

ZnS0 4 Cu8O 4 Ali S04)3

solut ion solution solution

Fig. To study the actions of metals with sa]t solutions

7. Note down t h e observations after about 30 minutes
---- --
Metal ZnS0 4 FeS0 4 CuS0 1 Alz(S0 4 ) 3
added solution solution solution solution
Zn No reaction Displacement Displacement and solution No reaction
(residue) becomes colourless
(residue)
Fe No reaction No reaction Displacement No reaction
(residue)
Cu No reaction No reaction No reaction No r eaction
Al Displacement Displacement Displacement No reaction
-.
(residue) (residue) (residue)
From the above observations we conclude that aluminium metal is the most reactive and copper is least reactive.
Zn(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) - ZnS0 4 (aq) + Cu(s) j,
2Al (s) + 3ZnSO 4 (aq) - Alz(SO J 3 (aq) + 3Zn(s) j,
2Al(s) + 3FeSO 4 (aq) - Alz(SO 4) 3 (aq) + 3Fe(s) j,
2Al(s) + 3CuSO 4 (aq) - Alz(SO J 3 (aq) + 3Cu(s) j,
8. The decreasing order of reactivity of various metals is :
Al > Zn > Fe > Cu
Precautions
1. U se freshly prepared salt solutions.
2. The observations should be made after about 30 minutes.
3. Clean your hands properly after the exp_er~ment because the salt solutions ar~ poisonous. .
Conclusion. From the above observations, 1t 1s concluded that the order of reactivity of the four metals 1s
Al > Zn > Fe > Cu.
 II EXPERIMENT No. 6 II
- AIM OF EXPERIMENT
To study the differe~t properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid) such as:
(i) odour (ii) solubility in water (iii) effect on litmus (iv) reaction with sodium bicarbonate.

Requir ements. Test tubes, test t ube holder, glass rod, litmus solution, sodium bicar bon ate powder, etc.
Theory . Acetic acid has vinegar-like smell. It is soluble in wa ter. It tur n s blue litmus solution red. It decomposes
sodium bicarbonate producing carbon dioxide gas which tur ns freshly prep ared lime wa ter milk y .
CH 3 COOH + NaHCO 3 - CH 3 COONa + H 2 O + CO 2 t
Acetic Sodium Sodium
acid bicarbonate acetate

Fig. Inhaling of gas evolved during a reaction.

Procedure
(i) Odour. Take 5 mL of acetic acid in a test tube and note its smell by bringing the test t u be near the nose.
It sm ells like t h at of vinegar .
(ii) Solubility in water. T a ke 2 mL of acetic acid and to this add equal volume of water a nd sh ake it properly.
It dissolves ea sily.
(iii) Effect of litmus. Take 1 mL of blue litmus solution in a test tube and add a few drops of acetic acid
solution. Blue litmu s solution t urns r ed.
(iv) Reaction w ith sodium bicarbonate. Take 2 mL of acetic a cid in a test tube, add a pinch of sodium
bicarbonate. Colou rless a nd odourless CO 2 gas is evolved with brisk bubblin g (effervescence) which turns freshly
prepared lime water m ilky.
Precautions 1. Do not inhale the vapours of acetic acid strongly.
2. Always dilute the acetic acid with water before noting its taste .
 HEXPERIMENT No. 7 I
- AIM OF EXPERIMENT

To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water.

Requirements. Five different samples of soap, soft water (tap water), Hard water (River water) , beakers, test
tubes, stirrer etc.
Theory. Soap readily gives lather with soft water but soap does not readily give lather with hard water. A lot
of soap is wasted before lather is actually produced.
Therefore, cleaning capacity of a sample of soap is more in soft water than in hard water .
Method
1. Take two test tubes A and B (20 ml capacity).
2. Take a sample of soap dissolved in water to prepare about 10 Lather
ml of solution in a small beaker.
3. Take 10 ml of soft water in test tube A and 10 ml of hard
water in test tube B. Add 5 ml of soap solution to each. Shake each Soap+
Soft Water
test tube.
4. A lather is produced in test tube A but no lather is produced
in test tube B.
5. This indicates that cleaning capacity of soap is more in soft
water than in hard water. Test Tube Test Tube
A 8
6. Similarly repeat the experiment with other samples. Fig.
Conclusion. Cleaning capacity of soap is more in soft water than in hard water.
Precautions. (1) Use clean test tubes.
(2) Soap solution should not be concentrated.
(3) Wash test tube after testing each soap.
 II EXPERIMENT No.
- AIM OF EXPERIMENT
(...__S_tu_d_y_ o_f_d_is_tri
_ ·b_u
_ tio
_· _n_ o_f_s_t_o_m
_ a_t_a_· _o_n_ u_p_p_e_r_ a_n_d_ l_
o _w_e_r_s_u_rfi
_ a,c
..;,.·_e_s_o_f _l_e _a _v_e_s._ __ ..___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _)
Materials Required. Leaf of a plant (Bryophyllum/Tradescantia), pair of forceps, watch glass, slide, coverslip,
brush, fine needles, safranin stain, glycerine and compound microscope.
Procedure
1. Select a turgid dorsiventral leaf of a mesophytic plant (Bryophyllum/Tradescantia) exposed to sun.
2. Peel off the upper and lower epidermal strips by means of a pair of forceps.
3. Add a few drops of safranin stain over the material.
4. Mount each peel in water separately.
5. Expose these slides to sun light.
6. Remove the extra stain with the help of filter paper.
7. Put a drop of glycerine and mount.
 8. Observe the mounts under microscope.
STOMATAL
STOMA
APERTURE EPIDERMAL CELL

," \ L - - ' - - GUARD CELLS

SUBSIDIARY
CELLS
EPIDERMAL
CELLS

A
B
Fig. Portions of epidermis enlarged to show stomata.
(A) Peel from upper epidermis having a few stomata.
(B) Peel from lower epidermis having many stomata.
Observatio ns
1. Small oblong or oval pores will be seen in between two kidney-shaped guard cells.
2. Number of stomata are more in the lower epidermis as compared to upper epidermis.
Conclusion
1. Opening of stomata is bounded by kidney-shaped guard cells.
2. There are more stomata on lower surface of leaf.

0
OPENING
•
THICK • 0 0
WALL
THIN
WALL
0
0
CHLOROPLASTS
GUARD
CELL

A 8
Fig. Structure of stomata. (A) Open (B) Closed.
Precaution s
1. Hold the slide from the edges.
2. Epidermal peel should be taken from a freshly plucked leaf.
3. Remove extra stain and glycerine with the help of filter paper.
Ill AIM OF EXPERIM ENT
II EXPERIMENT Ne
Demonstr ate that carbon dioxide is ,given :out during respiratio n ofplants.

Materials required. A bulb or tube having sodalime, two bottles with freshly prepared lime, bell jar,
with
black cloth, corks, bent glass tubes, glass sheet, vaseline, aspirator, a small potted plant with pot covered
polythene.
Procedure
1. A small potted plant is placed over a glass sheet.
2. The plant is covered by bell jar.
3. The jar is connected to two bottles of freshly prepared lime water by means of bent glass tubes and corks.
One lime water bottle is connected to aspirator while the other is attached to a tube having sodalime.
4. All .connection s are made air-tight.
5. Bell jar is covered by black cloth cover in order to prevent photosynth esis.
Observatio ns. Aspirator draws current of air in the apparatus.
The incoming air loses its carbon dioxide in sodalime. This is confirmed by the passage of air through the bottle
having lime water. Lime water does not turn milky. CO free a ir pa sses over t h e plant and then into the second
2

bottle containing lime water. The latter turns milky.

 ~ ~

.__AIR
., ~d
CLOTH
COVER
~/ POTTED_. - -~ 'U' TUBE
'-..,, PLANT
I
I
I CAUSTIC
I
I POTASH
I
,s
:J GLASS
PLATE

A B C D

Fig. Apparatus to demonstrate that CO2 is evolved in aerobic respiration.

Conclusions. Lime water turns milky only after coming in contact with carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide
must have come from respiration of the plant because the incoming air has been made CO2 free by passing through
sodalime.
Precautions
(i) Cover the pot a n d its soil with polythene thoroughly so as to exclude chances of CO coming from the soil.
2
(ii) Make the connections air-tight.
(iii) Cover the bell jar with black cloth, otherwise the experiment will fail because during active hotosynthesis
plants do not give out CO 2 but instead absorb the same.
(iv) Check that the incoming air does not turn the lime water of the first bottle milky.
 fl EXPERIMENT No.
- AIM OF EXPE RIME NT
slide .
To study the binar y fissio n in Amo eba from a prep ared
Amoe ba, Param ecium , and budd ing in hydra and
Mate rials requ ired. Prepa red slides of binar y fission of
yeast .
Proc edur e
1. Keep the slide on the stage of microscope. powe r if it is neces sary.
2. Focus it unde r low powe r and then may chang e to high
3. Note down the featu res and write comm ents.
Com ment s
(1) Organ ism is of irregu lar shape , with simpl e
or branc hed pseu dopo dia.
ular and trans lucen t proto plasm with a very slow
(2) In living condition it looks like whiti sh mass of irreg
move ment.
perm eable plasm a mem brane , called as
(3) Body of the organ ism is covered by a thin, delica te and
plasm alem ma.
into outer non-v acuol ated ectop lasm or ectos arc
(4) Insid e the plasm alemm a, the cytop lasm is distin guish ed
and inner endo plasm or endo sarc.
witho ut pseud opodi a.
(5) Amoe ba under going binar y fission show s round ed body
(6) Nucle us divide s by elong ation.
PLASM ALEMM A

ECTOP LASM

ENDOP LASM

NUCLEUS

CONTRACTILE
VACUOLE

ECTOPLASMIC RIDGES
PSEUD OPODI UM

Fig. Amoeba showing struct ure.

(7) Cytop lasm divides by const rictio n.
(8) Two daug hter amoe bae are formed.
NUCLEUS
AMOEBA DIVIDING DAUGH TER
BEFORE DIVISION AMOEB A

AUGHT ER
AMOEB A

. .
Fig. Amoe ba show ing binar y fi ss1on
Reas ons for Iden tifica tion
1. Roun ded body witho ut pseud opodi a.
2. · Prese nce of const rictio n show ing division.
 II EXPERIMENT No.
-AIM OF EXPERIM ENT
To study budding in case of Yeast from p,-epa,-ed slide.
---- ---- ---- ----- -----
Buddin g in yeast. During favourable conditions, a small bud like outgrowth initiates at one end of th e parent
cell. It gradually enlar ges in size. The n ucleus a lso enla rges and gets divided into two parts. One part goes into the
bud and other r emain s in the par ent cell. Gradually the bud becomes almost of the same size as that
of th e parent
cell. The budding may be repeated, r esulting in the formation of one or more chain s of bud cells .
During the fission nuclear division takes place first, followed by the division of th e parent cell's cytoplasm.
Daughter
buds

Parent
cell
\ Nucleu:.f ,
·-:-0
!·:·k
" ;;
•.

Parent
(a) Vacuole (b) (c) (d) (e)
cell
Yeast

Fig. Asexual reproductio n by budding.

Comment s:
1. An outgrowth initiates at one end of parent cell. _
2. Nucleus enlarges and gets divided into two parts.
3. One part of nucleus goes in bud whereas other part remains in parent cell.
· t·10n appears at the base and later a wall is laid down separating the bud from the parent ce 11 .
· t nc
4. A cons
 II EXPERIMENT No
- AIM OF EXPERIMENT

Identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (Pea, Gram, a red kidney bean).

Observations
Embryo/Gram Seed. The entire fleshy body as seen after removing the seed coat is embryo. The embryo
consists of :
(i) two cotyledons or seed leaves and
(ii) a short rucis to which cotyledons are attached. The part of axis lying towards the pointed end of seed is
called radicle which forms root and the other part lying towards opposite side is plumule. The plumule forms
short stem.
TESTA

STROPHIOLE
COTYLEDON
RADICLE
MICROPYLE
A B
HILUM
Fig. Gram Seed : A. Whole seed, B. Embryo
y
Embryo of pea. The whole white body seen after removing the seed coat is the embryo. It consists of tw
cotyledons and a short curved axis to which cotyledons remain attached. The portion of axis lying outside th~
cotyledons, bent inward and directed towards micropyle is called radicle. The other portion of axis lying in
between two cotyledons is called plumule.
Functions of cotyledons are-(i) the cotyledons act as food storage organs and thus food stored in them is
used by the embryo when the seed germinates. (ii) endospermic seeds, the cotyledons function as digestive and
absorptive organs; the digested food is utilized by the embryo for further growth. (iii) the cotyledons act as
protective organs; they protect plumule. (iv) the cotyledons turn green on coming out of the soil and manufacture
food material by photosynthesis.

COTYLEDON

PLUMULE

EPICOTYL

TIGELLUM
MICROPYL E
HYPOCOTYL
HILUM
RADICLE
A B

Fig. Pea seed: A. whole seed B. embryo

Embryo of bean seed. The embryo consists of two fleshy cotyledons and a curved axis to which cotyledons
remain attached. The axis consists of two parts radicle and plumule.

SEED COAT

PLUMULE COTYLEDON
FIRST TRUE~-__,.-
HYPOCOTYL-RADICLE AXIS
LEAVES HYPOCOTYL

COTYLEDON SEED COAT

A 8
1,
:1
Fig. Bean seed A. Seed with embryo B. Germinating Embryo
1
. ! ace rn