Name : Danish Aslam

Teacher : Ibarat Ali Laghari

Assignment : “The Central Nervous System”
Department : BS English (Evening)
Batch : 2024
Date : 17/May/2024
 The central nervous system
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It regulates organizes
and coordinates voluntary actions according to the situations.

Brain

Human brain is a very delicate and complicated machinery. It is enclosed in eight bones
called cranium. The brain conducts higher mental processes like thought, reasoning and
memory. The spinal cord carries a mental process of secondary importance to the brain. The
brain carries out only higher functions whereas reflex actions are controlled by the spinal cord.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain Spinal cord

Hind Brain Mid Brain Fore Brain

Cerebellum Cerebrum

Cortex Right Hemisphere

Pons Thalamus Left Hemisphere

Hypothalamus

Medulla Olfactory Bulb

Limbic System

Occipital Lobe Temporal Lobe Parietal Lobe Frontal Lobe

Weight
Human brain weighs 46 ounce in males and 44 ounce in females. Experts believe that
the organism will be intelligent in proportion to how much more the brain weights than the
spinal cord. The brain in humans weighs fifty time more than the spinal cord. Hence man is the
crown of creation. This proportion is not found in any other animal.
Structure
The structure of human brain has been divided into three parts for the sake of study.
i Forebrain
ii Midbrain
iii Hindbrain
 Structure of Human Brain

i Forebrain
The fore brain is the most important part of the nervous system. It is the most
developed part of the brain. It forms 90% part of the whole brain. The detail of its important
parts is as under:
➢ Cerebrum
This part extends from the forebrain
up to the back of the head. Thus, part of the
forebrain is divided into two halves called
left and right hemispheres of the brain. Both
hemispheres look to be separate from above
but they are attached with each other
underneath. Both are interconnected by
corpus callosum which is a band of fibers
and which helps both hemispheres to exchange information and work like one unit. Both
hemispheres control bodily acts of the opposite side. Right hemisphere controls the left whereas
left hemisphere controls the right part of body. Both hemispheres are autonomous in learning
and memory. Normally, the left hemisphere dominates the right hemisphere. However, both
have different functions. The left hemisphere plays an important role in speech production
whereas the right hemisphere has its role in mathematical calculations. The corpus callosum
interconnects both transfers information between them and harmonizes sensory and motor
responses. It is because of the corpus callosum that the brain functions like and organized unit.

➢ Cortex
The cortex is three-millimeter-thick layers which covers the both hemispheres. The
cortex is made of grey matter. The layers or folds of the cortex contain all the sensory and
motor nerves of the body. As man gains in knowledge, intelligence, and experience, these
layers grow in numbers and convolutions. If these layers are unfurled, they cover 670 square
inches of area. Lower animals do not have these layers whereas animals with relatively better
intelligence have a few layers of the cortex. Hence experts believe humans owe their
intelligence and discretion to the cortex. A cortex relatively less layered is considered to be a
sign of low intelligence.
 The layers of cortex are very prominent. One layer is called fissure of Sylvius which
extends from the frontal lobe to the occipital lobe and divide the cortex of one hemisphere into
two parts. Another layer called fissure of Rolando extends from the temporal lobe to the parietal
lobe and further divides the cortex into two parts. Thus, each hemisphere is further subdivided
into four parts. These parts are known as lobes which are detailed as under:

i Frontal Lobe
ii Parietal Lobe
iii Temporal Lobe
iv Occipital Lobe

i Frontal Lobe
This lobe is located at the
anterior part of the brain and extends
up to the fissure of Ronaldo. The
frontal lobe contains motor area. The
upper part of the motor cortex
controls the movements of lower nerves and the lower part of the motor cortex controls the
movement of upper nerves of the body. The motor areas of the frontal lobe are not proportionate
with bodily parts. Many large are controlled by a small part whereas many small organs are
controlled by a large part of the lobe. For example, the nerves of hands and legs are controlled
by a small area of the frontal lobe whereas lips, eyes, nose, forehead, etc., are controlled by a
fairly large part. It is because these organs have very complex structure. If any area of the
frontal lobe develops some defect, gets damaged or is amputated the relevant organ or organs
lose movement.

ii Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe. This lobe is concerned with
sensory area. The parietal lobe is related with senses. The upper nerves of the cortex in the
parietal lobe are connected with lower nerves and the lower nerves of the cortex are connected
with upper nerves of the body. The relevance of nerves size and weight has not been observed
in sensory area.
If any part of sensory area is destroyed the individuals cannot receive sensations from
the relevant part of the body. The sensations of cold, heat, pain and touch are felt through this
lobe.

iii Temporal Lobe

This lobe is located above the temples and behind the frontal lobe. This lobe is
concerned with hearing, smelling and tasting. Equal numbers of nerves from both ears extends
into the temporal lobe. If some defect arises in this lobe, this individual may lose hearing as
well as the ability to taste and distinguished between different types of fragrance.
iv Occipital Lobe
It is located above the occiput in the posterior part of the brain. The parietal lobe
Is located above it. The occipital lobe contains visual area it is affected by the sensation of light
received by sensory receptors in the retina of eye are sent in occipital lobe.

FUNCTIONS IF FOREBRAIN
All the nerves that are related to each part of the brain end in the cortex. All the
functions relating to perception, sensation, emotions, intelligence and memory are conducted
here. A detailed study of these functions reveals that specific parts of the brain perform specific
tasks. Different areas of brain perform specific functions.
Motor areas, auditory area, visual area, sensory area, speech area and temporal area.
They are explained as under.

➢ Motor Area
The motor area of the brain is related with the frontal lobe bodily parts and nerves
during voluntary movements.

➢ Sensory Area
It is related with the parietal lobe. This area is concerned with the sensations of cold,
heat, pain, pressure, and touch.

➢ Visual Area
This area is connected to the occipital lobe. When the light waves strike sensory
receptors in the retina, the visual nerves register this vibration and pass it on to the visual area
of the occipital lobe.

➢ Auditory Area
Hearing relates to the temporal lobe. The vibration registered in both ears is transmitted
to the auditory area where the process of hearing is completed.

➢ Temporal Area
Along with hearing the temporal lobe also controls gustatory and tactile functions. The
nerve fibers in the nose and tongue carry message to the temporal lobe and thus the individuals
is able to distinguish between different tastes and smells.

➢ Speech Area
Speech areas are related to the frontal, temporal and occipital lobes. Broca was the first
to discover speech area in the frontal lobe. That is why it is called Broca’s area. This area moves
only tongue and jaws.
 ➢ Thalamus
An egg-like bundle of nerves above the
brain stem is known as the thalamus. Its function
is to pass on the information sent by the spinal
cord. It is also called relay station. It passes on
visual auditory, tactile and gustatory sensations
to the cortex. One part of it plays an important
role in controlling our sleep waking system. This
is why, the thalamus is also considered to be
related to the reticular system. The thalamus also
has a role in depression and restlessness.

➢ Hypothalamus
It is located below the thalamus. Though sized as pea, it holds much importance. It is
crucially involved in emotions and motivation. The hypothalamus controls hunger, thirst sexual
behavior, reproduction, sleep and aggression. Besides this, it regulates body temperature. It is
also involved in homeostasis. When homeostasis is disturbed due to the stress, the
hypothalamus helps the organism to restore its functions to normalcy, for example, both
sweating in heat and shivering in cold normalize body temperature. It is the hypothalamus that
controls such normalizing actions. Hence, it is said that the hypothalamus controls all the
systems that help the organism to avoid imbalance.
The hypothalamus also performs a key role in emotion. In case of stress, emergency or
emotional upheaval, the hypothalamus mobilizes the organism for complex motor actions so
that the individual is prepared for fight or flight.

➢ Olfactory Bulb
It is related to olfactory sense. It is very small in size. However, its size in animals is
larger than humans. That is why, ability to smell in animals is stronger than in humans.

➢ Midbrain
This part of the brain is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain, it interconnects
both these parts of the brain. The nerves of this part are connected to the forebrain at the top
and to the hindbrain at the bottom. Basically, it is the center relaying information. Besides,
parts of the midbrain are involved in sight and hearing.

➢ Hindbrain
This part of the brain is located near the spinal cord. It has three important parts.
i Cerebellum
ii Pons
iii Medulla
 ➢ Cerebellum
It is also called the little brain. It is the
very important part of the brain and controls our
movements. It weighs 10% of the whole brain.
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are attached to
the spinal cord through the cerebellum. They
constitute information centers.

Functions
i It helps the nerves to keep taut.
ii It coordinates our voluntary movements.
iii It coordinates muscle movements and maintains body equilibrium
In case of a defect in the cerebellum, our sensory and motor functions lose coordinates.
Because of this defect, a person walks jerkily instead of moving steadily. It is the cerebellum
that brings about equilibrium and coordination between bodily organs during singing, dancing,
swimming and other different sports. The individual loses balance, coordination and the ability
to grip things, due to the impairment in cerebellum. Besides the individual cannot make refined
movements.
Experiments on birds have revealed that if their cerebellum has some defect, they keep
flapping their wings lying on the ground but cannot fly. It is because the flapping of wings for
flight in volves a peculiar frequency and order which cannot be maintained owing to the defect
of cerebellum.

➢ Pons
The pons is located next to the cerebellum. It interconnects both hemispheres of the
brain through the corpus callosum and lower cortex nerves. The pons serves as a bridge
between both hemispheres. Besides, it also functions like a relay station.

➢ Medulla
It is also called the top end of the spinal cord. This part occupies a key role in executing
mechanical functions of involuntary muscles. It is also involved in respiration blood circulation
and maintenance of temperature in heat and cold. During rest and sleep. It shows down the
heaving of lungs and heart beat so that they have a rest. The sensory neural impulse coming
from the spinal cord goes trough the medulla before reaching the brain. In addition to it, the
motor neural impulse that travels from the brain to the body also passes through the medulla.
If the upper front part of the medulla is damaged or injured the connection between the
brain and the rest of body is disrupted. The individual can no longer make voluntary
movements. He also loses the ability to think. If the lower part develops some defect, lungs
discontinue functioning the heart stops beating and the individual dies immediately.

➢ Spinal Cord
The second important part of the central, nervous system is the spinal cord. It is the
second in command in the central nervous system. It is a half inch thick and 16-inch-long tube
that is made of white nerves. The spinal cord is located in holes between the discs of the
backbone. Its length is measured by the length of individual’s back.
The spinal cord is responsible for reflex actions. A reflex action is simple in its nature
and happens automatically in case of emergency or some important matter. The spinal cord
contains associative nerves which interconnect sensory and motor nerves of the peripheral
nervous system.
Our skeleton is attached to the backbone (keep it in mind that the spinal cord is located
in the backbone). Spinal nerves which consist of 31 pairs branch from the spinal cord. The
inner area of the spinal cord has a dark grey matter whereas the outer area contains a white
matter. It is from here that nerves reach out to different parts of body. If they suffer from some
defect the spinal nerves that are spread through out the skeleton incapacitate the individual.

Functions:
i It conducts simple mental process.
ii The spinal cord interconnects the brain and muscles.
iii It carries out reflex action in emergency.
iv Neural impulses from the brain reach the concerned organs and muscles through the
spinal cord.

Factors which Disturb the Nervous System

The factors operating around us necessarily affect our nervous system. When the
individual receives a stimulus or a stimulus affects the individual, it is in fact our nervous
system that is being affected. Our feelings and emotions are involved with this system. It is the
brain that invest with meaning whatever information our senses receive internal and external
sources.
Since our nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, all input is received
through both these means. Hence our sense organs ae also included in the nervous system.
The study of normal individuals as well as those suffering from physical and mental
disorders makes it clear that every type of physical and mental disease necessarily disturbs our
nervous system.
It is well established that the brain and body are inextricably interrelated. Both affect
the functions of each other. If any part of the body is in pain, it affects the performance of the
brain. Different people react to pain differently. i.e. someone starts crying over a slight pain or
shows signs of anxiety whereas some other person bears extreme pain without making any
complaint or cry. However, it doesn’t mean that such a person is not affected by pain.
Apart from this, there are many patients to complain of physical ailment but apparently
do not have any physical disease. Such cases are called Soma to form disorders. These disorders
do affect the nervous system.
Besides, Fatigue, anxiety and stress indigestion and different types of shocks also
disturb our nervous system.