Electronic Music Machines

Electronic Music Machines

The New Musical Instruments

Jean-Michel Réveillac
First published 2019 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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© ISTE Ltd 2019

The rights of Jean-Michel Réveillac to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932201

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A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-325-7
 Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Chapter 1. Electronic Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Musique concrète . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. The beginnings of electronic music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3. Electroacoustic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4. Acousmatic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5. And much, much more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6. Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7. Different paths to music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8. Today and tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9. Electronic music and counter-culturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Chapter 2. When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1. From analog to digital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2. Popular music and electronic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1. New wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2. House music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3. Techno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.4. New beat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.5. Acid house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.6. Acid jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.7. Ambient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
vi Electronic Music Machines

2.2.8. Hip-hop and rap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.9. Trance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.10. Electro or contemporary electro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 3. The MIDI Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.1. History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2. How MIDI works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1. The hardware level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2. The software level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3. Examples of MIDI transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.1. Note-on/note-off messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2. Program change message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4. The MIDI implementation chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5. The General MIDI standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.1. Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6. The General MIDI 2 standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7. The GS format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8. The XG format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.9. The structure of a MIDI file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.9.1. Header chunks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.9.2. Track chunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.9.3. Example of a MIDI file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.10. MIDI devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.1. MIDI boxes, mergers, and patchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10.2. Musical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.10.3. Studio hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.10.4. MIDI to computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.11. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Chapter 4. Sequencers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1. Mechanical and electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.1. Music boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.2. Mechanical pianos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.3. Barrel organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.4. Fairground organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2. Analog sequencers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3. Digital sequencers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4. Software sequencers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
 Contents vii

Chapter 5. Drum Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.1. On the subject of electromechanical rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2. Drum machines with presets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3. Programmable drum machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4. The MIDI age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5. Drum machines with sampled sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6. Rhythms, software, and computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.7. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter 6. Samplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.1. History of samplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.1.1. Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.1.2. The arrival of the Mellotron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1.3. Samplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1.4. Software samplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2. History of musical styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3. Architecture and principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Chapter 7. Groove Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

7.1. Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2. Famous groove machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.2.1. E-mu SP12 (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.2.2. AKAI MPC-60 (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2.3. Roland MC-303 (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2.4. AKAI MPC 2000XL (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.5. Roland MC-909 (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.6. Elektron Octatrack DPS 1 (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.2.7. Korg Electribe 2 (2014) and Korg Electribe Sampler (2015) . . . . 156
7.2.8. Novation Circuit (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.2.9. Teenage Electronics Pocket Operator PO-32 (2017) . . . . . . . . . 159
7.3. Software groove machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.3.1. Image Line Groove Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.3.2. Propellerhead Reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.3.3. Ableton Live. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.4. Controllers and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.1. Native Instruments Maschine (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.2. Roland MPC Studio Black (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.5. iGroove machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.6. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
viii Electronic Music Machines

Chapter 8. Vocoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8.1. History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.2. Working principle of the vocoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3. Machines and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.3.1. EMS Vocoder 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.3.2. EMS Vocoder 5000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3.3. EMS Vocoder 3000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3.4. Roland VP-330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.3.5. Korg VC-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.3.6. Moog Vocoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3.7. Roland SVC-350 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3.8. Electrix Warp Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3.9. Korg MS2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3.10. Microkorg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3.11. Roland VP-550 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3.12. The Music and More VF11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3.13. Novation Mininova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3.14. Digitech Talker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3.15. Electro-Harmonix V256 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.3.16. A few more unusual examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.4. Software vocoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.5. One step further . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.5.1. Talkbox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.5.2. Auto-Tune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.6. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Chapter 9. Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips . . . . . . . . . 201

9.1. Updating the software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.1.1. Updating the operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.2. Testing the OT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.2.1. Testing the push buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2.2. Testing the dials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.2.3. Testing the x-fader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.2.4. Analysis and results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.3. Hardware repairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.3.1. Opening up the OT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.3.2. Replacing the push buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.3.3. Replacing the battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.3.4. Replacing the x-fader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.3.5. Replacing an incremental encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.4. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
 Contents ix

Chapter 10. Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios . . . . . . . . 229

10.1. Setup and configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10.1.1. Connections and software settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10.1.2. Creating a new project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.1.3. Creating a THRU device (machine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.1.4. Setting up the MIDI connection between the OT
and the instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.2. Creating a MIDI sequence using triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.2.1. MIDI track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.2.2. Creating a musical sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.2.3. A multi-page sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.3. Creating a sequence with the arpeggiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.3.1. Presentation of the arpeggiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3.2. A simple arpeggio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.3.3. Defining an arpeggio graphically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.3.4. More complex arpeggios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.3.5. Triggers in chromatic mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.3.6. Saving a MIDI sequence from an external instrument . . . . . . . 248
10.4. Creating a MIDI sequence with a drum machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.5. MIDI sequences, rhythms, and CC codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Chapter 11. Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips . . . . 263

11.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.1.1. Electribe 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.1.2. Electribe Sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.2. MIDI cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.2.1. Male 3.5 mm jack to female 5-pin DIN adapter . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.2.2. Male 3.5 mm jack to male 5-pin DIN cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.3. Updating the operating system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.4. Electribe 2 to Electribe Sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.4.1. Migrating to the Electribe Sampler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.4.2. Reverting to the Electribe 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11.4.3. Downgrading the Electribe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.4.4. Editing the operating system files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.4.5. Major operating system versions of the Electribe 2 . . . . . . . . . 280
11.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Chapter 12. Korg Electribe: Software Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

12.1. Menu tree of the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler . . . . . . . . . 281
12.2. Shortcuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.3. Using the audio input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
x Electronic Music Machines

12.3.1. Through the Electribe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

12.3.2. Saving a carrier pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
12.3.3. Filtering and applying effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
12.3.4. Sending commands to the synthesizer using triggers . . . . . . . . 302
12.3.5. Sequencer, synthesizer, filters, and effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.4. Extra tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.1. Octave switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.2. Viewing the current settings of a PART. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.3. Controlling two different synthesizers from the MIDI out . . . . . 305
12.5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Appendix 1. CV/Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Appendix 2. Digital Inputs/Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Appendix 3. The General MIDI (GM) Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Appendix 4. Plugins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Appendix 5. Control and MIDI Dump Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
 Foreword

By the dawn of the new millennium, digital technology was no longer a miracle
but a reality.

From electronic instrument-making to software applications, a new world of

flourishing expertise swept across the globe within the sound sphere. This wave of
nascent technologies began to weave cultural and counter-cultural influences
together.

Creators, engineers, and developers lost no time in seizing the revolution for
themselves.

Each to their own craft. “Home Studios” have undeniably transformed both the
work and the environment of composers. The parameter of time springs to mind, a
newfound freedom to experiment with the timescales of the creative process. Some
might see an intimate quality in working at their computers and electronic hardware,
armed with unbounded experiences that might seem endless and lawless; others
might find the infinite choice disorienting.

Technological progress has unquestionably amplified the impact of new timbres.

Most instruments of computer-assisted music (CAM) are simply more elaborate

versions of their very first generations.

Consider, for instance, hip-hop – more specifically, the recent variant known as
“trap music.” Would this style ever find its way into music if the legendary TR-808
beatbox had never been invented?

As electronics developed in the 1990s, tubes were superseded by transistors. The

Japanese inventor Ikutaro Kakehashi, a former watch manufacturer who became an
xii Electronic Music Machines

electronic instrument-maker, launched the TR-808 in 1980. Four years later, he was
forced to abandon production due to a shortage of components and the arrival of the
MIDI format. The 12,000 existing copies of his drum machine gradually found their
way onto the secondhand market. Now finally affordable, Ikutaro’s TR-808
established itself as the ultimate weapon in the two greatest musical movements of
the late 20th Century, techno and hip-hop. Before long, it was the emblem of an
entire generation.

The same principle also applies at larger scales. Communication between

technology and creators has an extraordinary impact on learning and experience-
sharing.

This sets the scene for Jean-Michel Réveillac’s research into the many historical
facets of electronic music, Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical
Instruments, a unique source of information that delves even deeper into the
reflections of his previous book, Musical Sound Effects, published by ISTE Ltd
(2018).

Both books explore and illuminate the creative landscapes of these musical
worlds, making a statement about technological progress that highlights the timeless
diversity of innovators and their instruments.

This book contains a diverse series of chapters that transport the reader to new
heights in understanding musical movements. We are gently encouraged to think
about how the machines of the past and the present can be described and
categorized, gradually working toward the invention of modern standards and tools.
Exploring these pages reveals a prodigious maelstrom of knowledge, strongly
centered around the practical aspects of making music. The second part of the book
focuses on two recently developed machines: the “Octatrack” by the Swedish
manufacturer Elektron and the “Electribe” by the Japanese manufacturer Korg.
Jean-Michel Réveillac has a few surprises about these instruments for his readers.

Let us end by pondering a few words by researcher John C. Lilly (1915–2001).

“The true miracle is that the Universe created one part of itself to study another,
and that this part, by studying itself, is ultimately able to discover the natural and
inner reality of the rest of the Universe.”

Léo PAOLETTI (Leo Virgile)

Composer and audio designer
 Preface

If you would like to find out whether this book is right for you, how it is
organized, and which conventions are used, you are in the right place.

Target audience

This book is for anybody who is passionate about sound, whether hobbyist or
professional, whether primarily interested in sound recording, mixing, or broad-
casting, whether a musician, performer, or composer.

A few sections require some basic knowledge of digital audio, computers, and
electronics.

Organization and contents of this book

This book is divided into two focus areas. Chapters 1–8 are devoted to theory,
whereas Chapters 9–12 are more practically oriented.

Theory:
– 1. Electronic Music;
– 2. When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp;
– 3. The MIDI Standard;
– 4. Sequencers;
– 5. Drum Machines;
– 6. Samplers;
xiv Electronic Music Machines

– 7. Groove Machines;
– 8. Vocoders.

Practice:
– 9. Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips;
– 10. Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios;
– 11. Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips;
– 12. Korg Electribe: Software Tips.

Each chapter can be read separately. Whenever there are concepts that build on
other chapters, references to the relevant sections will be included. The first two
chapters are devoted to the topic of electronic music in general. These chapters
provide a rudimentary background that may help to understand the other chapters.

If you are completely new to the subject, I highly recommend that you start by
reading the first two chapters – everything else will be a lot clearer.

If you are a more experienced reader, I hope that you still discover new concepts
that will expand your knowledge.

Appendices 1–5 contain some additional information and summaries. You will
find, in the following order:

– CV/Gate;
– Digital Inputs/Outputs;
– The General MIDI (GM) Standard;
– Plugins;
– Control and MIDI Dump Software.

The book ends with a bibliography and a list of useful Internet links.

Conventions

This book uses the following typographical conventions:

– italics: reserved for important keywords, mathematical terminology,
comments, equations, expressions, and variables when they are used for the first
time. Some words and expressions borrowed from other languages are also indicated
in italics.
 Preface xv

– UPPERCASE: reserved for the names of windows, icons, buttons, folders,

directories, menus, and submenus. Also used for any elements, options, or
commands used in the window of a software program.

Comments are indicated as follows: NOTE.– They complement the explanations

given in the main body of the text.

Each figure or table has a caption that may help to understand its contents.

Acknowledgments

I would especially like to thank the team over at ISTE, as well as my editor
Chantal Menascé, for placing their trust in me, as well as the composer and sound
designer Léo Paletti (Leo Virgile) for writing the Foreword of this book and for his
time, attention, and patience.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Vanna, who supported me from the very
first page of this book until the very last.

Jean-Michel RÉVEILLAC
February 2019
 Introduction

For centuries, musical instruments were largely frozen in time, except for a few
major technical evolutions, such as the transition from the fortepiano to the
traditional piano (simply known as the piano), to cite just one example.

Figure I.1. Fortepiano (left) and upright piano (right)

A purist might remind you that there were significant changes in the design,
shape, and mechanics of wood, strings, and brass instruments, as well as keyboards
and percussions, between the Renaissance (17th Century) and the early 20th Century.

They would, of course, be correct, but these changes pale in comparison to the
upheaval created by electricity in the musical world. The term “electricity” is
somewhat of a generalization here – it encompasses the multiple more specific
revolutions of electromechanics, electronics, computers, and so on.
xviii Electronic Music Machines

The second half of the 20th Century was packed with musical innovations: the
popularization of tape recorders, the invention of the first oscillators and the first
sound effects (reverb, echo, filters, etc.), the introduction of transistors and later
integrated circuits, the analog-to-digital revolution, the advent of computers, the
first-ever synthesizers, and so on and so forth.

Figure I.2. The RCA Mark II synthesizer, dating from 1955

(source: https://encyclotronic.com)

Uncountably many technological devices – some highly sophisticated, others

less so – quickly became indispensable in studios, both for composers and
performers.

As for the creative aspects of musical compositions, new styles of music were
unleashed upon the planet as musicians did not hesitate to take advantage of their
new means of expression and creation.

Tape recorders were one of the key catalysts of the style of musique concrète,
alongside electroacoustic, acousmatic, and experimental music1. They were also an
essential factor in the formation of new genres of popular music2 that shook the
deeply entrenched norms of music to their very core. Techno, hip-hop, new wave,
dance, house, ambient, acid jazz, electro, and much more: new anthems for the

1 See Chapter 1 of this book.

2 Here, the term “popular music” is used in a general sense (rock, blues, jazz, etc.).
 Introduction xix

electronic music generation. In just a few decades, so many new styles were born,
and it has become difficult to keep track of them. But the steamroller of
technological progress continued full speed ahead nonetheless, unearthing inventive
and creative treasures to seed the next generations of musical craftsmen in turn.

The appearance of electronics and the first synthesizers at around the same time
supplied a vast new palette of sounds to work with. Traditional instrument-making
was forced to accept and merge with electronics; this fruitful union produced new
ways of writing music. New professions with nebulous-seeming titles emerged to
reinforce the newfound technicity: sound designers, disk jockeys, ghost producers,
sound creators, digital communication experts, etc.

Over time, the concept of a “home studio” began to take shape, empowering new
generations of musicians to work without relying on the classical infrastructure of
traditional sound creation. The lion’s share of composing music could now be done
at home, working independently. For the first time ever, composers could dispense
with third parties (recording studios, mastering, engineers, technicians, producers,
classical musicians and instruments, etc.) until the final stages of the creative
process.

Figure I.3. A “home studio” in 1995 (source: https://www.soundonsound.com)

By the turn of the 21st Century, home studios were everywhere. Today, the same
phenomenon has intensified further; not only do modern musicians have the means
to design their own music, but they can also distribute and even promote it,
subverting the musical production infrastructure that had previously reigned
xx Electronic Music Machines

supreme for decades. Online music, Web 2.0 and social networks,
crowdsourcing3, the cloud, shared networks, and so on have disrupted the musical
economy. The major industry players have their work cut out for them; they must
adapt and offer new services, or they will not survive. Their monopoly has
crumbled; the modern digital economy is driven by individuals, copyright is under
threat, and legislation has lost its sharp focus.

Modern technology plays a primordial role in the great shipyard of contemporary

music. New ideas and concepts appear and disappear every day at the whim of
engineers, inventors, designers, manufacturers, or even marketing trends.

This book attempts to paint a simple picture of the machines scattered

throughout the modern electronic music community. Standing proud against their
constantly changing environments, these devices, tools, and equipment have become
the pillars of the musical world. They have become inescapable for composers,
persistent markers that are immutable and indispensable for any serious musical
endeavors. Whether on the radio, on TV, at the movies, at a concert, in a studio, or
at home, sound engineers, artists, and composers are now both the primary
consumers and the primary contributors.

Synthesizers, digital recorders, electronic sound effects, drum machines, groove

machines, vocoders, samplers, sequencers, control surfaces, tablets, and computers
are the foundational components of modern electronic instrument-making, invading
every inch of the contemporary musical space.

3 Crowdsourcing refers to the process of using the creativity and expertise of a large body of
people working as subcontractors to replace the work of a professional individual or business.
 Introduction xxi

Figure I.4. EMS VCS3 synthesizer featuring an independent keyboard (1970)

In this book, I have deliberately chosen to focus primarily on peripherals, largely

avoiding the topic of synthesizers, since these instruments have been discussed at
great length in many other books, as well as the topic of sound effects hardware,
which is explored in my previous book, Musical Sound Effects, also published by
ISTE.

My hope is that these chapters will leave you with a broader and more refined
knowledge of the electronic instruments that have enchanted the modern musical
community, to the delight of anyone as passionate as myself about the magical and
sometimes mysterious universe of electronic music.
 1

Electronic Music

This chapter provides a definition of electronic music and presents some of the
musical techniques that contributed to its ever-accelerating transformation over the
past few decades.

1.1. Musique concrète

It would be tempting to claim that musique concrète (which translates literally to

“concrete music”) was the foundation of today’s electronic music. Unfortunately,
things are never quite that simple. The arrival of new technologies introduced
various other new concepts, some even richer and more complex, which punctuated
the evolution of music from the post-war era until the present day.

Who invented musique concrète? Even this question is not entirely

straightforward to answer. Some might suggest that Pierre Schaeffer1 invented this
style of music in 1948 from the studios of the RTF (Radiodiffusion télévision
française, the French national broadcasting organization from 1949 to 1964). But
digging a little deeper quickly reveals that musicians such as Hector Berlioz, Claude
Debussy, John Cage, Herbert Eimert, Jorg Mager, and many others were also
experimenting with similar concepts, styles, and approaches.

1 Pierre Schaeffer, August 14, 1910–August 19, 1995. French engineer, researcher, composer,
and writer who founded the RTF Studio d’essai in 1942, together with Jacques Copeau.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 1.1. One of the logos of the RTF (used between 1959 and 1964)

Musique concrète was gradually conceived among a constellation of factors that

contributed to shaping its ideas: technological advancements (tape recorders, sound
generators, records, etc.), new art forms (cinema, television, radio, etc.), a period of
musical renewal driven by new types of instrument (mechanical instruments,
electromechanical instruments, electronic instruments, etc.), evolving environmental
conditions for musicians (concert halls, studios, acoustic playback and reproduction
equipment, etc.), and much more. This list is far from exhaustive.

Pierre Schaeffer can arguably be credited with popularizing musique concrète –

if “popularize” is indeed the right word for such a niche style of music.

Before we go any further, let us take a moment to define and characterize exactly
what the concept of musique concrète means. This is also the perfect opportunity to
present some of the many musical styles that it has inspired.

Musique concrète has already been defined many times. However, it is often
presented by invoking freshly minted terminology, the raison d’être of which seems
to be to confuse or disorient amateurs and occasionally trip up even the most careful
of experts.

Who better to define musique concrète than the man who originally introduced
the term himself in 1948, Pierre Schaeffer?

The expression musique concrète was first immortalized on a paper in the article
“Polyphonies”, published in December 1949. In this chapter, Schaeffer offers a clear
and precise explanation of the term: “We have called our music by the name of
‘concrete’ because it is made from preexisting elements, borrowed from various
sound materials, including both noises and musical sounds, then arranged
experimentally by a direct construction that realizes the composer’s artistic
 Electronic Music 3

intentions without the help of ordinary musical notation, even if such help were not
impossible”.

1.2. The beginnings of electronic music

Armed with this definition of musique concrète, we are now ready to talk about
electronic music, a much more nebulous concept – especially given how ubiquitous
it has become today. We shall return to the modern view of electronic music later in
this chapter. In its original context in the 1950s, Herbert Eimert2, one of the
inventors of the style, gave the following definition: “Unlike musique concrète,
which uses microphone recordings, electronic music only uses electro-acoustically
generated sounds. These sounds are produced by a sound generator and engraved on
tape. They can then be processed by performing complicated and dynamic frequency
band manipulations”.

1.3. Electroacoustic music

The marriage of musique concrète and electronic music was preordained and
inevitable, even if, on some level, they are opposing concepts. Electroacoustic music
emerged as the fruit of their union in the late 1950s. Karlheinz Stockhausen3 was
one of the pioneers of this type of music.

Electroacoustic music mixes concrete sounds recorded by one or several

microphones with purely electronic sounds. One of the most important early pieces
in this style was “Song of the Youths” (Gesang der Jünglinge), composed by
Karlheinz Stockhausen in 1956. Some even earlier pieces, such as Orphée 51 by
Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry, Déserts by Edgard Varèse4, and Musica su due
dimensioni by Bruno Maderna5, experimented with similar ideas.

2 Herbert Eimert, April 8, 1897–December 15, 1972. German musician, pioneer of electronic
music, founder of the Studio für elektronische Musik for the Cologne-based radio station
WDR in 1951.
3 Karlheinz Stockhausen, August 22, 1928–December 5, 2007. German composer, pioneer of
electroacoustic music and the spatialization of sound.
4 Edgard Varèse (Edgar Varèse), December 22, 1883–November 6, 1965. French composer
who later gained American citizenship, widely acclaimed as a pioneer of 20th-Century music.
5 Bruno Maderna (Bruno Grossato), April 21, 1920–November 13, 1973. Italian composer
and conductor.
4 Electronic Music Machines

In the 1960s, the term electroacoustic quickly became murkier, which was
widely abused as a one-size-fits-all description for anything with elements of
instrumental, concrete, and electronic music.

It is worth noting that any purely electroacoustic works from this period were
almost entirely limited to recordings. Direct playback was extremely difficult to
implement with the equipment that was available at the time, although this did not
stop some artists from experimenting with it.

Figure 1.2. The Cologne-based radio station WDR, one of the workplaces of Karl
Stockhausen. This studio was one of the first-ever electronic music studios

1.4. Acousmatic music

During the same period, in parallel with musique concrète and electronic music,
the musical community embraced another new concept, acousmatic music. The
objective of acousmatic music is to experiment with the listeners’ sense of hearing
and their mental perception of musical messages to leave room for the imagination.
The word “acousmatic” refers to an auditory situation where the sound source is not
visible, e.g. when listening to the radio or the off-screen voiceover of a
documentary. Acousmatic music is intrinsically bound to its platform; it must be
played on the same medium on which it was recorded. The sound materials carried
by the medium are carefully crafted, sculpted, and shaped by the composer. They
can feature any type of sounds (instruments, noises, voices, and synthetic sounds,
which are deformed, chopped up, transcribed, inverted, looped, filtered, sped up,
stretched, compressed, etc.). During playback, the acousmatic composition is
 Electronic Music 5

reproduced by a potentially elaborate array of equipment (inside an acousmonium6),

often with an orchestra of speakers with different acoustic properties to play signals
at specific volumes with specific acoustic colors, much like a traditional orchestra of
instrumentalists.

Figure 1.3. An acousmonium with an orchestra of speakers

(source: https://inagrm.com)

The word “acousmatic” was coined by the philosopher Pythagoras, who used it
to describe his personal style of teaching. The Ancient Greek thinker spoke from
behind a curtain so that his students would only perceive the sound of his voice and
would not be distracted by facial expressions and gestures. The term was dusted off
and revived by the novelist and poet Jérôme Peignot7 in 1955.

6 Acousmonium, a playback room or auditorium, also known as a sound projection room,

containing multiple speakers arranged and staged in various ways according to the specific
requirements of a piece of acousmatic music. The sound message can be played
monophonically, multiphonically, stereophonically, on three or more channels, etc.
7 Jérôme Peignot, June 10, 1926. French novelist, poet, and typographer.
6 Electronic Music Machines

1.5. And much, much more

Even after defining musique concrète, electronic music, electroacoustic music,

and acousmatic music, we are still far from having exhaustively covered every form
of music that emerged between the 1950s and today. We could, for example,
continue by mentioning experimental music, mixed music, tape music, computer
music, live electronic music, subaquatic music, minimalistic music, spectral music,
and so on. This list is just a small taste of the sprawling diversity of music and
broadcasting phenomena inspired by musique concrète and technological
advancement. In parallel, the ebb and flow of various trends gave rise to creative
movements that proceeded hand in hand with specific musical styles, both old and
new: krautrock, ambient music, progressive rock, wave, no-wave, disco, funk, etc.

1.6. Maturity

It is impossible to remain fully objective and neutral when judging the maturity
of music. The maturity of which style, exactly? Some musical styles are still being
born, while others have disappeared. Combining everything under the single label of
“electronic music” reflects the modern reality of the style, despite being something
of a catch-all description.

Throughout this book, we shall view electronic music as sound content that
combines traditional and/or electronic instruments with a wide range of acoustic
processing equipment to enhance playback and listening, whether live or on a
recorded medium.

In historical terms, I would personally suggest that the experimental period of

electronic music ended with the arrival of the first synthesizers in around the 1960s;
electronic music has arguably been mature as a style ever since.

We shall mention specific music styles wherever relevant throughout each

chapter of this book, noting the corresponding periods and dates where necessary.

1.7. Different paths to music

A new movement known as serial music first emerged in the early 20th Century,
initiated by Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg, and a few others to replace tonal music,
which had predominated since the 18th Century. Serial music adopts a new
approach to writing and composing music by arranging its 12 chromatic sounds
according to the enumerative and non-repetitive principle of twelve-tone serialism
 Electronic Music 7

(or dodecaphony)8. As such, serial music is in some sense a derivative or an

extension of dodecaphony.

Figure 1.4. Example of a twelve-tone series (notes, dynamics, and rhythms), the
foundation of serial music or serialism

Although it attracted a significant amount of attention, serialism had very limited

influence on contemporary styles of music like rock, jazz, and popular songwriting,
which continue to employ the tonal system, each style developing its own
characteristic rules of construction.

Composers like Karl Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez combined together musique
concrète and serial composition in pieces that remain important references to this
day. For example, the piece Deux études de musique concrète (“Two Studies of
Musique concrète”) was composed by Boulez in 1951.

In the mid-1950s, serialism was gradually abandoned in favor of mixed sounds

that combine recordings of concrete acoustic sounds and musical instruments.

In parallel with these more theoretical developments, technological progress was

skyrocketing. In the early 1960s, new types of electronic equipment began
permeating each and every style of music.

Ever since the tape recorder replaced turntables and engraving benches, musical
compositions have been defined and shaped by the actions performed on them.
Composers realize their artistic vision by molding sound materials like a sculptor,
carving out its musical mass, and adding loops, collages, montages, experiments,
and various other manipulations which, together, forge and enrich the musical
continuum of the newly created piece. Composers are like musical smiths,
hammering away at their sound messages with carefully measured strokes driven by
patience, precision, energy, and drive within a brand-new musical environment.

8 Twelve-tone serialism is a technique of musical composition invented by Arnold Schönberg

that gives equal weight to each of the 12 notes of the chromatic scale. Serial music is also
called atonal music because of the lack of hierarchy between notes of different pitches.
8 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 1.5. An AEG tape recorder from 1935

(source: https://www.filmsoundsweden.se)

This new path to music is still trodden by the musicians of today, who continue
to produce a stunning diversity of incredible compositions. Guided by personal
artistic vision, musicians worked in various organizations, laboratories, and studios,
such as the GRMC (Groupe de recherche de musique concrète, Research group for
musique concrète), the GRM (Groupe de recherche musicale, Musical research
group), and the GMEB (Groupe de musique expérimentale de Bourges, Bourges
experimental music group) in France, the WDR (WestDeutscher Rundfunk Köln,
West German broadcasting Cologne) in Germany, the Studio di fonologia (Studio of
phonology) in Italy, and various other private studios, especially in the USA, to
assemble their musical materials into musical styles that differed wildly, despite
often being carried by the same underlying technology.

The alternative path to musical composition adopted by the practitioners of

so-called popular music, such as rock and jazz, received relatively little attention at
that time.

These paths to music share much in common. As well as a classification based

on musical styles, it is striking how accurately each path can be characterized by the
technologies used to design and reproduce its sounds.
 Electronic Music 9

Figure 1.6. One of the earliest digital samplers, the Fairlight CM1 (1979 – source:
https://motherboard.vice.com)

Electronic equipment has been an integral part of music ever since the 1900s.
Without attempting to give an exhaustive list, a few of the key milestones are as
follows:
– Thaddeus Cahill’s Telharmonium (1896);
– the first audio oscillator (1907) by Lee de Forest;
– the Audion piano (1915) by Lee de Forest;
– the Theremin (Etherphone9 – 1920) invented by Lev Termen;

9 Etherphone was the original name of the instrument that would later be renamed as the
RCA Theremin in 1929.
10 Electronic Music Machines

– the Ondes Martenot (“Martenot waves” – 1928) invented by Maurice

Martenot;
– the Trautonium10 (1930) by Friedrich Trautwein;
– the Hammond organ (1935) by Laurens Hammond;
– the tape recorder (1935) marketed by AEG;
– the first analog synthesizers (1970);
– musical computers (IBM 7040 – 1957 – Bell AT&T);
– microcomputers and musical software;
– vocoders;
– samplers;
– digital synthesizers;
– groove machines or grooveboxes.

1.8. Today and tomorrow

Since the early 1990s, a new generation of musicians has taken up traditional,
electronic, and electroacoustic instruments. Much like their forefathers before them,
every budding new musician needs a historical context to identify with and relate to.
What could be more natural than choosing Pierre Schaeffer, the man who
popularized musique concrète within the contemporary musical community, as
foundation and reference? Schaeffer was a researcher, inventor, pioneer, and thinker
whose literary and musical works formulated a philosophy and an entire school of
thought for one of the most innovative modalities of his era, musique concrète and
its derivatives: electroacoustic music, electronic music, acousmatic music, mixed
music, and so on.

Schaeffer is far from the only possible source of inspiration. We could cite many
other artists, such as Pierre Henry, Luc Ferrari, Bernard Parmegiani, François Bayle,
etc. Their independence, esthetic vision, extravagance, talent (or occasionally ego),
and musical productions introduced new ways of expressing sound, creating a
platform for the trends and styles of a newly emerging musical art form whose
history would be intertwined with counter-culturalism.

10 Two-hundred copies of the Trautonium were made by Telefunken between 1932 and 1935
under the name Volkstrautonium.
 Electronic Music 11

1.9. Electronic music and counter-culturalism

In the 1990s, two new genres known as house and techno music gained in
popularity. This marked the beginning of the modern electronic scene and a new
union of esthetics and culture. The ferocity of this new music was unlike anything
that existing artists and producers had ever experienced; computers began to spread,
the Internet became accessible to everyone, and the musical economy was shaken to
its very foundations. A sophisticated and disciplined audience, who just a few years
earlier seemed perfectly happy to purchase vinyl records, tapes, and CDs, suddenly
transformed into an impulsive and inveterate consumer base with completely new
music consumption habits. Online music, shared from peer to peer (P2P)11, the first
ever music downloading websites, the MP3 format, and portable music players
drastically changed the way in which people listened to music – audiophiles wanted
more and more music, no matter whether it was obtained legally; individuals were
empowered to consume music in their own way, at their own speed.

The introduction of sampling and remixing and new forms of musical

performance blurred the traditional lines between composers, performance artists,
and DJs (disk jockeys). Electronic music functions as a creative melting pot,
merging a vast array of different art forms and styles.

To compose a piece, artists no longer need to sit alone in front of an empty page
of sheet music. New methods and equipment are available; writing music is now a
collaborative enterprise that can draw from any repertoire: contemporary, classical,
jazz – just to name a few.

Theoretical concepts, such as the tempo, the dynamics, and the key of a piece,
have become more flexible, fluctuating around an equilibrium that often depends
more on the audience than the artists themselves.

Raves12 and DJ performances perfectly encapsulate the experience of the

audience; nothing is fixed or set in stone, and everything is constantly in flux.

Music has thus become a malleable medium shaped by sociological,

technological, and cultural events. New esthetic sensibilities have taken flight, often
intangible, multidimensional, and cross-generational.

11 P2P is a computer networking model where every participant acts as both client and server,
unlike the more conventional client–server model.
12 The underground gatherings of the electronic music scene, often organized in disused
locations (warehouses, old factories) or natural venues.
12 Electronic Music Machines

Musical styles can no longer be imposed on an audience. The audience are the
mediators, judges, and executioners of the present moment and deliver their verdict
in real time. Just a few years earlier, this might have been seen as scandalous and
denounced as such – plagiarism, copyright violation, and theft. A few still fight to
uphold traditional values in the name of musical and sociological ethics, but they are
in the minority. The steamroller of popular electronic music irreparably crushes any
voices that dare to rise against the crowd.

Even as the old guard, the producers and record companies, scream foul play,
nobody hears them, or perhaps nobody wants to listen. Their efforts are in vain; they
cannot fight against technology, the Internet, and the ability to download. The
general public and their new artists have seized the helm. Who needs the music
industry?

Albums can be promoted over Web 2.013, social networks, music and video
sharing, and distribution platforms: Deezer, Spotify, YouTube, DailyMotion, etc.
(see Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7. Deezer, Spotify, YouTube, and DailyMotion – four of the

most popular sharing platforms

Some performers, rights-holders, and institutions continue to protest the concept of

a piece of music that cannot be fixed, that is continuously evolving, which jeopardizes
the legal principles of copyright and ownership. Perhaps they have a point?

But we could also argue that even traditional songs, melodies, and compositions
have traveled over time, across different epochs and continents, with a thousand and
one variants in almost as many different styles. Surely this is nothing new? The

13 Web 2.0 describes the Internet after 2003, once support for user interactivity had become
widespread. On the web, users are both actors and content creators.
 Electronic Music 13

modern world invokes ethicality to justify rights and contracts, but we should not
turn a blind eye to the economic and financial incentives at play.

The recognition enjoyed by artists and performers is granted and taken away
according to the whims of the media and networks. The dematerialization14 of
music, whether at the level of distribution, interpretation, or composition, seems to
be a recurring theme of modern times. It seems unlikely that anything can stand in
its way.

Still, a few noteworthy initiatives such as the Creative Commons License15 and
the Free Art License16 have attempted to adapt the idea of copyright to the new
musical dimensions of cyberculture.

Figure 1.8. The different types of Creative Commons License (BY: attribution to the
author is required – SA: sharing is authorized under identical conditions –
ND: no derivative works – NC: no commercial usage)

14 Replacement of traditional information carriers and materials (papers, folders, disks,

CDs, etc.) by computer files.
15 Creative Commons is a non-profit organization that offers an alternative legal solution for
individuals of all countries who wish to relinquish their intellectual property rights.
16 The Free Art License is a legal contract that applies the principle of “copyleft” (where the
author of a protected work grants the rights to this work) to artistic creations and much more.
It can be used for any production that is covered by copyright.
14 Electronic Music Machines

1.10. Final remarks

No one can predict the future of the popular landscape of electronic music,
which is the culmination of a technological, musical, and ethical convergence at the
forefront of a revolution that might deserve to be denounced as politically incorrect.
Nevertheless, the foundations have been laid for a transgressive utopia that perfectly
suits its newly emerging musical sound smiths – a paraphrase, in case anyone should
object to using the terms “musician” or “artist” in connection with electronic music.
 2

When Revolution Holds

Us in Its Grasp

This chapter presents two revolutions that unfolded in parallel. The first was a
technological revolution: “From analog to digital, a great upheaval”. The second
was more cultural in nature: “How pop fell in love with electro”.

2.1. From analog to digital

Over the next few chapters, we will trace the history of the musical equipment
used by electronic music: sequencers, drum machines, samplers, groove machines,
etc.

But first, this section focuses on the transition from analog electronics to digital
electronics within a much broader context, including a discussion of the key external
factors that made it happen.

Ever since the 1940s, we have been witnessing a technological convergence that
has never stopped expanding and accelerating. Progress has been consistently
exponential, but the last 35 years were especially hectic. Since 2015, things finally
might have started to slow down once again – or perhaps we have just reached a
temporary plateau, and progress will resume its course as soon as the next major
technological advancement arrives.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
16 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 2.1. Convergence of media, carriers, and platforms

If we roll back the clock by 35 years, we arrive in the early 1980s. This decade
was an important milestone for multiple reasons:
– The first computers and software became accessible to the general public:
Apple II, Tandy TRS-80, Commodore PET, Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX80, ZX81,
ZX Spectrum, Oric, Texas Instruments TI994A, BBC Micro, Thomson TO-7,
followed a few years later by the first PCs, Commodore Amiga, Apple MacIntosh,
Atari 520, 1040ST, etc. Taken alone, computers do not tell us the whole story. The
operating systems and specialized software available to run on them are a crucial
part of the tale. The functionality offered at the software and operating-system levels
expanded at the same rate as technological progress in hardware: microprocessors,
RAM, storage media (floppy disks, optical discs, hard drives, Compact Disc (CD)-
ROMs, etc.), and the graphical quality of monitors, not to mention various new
types of audio interface (sound cards, interface cards, data acquisition cards, etc.).

Figure 2.2. The famous Commodore 64 microcomputer (1982) and its musical SID
(Sound Interface Device) chip. A true synthesizer if ever there was one!
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 17

– The introduction of the MIDI standard (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

united the world of electronic musical instruments, allowing devices to
communicate among themselves. Musicians could now control multiple instruments
in real time, gaining the ability to create easy-to-record sound sequences that could
be effortlessly reused either during live performances or in the studio. The first
generation of musical software for manipulating the MIDI format appeared at
around the same time as computers. Software would very quickly become an
essential pillar of the electronic music universe. Among the pioneering software
tools, we can cite Performer by MOTU (Make of the Unicorn) in 1985, Finale by
MakeMusic in 1988, and Cubase by Steinberg in 1989. There are many others!

Figure 2.3. 5-pin DIN MIDI cable and ports

– The first digital synthesizers: musical equipment manufacturers in Europe, the

USA, and especially Japan launched new devices to take advantage of the MIDI
standard, opening up a range of new, unexplored possibilities: polyphony,
multi-timbrality, programing, saving sounds to disks, and so on.

Figure 2.4. The famous DX-7 synthesizer by Yamaha (1983), which triggered
an explosion in the electronic instrument-building market

– The introduction of CDs: in 1979, Philips and the Sony Corporation began a
fruitful collaboration leading to the CD, which reached the markets in 1982. As soon
as CDs became available, the quality of music improved by leaps and bounds:
background noise was eliminated; CDs (with a theoretical maximum playback time
of 74½ minutes) could store 1.5 times more audio than 33-rpm vinyl records; they
were more resistant to dust and scratches, smaller, and spanned a larger frequency
range (from 20 Hz to 22 kHz); each recorded track could be accessed directly and
more easily; time-tracking information and random playback modes were now
18 Electronic Music Machines

possible; the head (needle, sapphire, diamond) was less fragile and did not collect
dirt; and a laser beam was now used to read the digital data stream containing the
sound message. Commercial CD players followed just a few years later in 1986, and
CD sales surpassed vinyl records shortly after that in 1988. The CD-R (CD
Recordable – a blank CD that can be custom burned) was introduced in 1988,
followed by DVDs a few years later, and more recently by USB sticks.

Figure 2.5. The evolution of audio media over time: vinyls (33⅓ rpm), CDs,
DVDs, and USB keys

– The emergence of new norms and standards in electronics, IT, video

technology, and many other fields: audio transmission standards, such as AES/EBU
in 1985, followed by S/PDIF (see Appendix 2); data transmission standards, such as
RS232 (1981), IEEE1284 (parallel port – Centronics), AppleTalk (1984), MIDI,
MPEG 1 (1988), and the SMPTE standards. It would be completely impossible to
list them all. The 1980s brought thousands of different standards that today have
either disappeared or changed. Many of these standards were tied to computers and
their widespread adoption and standardization in the mid-1990s around a small
number of successful operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS
Classic, followed by OSX and MacOS).
– The arrival of programmable drum machines: as we shall see in Chapter 5,
programmable drum machines dramatically changed the way that musicians
compose music, giving them a vast palette of new freedoms. It suddenly became a
lot easier to arrange complex rhythm sequences, impossible to execute by a human
instrumentalist, or set up basslines and drumlines for live events and home studios.
By combining drum machines with the MIDI standard and the new sequencers,
musicians could now be completely independent during production or when
composing the first draft of a new song. The hip-hop and rap communities quickly
seized upon the possibilities offered by drum machines, using them to replace other
percussive instruments, and adding other sounds and samples from records or CDs
with the arrival of the first generation of fully programmable drum machines
(see Chapter 5) and groove machines (see Chapter 7).
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 19

Figure 2.6. The Roland TR-808 drum machine (1980–1983)

– New musical styles: new groups, some of which have attracted a cult following
today, began to emerge from the depths of the soundscape, laying the foundations of
new types of popular music that embraced electronic machines and early computers
within very different cultural movements: new wave, house, techno, hip-hop,
progressive rock, psychedelic rock, space rock, acid rock, rap, krautrock, new age,
ambient, trance, and so on (see section 2.2).
– The first musical samplers: a true revolution that would turn the world of
popular music upside down. The Fairlight CMI, the first ever sampler, was followed
just a few years later by many other models with much less intimidating price tags,
paving the way for new ideas. As the entire approach to composing music changed,
musical pieces gradually became sophisticated mixtures of synthetic sounds,
samples, traditional instruments, drum machines, computers, sound effects, etc.
Chapter 6 is entirely dedicated to the topic of samplers.

Figure 2.7. The Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument) sampler

20 Electronic Music Machines

– The explosion of video clips promoting musical tracks: in 1981, the MTV
channel made its grand entrance onto the television landscape by broadcasting
music clips to promote and popularize a wide variety of groups, performers, and
musical styles with the general public. Other broadcasters rushed to attempt to fill
the niche. Television suddenly gained a completely new commercial significance
for the production and distribution of music, particularly effective at targeting a
new generation of increasingly sophisticated young consumers with ever more
demanding tastes. The number of TV channels dedicated to music exploded,
including both free and subscription-based options.

Figure 2.8. The logos historically used by MTV, the television channel that created
the video-clip industry (from left to right: logo before launch, logo in 1981,
and logo since 2010)

– The birth of Arpanet1, the Internet2, and the web: especially when viewed
together with the factors mentioned above, the arrival of the Internet was impossible
to ignore. In the late 1980s, Arpanet – the prodigal father of the Internet in the early
1990s – opened its gates to commercial traffic over the web via HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol) and HTML (HyperText Markup Language), created by
Tim Berners-Lee at CERN (Conseil européen pour la recherche nucléaire –
European Council for Nuclear Research). The first multimedia web browser Mosaic,
developed by Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina at the NCSA (National Center for
Supercomputing Applications), also deserves a special mention. Email had been
around since the early 1970s, invented by Ray Tomlinson.

1 The first transfer network based on data packages, created in the USA by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The project was initiated in 1966, and the
first operational demonstration was in 1972.
2 The term “Internet” describes the super-network of networks that linked together
ARPANET and several other smaller networks in 1983.
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 21

Figure 2.9. The first-ever web browser, NCSA Mosaic

Each of these factors intensified the gradual convergence of media, data carriers,
and platforms that had already begun a few decades earlier.

Figure 2.10. The convergence of NBIC (source: Thierry Berthier –

University of Limoges)
22 Electronic Music Machines

More recently, another form of convergence has also been unfolding, namely,
the convergence of NBIC (nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology,
and cognitive science) since 2002. Many experts agree that this new convergence
represents the future path by which technological advancement – which, as
mentioned above, is currently in stagnation or silently stalled – will reach even
greater heights.

Returning to the main topic of this section, the transition from analog to digital
has had major repercussions at every level of society. Its consequences are
innumerable, not just in music but every other aspect of our lifestyles, too. The
digital revolution triggered a sociological revolution that changed how we behave,
see, listen, analyze, understand, create, develop, act, etc.

Even if the gradual rise to power of digital technologies was less conspicuous in
the musical community, its influence was no less significant. We can draw a simple
analogy to illustrate the impact of the digital age.

Consider the art of photography. Before digital cameras, images were captured
using a thin silver-based film (photographic film). After taking a picture, the
photographer needed to develop it and print it on a paper before seeing the results.
This obviously takes time – it was impossible to quickly check whether a picture
was any good. But with digital photography, anybody can review the picture on the
camera screen (or some other device, like a tablet or a computer) within seconds of
taking it. Moreover, the number of snapshots is no longer limited by the length of
the film reel; we now have virtually unlimited memory available to store digital
photos.

This changed our entire approach to photography. Our attitudes toward images,
such as taking photos, viewing them, or preparing the scene when taking a picture,
are now completely different. The revolution experienced by music was similar.
Composition, creation, performance, recording, and editing were all transformed and
reinvented by digital technology.

In the future, nanotechnology, the dematerialization of documents and music,

and futuristic quantum computers will lead to new breakthroughs. We can expect
electronic music to embark upon unexplored paths, guided by a new generation of
contributors, researchers, artists, and sound smiths of tomorrow.

One thing is certain – digital technology has triumphed and there is no way back.
Even if a few stragglers remain, naively fighting for the return of the analog age,
they simply represent a dwindling minority of collectors and musical historians. Of
course, vinyl records are on the rise, analog synthesizers have never been more
popular, and manufacturers are still building new analog equipment. But to be
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 23

perfectly clear, analog in the 2010s is nothing like analog in the 1950s to 1980s.
Modern analog equipment comes with the usual digital innovations already built in:
digital audio input/output interfaces, memory card support for data storage and
recording, MIDI ports, USB ports, S/PDIF, and so on.

Figure 2.11. The Novation Bass Station II (2013), an analog synthesizer.

The MIDI ports and the USB port on the back would of course not
have been present on an original model from the 1970s

Readers who feel the pull of nostalgia should rest assured – a valiant few still
painstakingly preserve the vintage analog devices of the past so that they will never
be forgotten; it is heartwarming to think that these wonders will be preserved by fans
passionate about historical technologies that are obsolete, or in some cases perhaps
arguably not. The machines of the past are undoubtedly part of our heritage; they
deserve to be protected and archived to allow future generations to remember the
magical era that preceded and created the digital world.

2.2. Popular music and electronic music

Before the 1980s, musical styles were relatively inflexible. It was easy to classify
individual pieces by category and genre; the boundaries between different types of
24 Electronic Music Machines

music were clear-cut and unambiguous. Any given musician or group could easily
be characterized as classical, jazz, pop, rock, hard rock, etc.

But, as the technological and sociological environment of music changed, the

boundaries between styles gradually faded. Marketing began to define the
separations between genres instead. It would be difficult or perhaps impossible to
give a fully authoritative classification of musical styles from the 1980s until today.
The context never stopped changing; new techniques, hardware, and software came
and went ceaselessly.

Today, everything has been thrown together and intertwined. The digital age is
much to blame (or to credit) for this, having empowered musical composers to draw
from existing music and reuse it to create new tracks. Remixes and mashups3 were
among the key ideas of this new type of electronic music. However, completely new
and original compositions never stopped being made.

The next few paragraphs aim to paint a simple picture of the state of electronic
music since the 1980s, mentioning any relevant styles by name in each case. Other
books have gone into much more depth; interested readers are welcome to visit the
bibliography at the end of the book for further reading.

There is a relatively broad consensus that house music and new wave were the
starting points of modern electronic music. These styles took shape around the
earliest models of the drum machine. By adopting very intense slap basslines, they
generate vivid energy that combines jazz, rock, soul, world music, etc., combining
the most unremarkable of instruments with the most unexpected and exotic sounds –
sirens, whistles, steel cans, etc.

Both movements, especially house music, represent subversive musical styles in

their own right, by virtue of their structure, melodic arrangements, and rhythmic and
harmonic combinations – designed by electronic machines for electronic machines.
House music strongly influenced many later performers and musicians, inspiring
them to revisit their repertoire with an entirely new approach.

3 Mix of different sound sequences of different styles, typically from several different
sources. This technique was widely used by DJs and was further democratized by samplers
and groove machines. Mashup composers used harmonization tools to align the key and
tempo of their mashup tracks. Although mashups were originally fairly difficult to execute in
the 1980s, they soon became a lot more accessible with the arrival of new computer-based
music editing software.
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 25

2.2.1. New wave

House music was born in Chicago, at some point around 1982–1983. In many
ways, it emerged as a replacement for disco, the muse of the 1970s. New wave was
another style that suddenly appeared in the mid-1970s and lasted until the late
1980s. Like house music, it was also heavily reliant on electronic hardware.
However, unlike house music, whose more innovative aspects would shake the
musical world to its roots, new wave remained fairly consistent and rigid as a
musical style over the course of its lifetime, without splitting into different
subcurrents.

Figure 2.12. Four new wave albums: Propaganda: “Secret Wish” (1985); Depeche
Mode: “Broken Frame” (1982); Fad Gadget: “Collapsing New People” (1983);
Anne Clark with David Harrow: “Sleeper in Metropolis” (1984)
26 Electronic Music Machines

Some might describe new wave as the music of the post-punk generation4. New
bands, such as the New York Dolls, Velvet Underground, Ian Dury, and Nick Lowe,
had already begun experimenting with new wave between 1970 and 1975, but it
only truly took off in the early 1980s with Propaganda, Eurythmics, Blondie, Tears
for Fears, Billy Idol, Anne Clark, New Order, Orchestral Manoeuvers in the Dark,
Depeche Mode, Simple Minds, Ultravox, Fad Gadget, Frankie Goes to Hollywood,
Art of Noise, Dead or Alive, Bronski Beat, Talk Talk, Pet Shop Boys, Visage, Soft
Cell, Spandau Ballet, Alphaville, Grauzone, Andreas Dorau, and so on.

In the United Kingdom, the term “new wave” was less popular. Instead, the
movement was often understood as a renewed form of punk with underground
leanings.

Over time, subgenres of new wave, such as cold wave, electronic body music
(EBM), New Romantics, alternative rock, Neue Deutsche Welle, and Gothic new
wave (Siouxsie, The Cure, Simple Minds) emerged, but the movement as a whole
remained relatively consistent around a single, shared momentum.

2.2.2. House music

In parallel, house music was embarking upon a separate path, drawing

inspiration from the burgeoning new possibilities offered by the sequencers and
early drum machines of electronic music. The repetitive music and beats favored by
groups like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, and various others, the early pioneers of
experimental electronic music from the 1970s who played an important role in
popularizing the style of krautrock5, provided an important source of ideas and
inspiration to some disc jockeys (DJs). The result was the birth of a new musical
movement: house music. DJ mixing techniques borrowed from Jamaica were
another key influence of the style.

The house music genre is designed to be shared, bringing every culture and
community together around the common desire to have fun and party. This marked
the beginning of improvised get-togethers in unusual locations not intended for
music – abandoned factories and warehouses.

4 Musical genre derived from rock that first appeared in the early 1970s. Post-punk was very
popular between 1974 and 1976, with groups such as The Sex Pistols, The Clash, and
The Ramones.
5 Krautrock is a subgenre of progressive rock (Procol Harum, Yes, The Nice, Soft Machine,
Emerson Lake and Palmer, King Crimson, Gentle Giant, Van der Graaf Generator, Genesis,
Pink Floyd, etc.).
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 27

The origins of the name “house music” are unclear, but two of the proposed
explanations stand out:
– music created at home, in a home studio;
– music designed to be played at events hosted in warehouses.

In Chicago, Larry Sherman founded the first record label entirely dedicated to
house music, Trax Records.

Figure 2.13. One of the first albums of house music, published by TRAX Records:
“Baby Wants to Ride” by DJ Frankie Knuckles, one of the pioneers of the genre

Far away from Lake Michigan, in New York, on the eastern coast of the USA,
house music was just as present but featured slightly different colors than in
Chicago. The New York strain of the movement was softer and more focused on
vocals, with patches of strings and more conventional structures with verses and a
chorus. Emerging record companies in this part of the world also began to devote
themselves to this newfound style: Easy Street, Supertronics, and a few others. This
form of house music is known as garage house6.

Although house music remained relatively localized, marginal, and under-the-

radar in the USA, it took flight in Europe and especially in the United Kingdom,

6 The name “garage” comes from a famous club in New York – Paradise Garage – which
opened in 1978 and lasted until 1987. DJ Larry Levan, one of the first modern DJs to make
music from other people’s music using turntables, was one of the trailblazers of house music
and a historical backbone of this club.
28 Electronic Music Machines

becoming a global phenomenon. Music tracks from the USA were broadcast in
many British clubs, setting the dance floors on fire. In 1986 and 1987, house music
even stole top position on the charts.

Tracks such as “Jack Your Body” by Steve “Silk” Hurley and “Pump Up the
Volume” by the British band MARRS were number ones for several weeks in a row,
spreading the passion for this new type of music to other European countries.

Figure 2.14. Two famous house music records: “Jack Your Body” (1987) and
“Pump Up the Volume” (1987)

2.2.3. Techno

Back on the other side of the Atlantic, in Detroit, another style of music was
beginning to form in the early 1980s – techno7, which borrowed sounds from soul,
disco, and motown. The musical structure of techno uses repetitive sequences with
very funky sounds, mixing synthetic electronic elements on top of a strong bassline.
It concentrates poetic flourishes around very mechanical beats with colder and more
industrial colors.

Among others, the key founders of the genre were Derrick May and Kevin
Saunderson, who confessed to being fascinated by the house music scene in
Chicago. They created the famous track “Strings of Life,” which is considered one

7 The term “techno” is thought to have been coined by the DJ Talla 2XLC, who used it as a
description for this musical genre in his record store in Germany in 1982.
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 29

of the great classics of the techno genre. It has several clearly recognizable
similarities with house music.

Figure 2.15. The compilation “Techno! The New Dance Sound of Detroit” (1988).
This compilation offers some insight into the influence of house music on techno

Toward the end of the 1980s, the floodgates opened, and techno engulfed the
European music scene: from Berlin to Manchester, then onward to other neighboring
countries.

Some earlier music tracks, such as “I Feel Love” (1977) by Donna Summer and
“ShariVari” (1981) by Number of Names, and even some pieces by Kraftwerk
(between 1977 and 1983), arguably deserve to be retrospectively classified as
techno.

2.2.4. New beat

In the late 1980s, in Belgium, a new style was born: new beat, a derivative of
new wave and EBM8. This was the heyday of samplers and drum machines.

8 EBM is a music style that mixes synthetic punk and industrial music (a style that
incorporates mechanical noises, often from industrial settings), often viewed as its own
subgenre of new wave.
30 Electronic Music Machines

The new beat was first and foremost a new style of party music, overtly sexual
and scandalous, drawing from recent national and international events.

In 1987 and 1988, its popularity suddenly surged, with hundreds of records
produced by short-lived groups who formed and disbanded with the new beat
movement.

Figure 2.16. Two examples of new beat tracks: Bassline Boys, “Dechavanne, on se
calme !” (1989), structured around a topical news story (a provocation by French
television presenter C. Dechavanne on the TV show “Ciel mon Mardi”),
and The Maxx, “Cocaine” (1988)

After the turn of the new decade, the new beat movement ran out of steam and
gradually vanished, but not before giving birth to a new subgenre of techno,
hardcore techno, which would prove extremely popular in the Netherlands and
surrounding countries.

Among the artists of the new beat movement, we can cite Bassline Boys,
Jade 4U, One O One, The Maxx, and many others.

2.2.5. Acid house

Acid house, another derivative of house music characterized by analog basslines

generated using the Roland TB-303 synthesizer, first emerged in 1988. This new
style would very quickly be spread throughout Europe via electronic music
gatherings (rave parties).
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 31

Figure 2.17. The TB-303 synthesizer by Roland

The origins of acid house are not entirely clear. Some authors have attributed the
style to the track “I’ve Lost Control” by Sleezy D in 1986, whereas others instead
cite “Acid Tracks” by the group Phuture in 1987. Regardless, the earliest music of
this style was produced in Chicago, although its path to popularity took a detour
through the United Kingdom.

Figure 2.18. The two albums credited as possible origins for

the acid house style by some authors

Acid house has historically been fraught with bad press and associated with
various types of drugs, especially ecstasy and LSD.
32 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 2.19. The yellow smiley, the emblem of the acid house movement

2.2.6. Acid jazz

In the mid-1980s, another style began to take form on the London music scene,
combining jazz, funk, disco, and soul – acid jazz. In 1991, the popularity of acid jazz
exploded, and it crossed the pond to the USA. Japan, Brazil, Germany, and Eastern
Europe would each succumb in turn.

Figure 2.20. “The Antidote” (1992), an album by the guitarist Ronny Jordan

The guitarist Ronny Jordan was one of the heralds of acid jazz in Great Britain
before his flagship track “The Antidote” later gained recognition throughout the
entire globe. English groups like Jamiroquai, Galliano, and Urban Species also
played a key role in disseminating this style of music throughout Europe.
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 33

Figure 2.21. A compilation album of acid jazz (1996). The tracklist features
Galliano, Urban Species, and other artists

In the USA, possible examples include A Tribe Called Quest, the musical project
“Buckshot LeFonque” by Branford Marsalis, and the jazz lineup Liquid Soul.
Internationally, we can cite Mondo Grosso in Japan and Skalpel in Poland. Many
great contributors of acid jazz are also well known on the hip-hop scene.

The popularity of acid jazz began to dwindle in the late 1990s.

2.2.7. Ambient

The pioneer and founder of the ambient style is widely considered to be

Brian Eno in the 1970s. Ambient music offers a follow-up act to the dreamy music
popularized by bands such as Ash Ra Tempel, Tangerine Dream, Popol Vuh,
Pink Floyd, and Klaus Schulze. Initially, it was completely experimental, using
synthesizers and any other electronic devices that were available at the time. With
the development of house and techno, ambient experienced a revival in the
mid-1980s, achieving widespread popularity in 1990, thanks to performers such as
Aphex Twin.

Over time, ambient was transformed by new ideas and special musical colors
from artists who typically focused on other styles, e.g. Wendy Carlos,
Mike Oldfield, Vangelis, and Jean-Michel Jarre.
34 Electronic Music Machines

The arrival of house music and techno created the subgenres of ambient house
(Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO)) and ambient techno, but musical journalism and
the general public rarely made the distinction, usually simply focusing on the term
“ambient.”

Figure 2.22. The famous album “Ambient 1” (1978) by Brian Eno,

widely credited with inventing the ambient style

Ambient was frequently used to round off techno events by creating a calming
and satisfying atmosphere that contrasted with and soothed the strong rhythms and
powerful basslines.

Variants of this style would continue to spread until 2010.

Figure 2.23. The album “Public Pressure” (1980) by YMO, a Japanese band
and pioneer of the ambient house style
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 35

Ambient is often described as an intellectual music style with a deeply moving

melodic composition. It aims to fit into any kind of environment by building a
relaxing atmosphere that never forces the listener to pay attention, while still piquing
his or her interest with an intriguing mixture of timbres.

2.2.8. Hip-hop and rap

Both hip-hop and rap were born in the USA, especially in the Bronx in
New York, around the early 1970s. They were the catalysts of an extremely
important artistic movement that would spread to every city of the world and
develop into a veritable urban culture.

In the early 1980s, hip-hop began to draw inspiration from disco, and electronic
instruments were gradually incorporated into its music: first, drum machines,
followed by samplers shortly after.

In the United Kingdom, DJ Greg Wilson was one of the first artists to perform a
style of music that can be described as electro hip-hop.

2.2.9. Trance

Trance originated from Germany in the 1990s. It is a direct descendant of techno,

but features more melodic sounds, with upward and downward shifts designed to
evoke certain emotions. The tempo can range from 10 to 160 bpm (beats per
minute), with sound effects based on extremely drawn-out reverbs used to build up
an imposing musical mass.

Figure 2.24. The trance album “Yaaah” (1990) by D-Shake

36 Electronic Music Machines

D-Shake, Goa Gil, Juno Reactor, Raja Ram & the Infinity Project, Future Sound
of London, Total Eclipse, Sven Vâth, Energy 52, and Paul van Dyk are just some
references of the trance genre.

A substyle known as Goa trance or psychedelic trance also emerged from an

underground movement in India in parallel with the genre developing in Europe.

2.2.10. Electro or contemporary electro

In the mid-1990s, the digital age arrived in full force: computers, the Internet,
electronic games, video games, and consoles. By this point, the electro style had
implicitly already crystallized – now it was ready to explode. Electro music typically
has a tempo ranging from 120 to 140 bpm and features strongly syncopated rhythms.
This creates an industrial effect, almost as if it were designed and driven by a
machine.

The meaning of the term “electro” also changed over time, transforming from a
style encompassing any electronic music that incorporates some degree of dancing
to a multitude of different styles and substyles across a wide range of extremely
diverse artists today.

Figure 2.25. The album “Music for the Jilted Generation” (1994) by The Prodigy

The modern conception of electro tends to focus on artists who use computers
and sophisticated electronic instruments (synthesizers, digital effects, groove
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 37

machines, drum machines, samplers, sequencers, vocoders, talkboxes, etc.),

sometimes in combination with more traditional instruments.

The artists who exemplify this so-called contemporary electro music in France
and the United Kingdom include The Prodigy, Chemical Brothers, Phoenix,
Fat Boy Slim, Bob Sinclar, Moby, Laurent Garnier, and many others.

2.3. Final remarks

In the last few sections, we completed a brief tour of some of the most
memorable styles that have marked the history of electronic music. You may have
noticed that we stopped in the early 2010s – there is a good reason for this. For the
last 10 years, electronic machines have been omnipresent in the universe of popular
music; the roles of DJs, performers, musicians, composers or technicians, and sound
engineers and designers have been chaotically scrambled together, seemingly
without rhyme or reason, driven by an onslaught of marketing, advertising, trending,
philosophical, esoteric, sociological, emotional – not to mention musical – impulses.

Over the history of electronic music, dozens of new styles and genres have been
born. Some have survived while others have disappeared – together, their passing
represents the essence of electronic music and its progression over time.

Table 2.1 lists a small selection of albums and performers that left their mark on
electronic music between the 1970s and the 2010s, organized by decade. This is just
a small taste of the sheer variety of electronic music. There is much, much more to
discover.

Decade Performer Album or single

1970s Tangerine Dream Ricochet
Rubycon
Stratosfear
Klaus Schulze Moondawn
Timewind
Mirage
Dune
Brian Eno Ambient 1: Music for Airports
Ah Ra Tempel New Age of Earth
Join Inn
Popol Vuh In den Gärten Pharaos
38 Electronic Music Machines

Kraftwerk Autobahn
Radio-Activity
The Man-Machine
Trans Europe Express
Jean-Michel Jarre Oxygène
1980s Tangerine Dream Green Desert
Logos
Exit
Brian Eno Ambient 2: The Plateaux of Mirror
Apollo: Atmospheres & Soundtracks
Klaus Schulze Trancefer
Depeche Mode Master and Servant
Ame Strong SA Tout Est Bleu
Hiroshi Yoshimura Green
Kraftwerk Computerwelt
Laurent Garnier Wake Up
Astral Dreams
Shot in the Dark
Air Sexy Boy
Bob Sinclar Paradise
1990s Moby Play
Ambient
Depeche Mode Violator
Ultra
Songs of Faith and Devotion
Aphex Twin Selected Ambient Works 85–92
Melodies From Mars
B12 Time Tourist
Boards of Canada Music Has the Right to Children
Autechre LP5
Chiastic Slide
Daft Punk Homework
DJ Krush Kakusei
Amon Tobin Bricolage
I:Cube Disco Album
 When Revolution Holds Us in Its Grasp 39

2000s Solar Fields Movements

Leaving Home
Crystal Castles Crystal Castles
Daft Punk Discovery
Human After All
Avril Be Yourself
Ready Made Bold
Flexion & F.Me
Skyramps Days of Thunder
Moderat Moderat
Apparat Duplex
Boards of Canada Geogaddi
Jon Hopkins Insides
M83 Digital Shades, Vol. 1
Glass Candy B/E/A/T/B/O/X
Gridlock Formless
Bob Sinclar Champs Elysées

Table 2.1. A few electronic music albums between 1970 and 2010
 3

The MIDI Standard

The MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) standard transformed the world
of musical hardware. MIDI was the first catalyst of a fundamental revolution that
created new ways for musicians to work and reimagined the entire creative process.

This chapter presents the MIDI standard, its evolution over time, and its inner
workings – from day one until its modern form. We will also discuss a couple of
alternative proprietary formats – GS (Roland) and XG (Yamaha) – before finishing
with a brief tour of a few musical devices that support MIDI.

3.1. History

Dave Smith, the founder of Sequential Circuits, is undoubtedly one of the

founding fathers of the MIDI standard. He was not the first person to suggest a
communication system between different electronic music devices, e.g. a synthesizer
and a sequencer. Many others had already designed their own systems – the problem
was that everyone had developed their own communication protocol without
bothering to coordinate or consult with their neighbors first.

But Dave Smith had something much more ambitious in mind. He wanted to
create a digital interface with a universal communication protocol that could be used
with any musical device, regardless of its manufacturer or specifications.

At the NAMM (National Association of Music Merchants) conference of 1982,

hosted in Anaheim, a group of major hardware manufacturers – including Sequential
Circuits, Yamaha, Roland, Korg, E-mu, Oberheim, Kawai, and others – united to
develop a protocol and communication technology that would provide a reliable and
secure channel and adequate transfer speed. Optocouplers were a key topic of the

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
42 Electronic Music Machines

debate; these components allow different devices to be isolated from one another,
resolving many of the problems encountered by the previous generation of protocols.

Another essential constraint was cost. The interface needed to be inexpensive in

order to have a realistic chance at being universally adopted by all manufacturers.

With all of this in mind, Dave Smith and Chet Wood proposed a digital interface
called MIDI, for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. In December 1982, the first
MIDI synthesizer, the Prophet 600, was marketed by Sequential Circuits, soon
followed by the DX7 by Yamaha, the Jupiter 6 by Roland, and other models.

The very next year, at the NAMM conference of 1983, MIDI communication
was successfully demonstrated between devices of different brands.

Although these early experiments were perfectly functional, several technical

challenges needed to be resolved before MIDI could be considered stable. By 1985,
the MIDI standard had arguably matured into a reliable state. Even so, there were
plenty of improvements yet to come.

The International MIDI Association (IMA) was created in 1983 with the
objective of improving the MIDI standard. The specifications of MIDI 1.0 were
published by IMA.

In parallel, two other supervisory associations were founded in 1985 in an

attempt to avoid complete anarchy in the development process; the MIDI
Manufacturer’s Association (MMA) was created to coordinate American, Canadian,
and European manufacturers, whereas the JMSC (Japanese MIDI Standard
Committee) was created for Japanese manufacturers.

3.2. How MIDI works

The MIDI standard works on two different levels. At the hardware level, MIDI
defines electronic components for connecting musical devices together. At the
software level, MIDI specifies a communication protocol for encoding, decoding,
and transferring the MIDI messages according to the specifications of the MIDI
language.

3.2.1. The hardware level

Like any digital data transmission technology, the MIDI interface is

characterized by speed or bitrate, which is 31,250 bits/second. Each block of
transmitted data has a length of 8 bytes, with one start bit and one stop bit (universal
 The MIDI Standard 43

asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART)1 on 10 bits). MIDI uses asynchronous

serial transmission, which reduces the number of wires needed within the transport
cable and avoids the unwanted time drift experienced by synchronous systems.

Each MIDI link is a one-way data transmission channel from a source device to
one or more receiving devices. Each device is isolated by an optocoupler to avoid
mass looping problems, which can be extremely annoying when processing audio
signals.

Physically, the connectors are based on 5-pin DIN connectors. Since MIDI is a
serial protocol, devices are “daisy-chained” together. The cables are shielded and
have the pin configuration shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Pin configuration of the 5-pin DIN connectors used by the MIDI standard

There are three different types of MIDI ports (not every MIDI device has all
three):
– MIDI IN: data input;
– MIDI OUT: data output;
– MIDI THRU: the data received by the IN port are redirected to this output
without being modified. This allows multiple receiving devices to be chained
together in series.

Figure 3.2 illustrates how these MIDI ports work.

1 UARTs are dedicated electronic circuits with a clock and a shift register, designed to
transform parallel data into serial data and vice versa.
44 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 3.2. Hardware links and MIDI ports. In this configuration,

both devices B and C are controlled from A (daisy-chain link)

The configuration shown in Figure 3.3, which uses only the IN and OUT ports,
supports less functionality than the configuration shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.3. In this configuration, device A controls B and device B controls C,

but A does not control C

The MIDI links are a maximum of 15 m long to avoid data corruption from
signal attenuation in the cable.

The signal is reamplified by any THRU ports that it passes through, as shown in
Figure 3.4.

However, MIDI is much more than just a set of hardware specifications. It also
defines a dedicated software protocol that ensures that the data are transmitted
correctly – the MIDI protocol.
 The MIDI Standard 45

Figure 3.4. Diagram of the IN to THRU connection within the MIDI interface

3.2.2. The software level

The MIDI software protocol standardizes the encoding of the transmitted MIDI
data by defining a syntax that every MIDI message must follow.

3.2.2.1. General remarks

MIDI messages are structured into codes. Each code represents a musical event,
like pressing a key on the keyboard, spinning the modulation wheel, as well as
meta-commands, like switching channels or modes (e.g. omni, poly, and mono – see
below). In MIDI, each musical sequence is viewed as a collection of messages.
Together, these messages form a series of events, labeled by codes. The codes are
saved as bytes; there are two types: status bytes and data bytes.

Whenever a status byte is sent with data bytes, the status byte contains additional
information about the accompanying data bytes. Together, this forms a MIDI message
that translates an event, e.g. an action performed by the musician on the keyboard.

Recall that digital data are represented in binary. The MIDI standard specifies
that any byte starting with 1 (Most Significant Bit or MSB) is a status byte, and any
byte starting with 0 is a data byte.

Figure 3.5. Representation of a status byte and a data byte

46 Electronic Music Machines

MIDI messages are reconstructed by assembling these codes. These messages

can be classified into two major families: channel messages and system messages.

Figure 3.6. Families of MIDI messages and their members

The MIDI standard recognizes 16 channels. These channels can be used to send
different data to different devices; each device can be configured to accept data from
one or multiple channels. There are two receiving modes: omni on mode and
omni off mode.

In omni off mode, the device only listens on a single channel. In omni on mode,
the device listens on every channel.

3.2.2.2. Families
Table 3.1 provides an overview of the commands in the family of channel
messages. These messages can be further subdivided into two subcategories:
– Voice messages: there are seven types in this subcategory. Some devices do
not support some types of message.
– Mode messages: this subcategory has four types; the first four govern how the
voices of the device are assigned to the MIDI channels, whereas the other four have
more specific functions.

Members Commands Description

Voice messages Note-off Determines whether a note has stopped
playing.
Note-on Determines whether a note has started playing
(e.g. a key is pressed on the keyboard).
Polyphonic key Message characterizing the pressure exerted
pressure or on the key.
Aftertouch NOTE.– This feature is not implemented by
every synthesizer, expander, or keyboard.
 The MIDI Standard 47

Control change Modifies the parameters of the devices using

the specified MIDI channel.
These parameters are divided into nine
groups.
Program change Modifies the sound presets on all devices
using the specified MIDI channel.
Aftertouch or Modifies the general settings for the dynamics
Overall pressure or of all keys on the keyboard.
Channel pressure
Pitch bender change Determines the position of the pitch change
wheel.
Mode messages Mode 1 Omni on, poly on: voice messages are
accepted on every channel, and every voice
produces the same sound (the number of
voices is determined by the polyphony of the
device).
Mode 2 Omni on, mono on: voice messages are
accepted on every channel, and only one
voice is played.
Mode 3 Omni off, poly on: voice messages are
accepted on the specified MIDI channel, and
every voice produces the same sound (the
number of voices is determined by the
polyphony of the device).
Mode 4 Omni off, mono on: voice messages are
accepted on the specified MIDI channel, and
each channel controls one single voice. This
converts the device into multiple monophonic
devices (one for each available voice).
All sound off Mutes all voices on the specified channel. The
sound is turned off.
Local control Removes the keyboard from the list of locally
controlled devices (local control off) or adds it
to this list (local control on).
Reset all controllers Resets all controllers. The device is returned
to the default settings from when it was
powered on.
All notes off Asks the device to cut all voices on the
specified channel.

Table 3.1. The commands in the family of channel messages

48 Electronic Music Machines

Table 3.2 lists the commands in the family of system messages. These messages
can be divided into three subcategories:
– System real-time messages: there are eight system real-time messages. These
messages take precedence over any other MIDI messages transmitted and apply to
every MIDI system without distinguishing between the channels.
– System common messages: there are seven messages in this category. These
messages target all the devices connected to the MIDI system.
– System exclusive messages: this category groups together manufacturer-
specific messages and universal messages.

Members Commands Description

Real-time MIDI timing Signal that synchronizes multiple devices to the same
messages clock beat. The MIDI timing clock counts 24 pulses per
quarter note (PPQN).
Start Start signal transmitted by the master device of the
MIDI system (sequencer, drum machine, etc.). The
purpose of this signal is to synchronize all devices at the
start of a musical sequence.
Stop Opposite of the start command, stopping every
connected device.
Continue This signal instructs every device in the MIDI system to
resume from where it stopped.
Active sensing Signal for monitoring the devices. It instructs each
device to check their MIDI connection. A message must
be received by the IN connection every 300 ms if no
other messages are sent.
System reset Resets the MIDI devices of the system. Each device is
returned to its initial state from when it was powered on.
Common MIDI time code This gives a real-time representation of information
messages about the hours, minutes, seconds, and frames per
second of an SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and
Television Engineers) message.
Its structure is based on the SMPTE code, adapted to the
partitioning used by the MIDI standard.
Song position Precise 2-byte marker (from 0 to 16,383) indicating the
pointer position within a musical sequence. This message is
heavily used by drum machines and sequencers.
Song select Selects a sequence number (from 0 to 127) on a
sequencer or drum machine.
 The MIDI Standard 49

Tune request Asks the device to tune to the frequency specified by the
manufacturer.
End of Marks the EOX.
exclusive
(EOX)
Exclusive Message 1 Message dedicated to researchers, both academic and
messages non-academic, for non-profit purposes.
Message 2 Message dedicated to certain deferred-time
manipulations.
Message 3 Message for certain real-time manipulations.

Table 3.2. The commands in the family of system messages

3.3. Examples of MIDI transmission

After our brief tour of the hardware and software layers of the MIDI standard,
this section examines the structure of a few example MIDI actions and their
messages in more detail.

The objective of this section – and of the entire chapter – is not to give a
completely exhaustive presentation of every aspect of the MIDI standard but simply
a preliminary introduction. Readers who are interested in finding out more are
welcome to visit the bibliography at the end of the book.

3.3.1. Note-on/note-off messages

This type of message is generated when the user presses a key on the keyboard
or performs a physical action on a MIDI controller to produce a sound. The sound is
played when the generator receives the message.

Example: the user plays the note A2 (second octave) on a keyboard:

10010000 00111001 01110111 (binary) or 90 39 77 (hexadecimal)

10000000 00111001 01000000 (binary) or 80 39 40 (hexadecimal)

Table 3.3 explains the contents of this message in more detail.

50 Electronic Music Machines

Byte Commands Description

1001 Note-on Keypress on the keyboard.
0000 MIDI channel Selected MIDI channel, from 1 to 16.
Here, channel 1 is selected.
00111001 MIDI note Specifies a note between 0 and 127 (from C2 to G8).
number Here, the note is A2.
01110111 Velocity Speed at which the key was pressed, from 0 to 127.
Here, the velocity is 119.
1000 Note-off Keypress on the keyboard.
0000 Selected MIDI channel, from 1 to 16.
Here, channel 1 is selected.
00111001 MIDI note Specifies a note between 0 and 127 (from C2 to G8).
number Here, the note is A2.
01000000 Velocity Speed at which the key was released, from 0 to 127.
Here, the velocity is 64.

Table 3.3. Breakdown of the MIDI message generated when a user plays A2 on a
keyboard (the note A in the second-lowest octave of the standard layout)

3.3.2. Program change message

The designers of the MIDI standard originally made provisions to allow the
sound of a musical device like an expander or a synthesizer to be modified. As
technology progressed, various other devices such as sound effect racks and drum
machines also began to implement MIDI compatibility, meaning that patch changes,
memory, presets, and so on were no longer necessary.

Example: the user runs the program with number 25:

11001001 00011001 (binary) or C9 19 (hexadecimal).

Byte Commands Description

1100 Program change Keypress on the keyboard.
1001 MIDI channel Selected MIDI channel, from 1 to 16.
Here, channel 10 is selected.
00011001 Number of the program Program number, from 0 to 127.
Here, the program number is 25.

Table 3.4. Breakdown of the MIDI message generated

when the user calls program 25
 The MIDI Standard 51

3.4. The MIDI implementation chart

To specify the set of all parameters supported by a musical device more

precisely, the MMA and the JMSC designed a document known as the “MIDI
Implementation Chart” that must be provided together with any musical device.

The structure and the contents of this chart are standardized.

Figure 3.7. The reference model of the MIDI implementation chart

52 Electronic Music Machines

The first column specifies the message type, the second specifies the
transmission functions, the third defines the receiving functions, and the final
column contains any remarks.

The message types implemented by the device are indicated by a circle. Any
message types that are not implemented are indicated by a cross.

3.5. The General MIDI standard

A new standard known as General MIDI (GM) was released in January 1991
after being approved by both the MMA and the JMSC in turn.

Why was a new standard needed? What benefits does it offer? This section
attempts to answer these questions.

Originally, when a musician composed a MIDI sequence, the results depended

on the specific chain of MIDI devices that the musician was currently using. When
played on other systems, the parameters – especially any “program change”
parameters – usually needed to be reconfigured; otherwise, you might end up with a
clarinet playing a tune intended for electric guitar, for example. Other parameters
could also fail to carry over, such as the number of tracks, which often depended on
the performance of the sequencer.

The GM standard resolves these problems by standardizing the behavior of the

MIDI devices in terms of certain imposed parameters. Nonetheless, there is still one
aspect that is difficult to manage effectively – the timbre of each instrument, which
necessarily varies from device to device, because it depends directly on the sound
synthesis techniques used by the manufacturer of the instrument (FM synthesis,
granular synthesis, sampled sounds, etc.).

3.5.1. Specifications

The most important constraints imposed by the specifications of the GM

standard are as follows:
– Sounds are classified into 16 families of 8 instruments. This produces a
128-instrument table that must be fully implemented by the device.
– Sound-generating devices must be multi-timbral, with a polyphony of at least
16 instrumental voices and 8 percussion voices.
– Channel 10 is reserved for percussion sounds. Each note is associated with a
sound, and there must be at least 47 percussion sounds.
 The MIDI Standard 53

– The device must support the 16 standard MIDI channels.

– The note C3 must have MIDI number 60.

Furthermore, the following MIDI control events must be implemented:

– Velocity and aftertouch on every channel.
– Referenced parameter controllers (RPNs) for the pitch bend effect.
– For channel voice messages, via control change:

- 1 – Modulation (vibrato, LFO);

- 7 – Master volume;
- 10 – Pan;
- 11 – Expression;
- 64 – Sustain.

For channel mode messages:

- 121 – Reset all controllers;
- 123 – All notes off.

– The default overall volume is 90.

– The initial tuning should be set to A440 (note A with frequency 440 Hz).
– There must be an exclusive system message that toggles the GM mode on/off
for the device.
– Devices that comply with the GM standard may display the logo shown in
Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8. The GM logo

54 Electronic Music Machines

Readers can find more information about the assignments of each family of
instruments with the GM standard in Appendix 3.

3.6. The General MIDI 2 standard

In March 1999, a group of manufacturers extended the GM standard after

criticism that it was no longer adequate. Thus, the GM Level 2 (GM2) standard was
born, after approval from the MMA.

After GM2 was introduced, the original GM standard was retroactively renamed
as GM1 (GM Level 1).

The GM2 standard adds 87 new instruments to the original standard (for a total
of 215). The number of effects is increased to 46, and there are almost three times as
many percussion sounds (133 for GM2 compared to 47 for GM1). Channel 11 is
used in parallel with channel 10 to manage two drum kits simultaneously.

The number of channels is increased to 32. GM2 introduces wider support for
voice channel messages (especially control change messages) and universal
exclusive messages.

This summarizes the major changes, but a few more specific adjustments were
also made. Readers are welcome to consult the bibliography at the end of the book
to find out more.

3.7. The GS format

The GS format was unveiled in 1991. It has a similar design to the GM format,
but it is only supported by instruments made by Roland. It features 16,384 sounds
and allows 128 percussion kits or sets to be assigned to channel 10. In practice, the
GS format usually only has 10 kits, and only one kit is required.

The following channel voice messages are recognized, subject to a few small
adjustments:
– Polyphonic aftertouch and pitch bend are implemented.
– For the control change:

- bank select (choose the sound bank);

- modulation;
- portamento time;
 The MIDI Standard 55

- data entry;
- volume (master);
- pan;
- expression;
- hold;
- sostenuto;
- soft;
- effect 1 (reverb);
- effect 3 (chorus);
- RPNs;
- NRPN (non-RPNs).

The following channel mode messages are recognized:

– All sounds off;
– Reset all controllers.

Some standardized exclusive messages are also implemented.

3.8. The XG format

In a similar spirit to the GS standard, XG is another proprietary standard, created

by the Japanese manufacturer Yamaha. XG extends the GM standard and is
therefore compatible with it while offering various additional features:
– polyphony on 32 simultaneous channels;
– more than 100 sound banks, each with 128 sounds;
– additional channels for managing percussion sounds in parallel with channel 10;
– additional internal graphic equalizer;
– three sound effects (chorus, reverb, insertion effect);
– real-time voice modification;
– support for external inputs (microphone, electric guitar, etc.);
– extended support for channel voice messages (especially control change).
56 Electronic Music Machines

3.9. The structure of a MIDI file

MIDI files are organized into a series of data blocks called chunks. These chunks
are structured as follows:

Type Length Data

4 bytes 4 bytes Data bytes (of a certain length)

Table 3.5. Structure of a data chunk

There are two types of chunks, header chunks (MThd) and track chunks (MTrk).

3.9.1. Header chunks

The MThd chunk defines the header of the MIDI file. Each MIDI file has only
one chunk of this type.

Type Length Data

4 bytes 4 bytes 6 data bytes
MThd (ASCII) 32 bits 16 bits 16 bits 16 bits
(2 bytes) (2 bytes) (2 bytes)
4D 54 68 64 00 00 00 06 <format> <tracks> <division>

Table 3.6. Standard format of an MThd chunk

The first four bytes contain the string “MThd” in ASCII (4D 54 68 64).

The next four bytes specify that the data of this chunk have a length of six bytes
(00 00 00 06).

The last six bytes are interpreted two by two. The first two indicate the format of
the MIDI file. The middle two specify the number of tracks, and the final two
indicate the time resolution.

There are three possible formats, types 0, 1, and 2:

– Type 0 means that the file contains a single MIDI data track.
– Type 1 means that the file contains multiple tracks to be played
simultaneously. Each track contains information for a specific MIDI channel.
 The MIDI Standard 57

– Type 2 means that the file contains patterns. Each track is played
independently from the others.

The number of tracks is always 1 if the format is 0.

The time resolution is expressed in ticks per quarter note or delta time units per
SMPTE frame.

If the resolution is expressed in ticks, the MSB of the fifth byte is 0, and the
other 15 specify the number of ticks.

Fifth byte Sixth byte

Bit 7 6–0 7–0
Division 0 Ticks per quarter note

Table 3.7. Resolution in ticks

If the resolution is expressed in delta time units, the MSB of the fifth byte is
equal to 1, and the bits 6 to 0 of the first byte specify the number of frames per
second (expressed as a negative number: −24, −25, −29, or −30 frames per second).
The bits 7 to 0 of the second byte specify the number of ticks per SMPTE frame.

Fifth byte Sixth byte

Bit 7 6–0 7–0
Division 1 frames/s ticks/frame

Table 3.8. Resolution in delta time units

3.9.2. Track chunks

Track chunks contain the MIDI data of each track, presented as a sequence of
events and delta times.

If the format is 0, the track chunk contains all notes and tempo information.

If the format is 1, the first chunk is known as the tempo map and is different. The
tempo map defines the following values:
– Time signature: indicates the time parameters of the MIDI sequence;
– Set tempo: defines the tempo;
58 Electronic Music Machines

– Sequence/Track name: specifies the name of the track or MIDI sequence.

If the format is 2, each track chunk contains an independent MIDI sequence.

The general format of a track chunk is as follows:

Type Length Data

4 bytes 4 bytes Data bytes
MTrk (ASCII) 32 bits According to the defined length
4D 54 72 6B <length> <delta times> <events>

Table 3.9. Standard format of a track chunk

The delta times encode the timing of the MIDI sequence. Each delta time
specifies the time elapsed between two consecutive MIDI events. The running
status2 is also taken into account by these events. To reduce the file size, the delta
times are compressed using a variable-size representation in 1, 2, 3, or 4 bytes.

To identify which bytes belong to the delta time, we check the MSB. This bit is
equal to 0 in the last byte.

One byte: the values range from 0 to 127, 00000000 to 01111111.

In this case, the compression algorithm leaves the values unchanged. The MSB
is 0, so this is the last and only byte of the delta time.

Two bytes: the values range from 128 to 16,383 (decimal) or 00000000
10000000 to 00111111 11111111 (binary).

After compression, the values become:

10000001 00000000 to 11111111 01111111.

A left bit shift was applied to bits 7 to 13, the 7th bit was set to 0, and the 15th
bit was set to 1.

2 Since MIDI data are often repetitive, manufacturers use a technique called running status to
reduce the size of the data and avoid problems with data transmission delays. For consecutive
messages with the same status on the same channel, the status byte is only sent once.
 The MIDI Standard 59

Three bytes: the values range from 16,384 to 2,097,151 (decimal) or 00000000
10000000 00000000 to 00011111 11111111 11111111 (binary).

After compression, the values become:

10000001 10000000 00000000 to 11111111 11111111

01111111.

A double left bit shift was applied to bits 14 to 20, a single left bit shift was
applied to bits 7 to 13, the 7th bit was set to 0, and the 15th and 23rd bits were
set to 1.

Four bytes: the values range from 2,097,152 to 268,435,455 (decimal) or

00000000 00100000 00000000 00000000 to 00001111 11111111
11111111 11111111 (binary).

After compression, the values become:

10000001 10000000 10000000 00000000 to 11111111 11111111

11111111 01111111.

A triple left bit shift was applied to bits 21 to 27, a double left bit shift was
applied to bits 14 to 20, a single left bit shift was applied to bits 7 to 13, the 7th bit
was set to 0, and the 15th, 23rd, and 31st bits were set to 1.

Track chunks can contain three types of MIDI events: channel messages (see
section 3.2.2.2), system exclusive events (sysex events), and meta-events.

Any sysex or meta-events cancel the running status.

3.9.2.1. Exclusive events

Exclusive events have variable length, starting with F0 and ending with the
EOX code, F7.

Start Length Bytes transmitted End

F0 aa bb bb bb … F7

Table 3.10. Standard format of an exclusive event

60 Electronic Music Machines

There are two special cases:

– An exclusive event can be divided into multiple subevents separated by delta
times. In this case, only the first event starts with F0. All others start with F7.

Start Length Bytes transmitted

F0 aa bb bb bb …

Delta time

cc ... cc

Start Length Bytes transmitted

F7 aa bb bb bb …

Delta time

cc..cc
-

Start Length Bytes transmitted

F7 aa bb bb bb …

Table 3.11. A complex exclusive event

– Exclusive events that start with F7 are used to transmit certain special
messages.

Start Length Bytes transmitted End

F7 aa bb bb bb … F7

Table 3.12. An exclusive event

 The MIDI Standard 61

3.9.2.2. Meta-events
There are 16 meta-events:
– sequence number;
– text event;
– copyright notice;
– sequence/track name;
– instrument name;
– lyrics;
– marker;
– cue point;
– program name;
– device name;
– end of track;
– set tempo;
– SMPTE offset;
– time signature;
– key signature;
– sequencer-specific meta-event.

Sequence number:
– Optional event that must be placed before any delta times or other events. This
event specifies the sequence number in two bytes or the pattern number for format 2.
– Format (hex): FF 00 02 nn nn.

Text:
– Variable-length ASCII-encoded text description.
– Format (hex): FF 01 len text (string length, ASCII text description).

Copyright:
– Indicates the copyright, author name, year, ©, etc. in an ASCII string with the
specified length.
– Format (hex): FF 02 len text (string length, ASCII text).
62 Electronic Music Machines

Sequence/track name:
– Name of the sequence for format 0 or name of the track for format 1.
– Format (hex): FF 03 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Instrument name:
– Text indicating the name of the MIDI instrument being used.
– Format (hex): FF 04 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Lyrics:
– Text lyrics of the song, often divided into syllables.
– Format (hex): FF 05 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Marker:
– Text marker inserted at a specific time, typically indicating special elements
such as the chorus or a verse.
– Format (hex): FF 06 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Cue point:
– Text description of an event occurring at a specific time.
– Format (hex): FF 07 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Program name:
– Name of the program defined to play the track chunk. This is not necessarily
the same as the track name or the sequence name.
– Format (hex): FF 08 len text (string length, ASCII text).

Device name:
– Name of the MIDI port to which the track should be directed. If a device name
has been specified, all events are directed to this device. Typically used with
format 1 to bind specific tracks to specific devices.
– Format (hex): FF 09 len text (string length, ASCII text).

End of track:
– Mandatory event. This is the last event of the track chunk; there can only be
one end-of-track event in any given track chunk.
 The MIDI Standard 63

– Format (hex): FF 2F 00.

Set tempo:
– Change of tempo specified as the number of microseconds per quarter note in
three bytes. By default, the tempo is 120 bpm (beats per minute).
– Format (hex): FF 51 03 tt tt tt.
SMPTE offset:
– Starting point of the SMPTE code in hours, minutes, seconds, frames per
second (frames), and hundredths of a frame per second (subframes).

Format (hex): FF 54 05 hr mn se fr ff.

Time signature:
– Defines the time signature of the musical sequence, in four bytes. nn and dd
represent the numerator and denominator of the time signature as it would be
notated.
– The numerator nn is represented as usual.
– The denominator dd represents the power of two that characterizes the time
signature: 20 = 1 (1 whole note per whole note), 21 = 2 (2 half notes per whole note),
22 = 4 (4 quarter notes per whole note), 23 = 8 (8 eighth-notes per whole note), etc.
– The cc parameter expresses the number of MIDI clocks in a metronome click.
– The bb parameter expresses the number of notated 32nd notes in a MIDI
quarter note (24 MIDI clocks). This was added because there are already multiple
programs which allow a user to specify that what MIDI thinks of as a quarter note
(24 clocks) is to be notated as, or related to in terms of, something else.
– Format (hex): FF 58 04 nn dd cc bb.

Key signature:
– The key signature defines the tonic note and the mode or scale.
– The key is defined by sf, where 0 corresponds to C major, the positive values
1 to 7 range over the sharps, and the negative values –1 to –7 range over the flats.
– The mode is 0 for major scales and 1 for minor scales.
– Format (hex): FF 59 02 sf mi.
– Example: FF 59 02 07 00 – C# major.
64 Electronic Music Machines

Specific event:
– Label defined by the manufacturer for specific messages on certain
instruments.
– Format (hex): FF 7F len data (string length, specific data).

3.9.3. Example of a MIDI file

Table 3.13 shows the data of a simple MIDI file as an example, including the
header chunk, the track chunk that sets the tempo, and the track chunk of a musical
sequence on MIDI channel 1.

Each hexadecimal code in the file is listed and annotated.

Hexadecimal code Comments

Header chunk
4D 54 68 64 ASCII string: “MThd”
00 00 00 06 Length of chunk data: 6
00 01 MIDI format: 1
00 05 Number of tracks: 5
01 80 384 ticks (per quarter note)
Track chunk – (tempo track)
4D 54 72 6B ASCII string: “MTrk”
00 00 00 19 Length of chunk data: 25
00 Delta time: 0
FF 51 03 Event: tempo4
0B 71 B0 Value of tempo: 750,000 μs/quarter note, which is:
(60 s/0.750 s = 80 quarter notes/min or 80 bpm)
00 Delta time: 0
FF 58 04 Event: time signature
04 Numerator of the time signature: 4
02 Denominator of the time signature: 2² = 4
18 Number of metronome ticks (MIDI clocks): 24 per
quarter note
08 Number of 32nd notes per quarter note: 8
00 Delta time: 0
 The MIDI Standard 65

FF 59 02 Key
00 0 (no alterations) => C
00 0 => major (1 => minor)
00 Delta time: 0
FF 2F 00 End of track
Track chunk 2 (channel 1)
4D 54 72 6B ASCII string: “MTrk”
00 00 02 47 Length of chunk data: 583
00 FF 03 09 Track name
53 74 65 65 6C 47 74 72 00 ASCII string: “steelgtr.”
00 Delta time: 0
B1 Control change/channel 2
07 64 Main volume: 164
00 Delta time: 0
0A 2C Pan: 44
00 Delta time: 0
5B 37 Effect 1 (reverb) depth: 55
00 Delta time: 0
5D 14 Effect 3 (chorus) depth: 20
8C 04 Delta time: 1540
90 Note-on/channel 1
40 73 Note: E3 – velocity: 115
00 Delta time: 0
44 5B Note: G#3 – velocity: 91
00 Delta time: 0
47 63 Note: B3 – velocity: 99
00 Delta time: 0
4C 5E Note: E4 – velocity: 94
70 Delta time: 112
80 Note-off/channel 1
44 00 Note: G#3 – velocity: 0
00 Delta time: 0
47 00 Note: B3 – velocity: 0
66 Electronic Music Machines

08 Delta time: 8
40 00 Note: E3 – velocity: 0
00 Delta time: 0
4C 00 Note: E4 – velocity: 0
81 24 Delta time: 100
90 Note-on/channel 1
44 5D Note: G#3 – velocity: 93
00 Delta time: 0
47 61 Note: B3 – velocity: 97
04 Delta time: 4
40 66 Note: E3 – velocity: 102
00 Delta time: 0
4C 59 Note: E4 – velocity: 89
2C Delta time: 44
80 Note-off/channel 1
44 00 Note: G#3 – velocity: 0
00 Delta time: 0
47 00 Note: B3 – velocity: 0
00 Delta time: 0
40 00 Note: E3 – velocity: 0
00 Delta time: 0
4C 00 Note: E4 – velocity: 0
34 Delta time: 52
. .
. .
. .
00 Delta time: 0
FF 2F 00 End of track

Table 3.13. Example of a MIDI file

 The MIDI Standard 67

3.10. MIDI devices

Over more than 35 years of technological progress in musical hardware, the

MIDI standard has firmly established itself on the market. Little by little,
compatibility with the MIDI standard and protocol was added to the vast majority of
musical equipment.

Today, USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports, Firewire, Thunderbolt, Ethernet, wifi,
and Bluetooth could potentially offer a lot more in terms of functionality, but this
does not seem to matter – MIDI is still going strong and has not changed much.
People have been talking about upgrading to an improved version of the standard
known as HD-MIDI or MIDI 2.0 since 2013, but little progress has been made and
manufacturers have remained non-committal.

There have also been attempts at alternatives, like OSC (Open Source Control)3,
based on the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)4 and Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), but none of them ever became much more than a curiosity, despite the
support from some manufacturers and software publishers, e.g. Ableton Live,
Cycling 74 Max/MSP, PureData, Native Instruments Reaktor, MOTU Digital
Performer, and Steinberg Cubase.

3.10.1. MIDI boxes, mergers, and patchers

This section presents a few ways for managing unusual MIDI configurations.

To directly connect multiple devices (devices 2–4) from a single output

(device 1), we can use a MIDI thru box as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9. Connections through a MIDI thru box

3 OSC is a data content format developed at CNMAT by Adrian Freed and Matt Wright in
parallel with a musical language known as OSW (Open Source World).
4 UDP and TCP are two of the key communication protocols used by Internet.
68 Electronic Music Machines

The advantage of this device is that it eliminates chaining, which could

potentially degrade the signal as it passes through the IN and THRU ports of
multiple devices. The MIDI thru box creates a direct link to each device.

Another useful trick is to mix multiple MIDI inputs using a MIDI merger; see
Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10. Connections through a MIDI merger

For example, a MIDI merger allows the same expander (device 3) to be

controlled from multiple master keyboards (devices 1 and 2).

MIDI patchers, MIDI patchbays, and MIDI routers are much more sophisticated
versions of the above, with significantly more advanced features, such as MIDI data
filtering, multiple input or output merging, and signal rerouting to predefined
outputs, as well as the ability to save various settings and configurations in memory
banks to be reloaded more easily later.

Example models include the A-880 by Roland, the MX-8 by Digital Music Corp,
the MIDI Patcher by 360 Systems, and the ME-30P by Akai.

Figure 3.11. The A-880 MIDI router by Roland

Today, with computer-based virtual instruments and effects, MIDI routers have
become practically obsolete, only needed by musicians with extremely large
hardware setups.
 The MIDI Standard 69

3.10.2. Musical instruments

Ever since the 1980s, there are MIDI interfaces in every musical instrument.
Synthesizers and expanders usually have all three ports (in, out, and thru).

Master keyboards typically have at least one MIDI out port and one MIDI
in port.

Figure 3.12. A Yamaha KX-88 master keyboard with MIDI in and out ports

Most drum machines, sequencers, and groove machines also have MIDI in and
out ports.

Samplers and sampler-sequencers usually have all three ports, sometimes with
duplicates, like the S6000 by Akai.

Figure 3.13. The MIDI ports of the Akai S6000 sampler

70 Electronic Music Machines

Over time, some manufacturers began to allow themselves a few liberties. As a

result, MIDI ports can sometimes be found in alternative forms, like the 3.5 mm
stereo jack.

Figure 3.14. MIDI 3.5 mm jack port on a Korg Electribe 2 groove machine

3.10.3. Studio hardware

A lot of musical equipment designed for studio usage, e.g. mixing consoles,
sound effects racks, and many others, have MIDI ports, allowing the user to save
presets and modify MIDI parameters using dedicated editing software.

Figure 3.15. The Yamaha SPX2000 sound effects processing

rack with a USB port and MIDI ports (on the left)

Many modern devices now also feature USB, Ethernet, or Firewire ports, which
perform better and are more flexible for managing, modifying, and storing
parameters, as well as transmitting data.
 The MIDI Standard 71

Figure 3.16. The Lexicon PCM96 sound effects processor, with MIDI ports (center),
as well as Ethernet and Firewire ports (on the left)

3.10.4. MIDI to computer

Over the period from 1985 to 2000, computers gradually crept into the corners of
our daily lives. It was not long before people started looking for ways to connect
them to their musical devices.

The earliest interfaces for connecting to computers were the RS232 serial port,
the RS422 port, and the parallel port.

Figure 3.17. The interface of the MOTU MIDI Express XT from 1996. The
communication ports visible on the rear panel (bottom) – a parallel port
and an RS422 serial port – can be connected to a computer

Over time, technology continued to progress; the USB port was introduced in
1996, followed by the Firewire port in 1999.
72 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 3.18. The interface of the M-Audio MIDISport USB 8 × 8,

with eight MIDI in/outs and one USB 1.1 port

The USB standard itself has also improved over time (USB 2.0). In 2000, the
data transmission rate increased significantly. Other more powerful interfaces have
also been introduced over time.

Figure 3.19. The interface of the UltraLite MK3 Hybrid. The Firewire and USB 2.0
ports for connecting to a computer are visible on the rear panel (bottom)

In 2008, the improved and faster USB 3.0 arrived on the market, soon followed
by the even more powerful USB 3.1 in 2013.

Figure 3.20. The M-Audio MIDISport Hub 4 × 4 interface (2016)

with its USB 3.0 port (left)
 The MIDI Standard 73

In 2011, another newcomer made its entry onto the market – the Thunderbolt
port, which was then upgraded to version 3.0 in 2015 as the USB-C port, combining
the USB and Thunderbolt protocols into a single interface.

Figure 3.21. The interface of the Focusrite Clarett 2Pre with its Thunderbolt port
(white rectangle on the bottom image)

3.11. Conclusion

For more than 35 years, the MIDI standard has reigned supreme in the field of
musical hardware. Although some aspects of the underlying protocol might seem
outdated today, the undying endurance of MIDI proves that this clearly does not
matter. MIDI remains crucial and indispensable.

Will MIDI ever be superseded? Will it continue to change? It is hard to say.

Reaching a consensus across all publishers and manufacturers is always easier said
than done – old habits die hard.

Why replace a technology that still works perfectly well, despite its
shortcomings? A vast range of older equipment would risk suddenly becoming
obsolete or incompatible.

It seems likely that the MIDI standard still has plenty of good days ahead.
 4

Sequencers

Sequencers – a new word to describe a musical concept that has existed for a
very long time, the idea of playing a sequence of notes automatically. The ancestors
of the modern sequencer include mechanical musical instruments such as music
boxes, player pianos, and barrel organs.

4.1. Mechanical and electrical machines

The dream of making music mechanically has always been a source of

inspiration. The word automatophone describes the category of all such instruments:
music boxes, player pianos, barrel organs, fairground organs, etc.

In addition to the mechanical systems themselves, the early 20th Century

brought new ways of supplying the energy needed to operate a system to replace
human input, typically in the form of electric motors.

The next few pages provide a brief history and overview of these machines. For
further reading, you can visit the bibliography at the end of the book:
– music boxes;
– player pianos;
– barrel organs, and later versions that replaced the original barrels with paper
rolls or cardboard books (collectively known as orgues de Barbarie in French,
which literally means “Barbary organs”);
– fairground organs (Limonaires).

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
76 Electronic Music Machines

4.1.1. Music boxes

In 1796, the Swiss watchmaker Antoine Favre had an idea – why not add a
musical mechanism to a watch? He designed a system based on a flat disk with little
bumps that caused metal slats to vibrate as the disk rotated. It is worth noting that a
Hungarian inventor, Josef Nagy, and the French watchmaker Michel Joseph
Ransonet had also created similar devices a few years earlier. Even so, the invention
of the music box is usually attributed to Favre.

Shortly after Favre’s invention, the mechanism was improved, replacing the disk
with a cylinder covered in pins and replacing the individual metal strips with combs
(1820) to increase the resonance.

Figure 4.1. A simple music box mechanism (spring box, regulator,

comb, and cylinder)

The clockwork system driving the cylinder uses a spring that stores energy and a
regulator that limits the speed to ensure that the cylinder rotates uniformly, giving
the melody a fixed tempo.

This triggered a race for innovation. The combs gradually became larger, a
damper system (1822) was added to limit unwanted vibrations, and the mechanism
was enriched with chimes to embellish the musical sequence.

These music boxes were handmade by craftsmen. Industrial production only

arrived in 1850–1875 when manufacturers, such as the Nicole Brothers, Charles
Paillard, and others, decided to try their own hand at making music boxes.

In parallel, improvements in miniaturization allowed music boxes to be placed

inside jewelry.
 Sequencers 77

Figure 4.2. A very sophisticated music box (source: Allard and Sandoz, 1890)

The golden age of music boxes peaked at around the mid-19th Century. The
variety of music boxes available during this period was staggering. Some were very
expensive, and others were very affordable.

4.1.2. Mechanical pianos

While music boxes were becoming popular, another market was also developing
– mechanical pianos, also known as automatic pianos. One of the earliest such
instruments was made by Alexandre François Debain, a renowned harmonium- and
piano-maker, in Paris, 1849. Debain’s invention was an upright piano with a second
array of hammers operated by levers, placed in motion by a system based on cranks
and boards embedded with pins.

Figure 4.3. Advertisement for Debain’s mechanical piano

78 Electronic Music Machines

The same technique was later reused in barrel pianos.

Mechanical pianos were rapidly superseded by pneumatic pianos, which were

easier to operate and more sophisticated. These pianos used a pneumatic system
with punched music rolls to generate the melody.

It was in 1863 that the French inventor Henri Fourneaux presented his Pianista
in Philadelphia, but the crowds did not seem particularly impressed. Later, in 1895,
the American inventor Edwin Scott Votey created the pianola, which proved to be
much more successful.

Figure 4.4. A “pianola”

The earliest of these pneumatic pianos were able to play 65 different notes. Over
time, they were improved until they could access the full 88-note range of a standard
piano by making the holes on the rolls smaller. The mechanism was driven by an
airflow generated by pedaling on a set of bellows.
 Sequencers 79

In Europe, Giovanni Racca marketed the first music roll pianos in 1880. The
famous Melodico model continued to be manufactured until the 1920s and was a
great success.

Figure 4.5. A music roll inside a G. Steik pneumatic piano

(source: https://pouedraspianos.wordpress.com)

A selection of famous pieces was transcribed by specialized companies, and a

small repertoire of automatic music soon appeared.

In the 1930s, the production of pneumatic pianos peaked. From then on, it would
only decline.

At the beginning of the 20th Century, as technology progressed, the German

inventor Edwin Emil Welt filed a patent for a device that could reproduce the same
loudness dynamics as a pianist by incorporating pedal presses and effects. The
pedal-operated bellows used to supply airflow were also replaced by an electrically
motorized system.

Several major piano-makers, such as Gaveau and Steinway, built this procedure
into some of their models in partnership with system manufacturers – examples
include the Duo-Art by Aeolian, the Pleyela by Pleyel, and others such as Ampico,
Welte-Mignon, and so on.
80 Electronic Music Machines

The invention of gramophones and jukeboxes eventually triggered the decline of

music roll pianos.

4.1.3. Barrel organs

Barrel organs can be classified as wind instruments, in the subcategory of

organs. Their general appearance is difficult to characterize because so many
different models were created over the years, some of which were extremely
sophisticated and imposing.

Figure 4.6. A barrel organ (source: https://www.orgues-de-barbarie.com)

The original French name for these organs was “orgue de Barbarie,” meaning
“Barbary organ”, perhaps because they sounded much less majestic than church
organs. Other possible explanations include the suggestion that this name refers to
an Italian manufacturer, Giovanni Barberi, who allegedly made the first portable
organ in the mid-17th Century, or that the word “barbare” (barbarian) was used to
describe anything and everything that was not quintessentially French in the
18th Century, since the organ players tended to be from abroad.
 Sequencers 81

These organs have a long history, spanning several centuries and multiple
continents. Around the middle of the 19th Century, as mechanical techniques
became more refined and the number of manufacturers became larger, they reached
the height of their popularity.

The exact date of their birth remains unknown – sometime shortly after the start
of the 18th Century. Engravings of barrel organ players dating from around this
period have been found.

In addition to portable organs, many stationary organs were made for bourgeois
clientele. Some of them were very large, ranging up to 2 or 3 m high and several
meters wide. Although arguably different from barrel organs in some regards, they
are based on similar principles.

Each barrel organ has a system to activate the bellows, generating the airflow
needed to produce sounds, as well as several mechanisms that redirect the air to the
correct pipes to reproduce the melody. The most common mechanisms are based on
cylinders (pins or stops) and disks (with spikes or holes), as well as punched cards
linked together to fold in zig-zags or arbitrarily long musical rolls of stored notes.
The user turns a crank to operate the bellows and advance the reading mechanism,
which scrolls through the sequence of notes stored on the medium.

In stationary organs and some portable organs, electric motors outperform

user-driven motion in every way. As a result, many of these organs were motorized
in the early 20th Century.

Figure 4.7. Punched card fed into a barrel organ

82 Electronic Music Machines

The primary advantage of punched piano cards or rolls was the amount of music
that could be stored on them, which was much higher than previous solutions.

Piano cards and rolls are still made and published for a variety of music, both
popular and classical.

Even today, barrel organs are still being made – a few companies have
specialized in designing and renovating them.

4.1.4. Fairground organs

The first fairground organs were invented by two brothers, Antoine and Joseph
Limonaire, who were French mechanical instrument makers in the 19th Century.
They filed for a trademark, and their instruments became very well known, to the
point that the word “Limonaire” passed into everyday usage to describe these
instruments in modern French.

Fairground organs can be described as large barrel organs and are also known as
band organs.

They were often accompanied by other mechanical instruments, such as pianos,

xylophones, violins, or drums, to form orchestrions. Automata were often also
included as a visual enrichment of the musical performance.

Figure 4.8. The Limonaire fairground organ of a wooden-horse carousel

(source: https://www.petitpapy.fr)
 Sequencers 83

Old fairgrounds had a wooden-horse carousel or merry-go-round whose musical

accompaniment was generated by a Limonaire organ in the center.

Today, most fairground organs are found in Holland or Belgium. Some are still
being made; modern fairground organs are equipped with more advanced
technologies and electronics.

4.2. Analog sequencers

As mentioned earlier, mechanical systems designed to automatically play

musical sequences declined in the 1930s with the introduction of new musical
reproduction techniques, such as the cylinder-based phonograph1 created by the
American inventor Thomas Edison and the flat-disk-based gramophone created by
the German inventor Emile Berliner.

The triode2 was invented in the early 1900s. This marked the beginning of the
era of electronics – new devices, such as radios, amplifiers, and music playback
systems, would soon emerge, taking the general public by storm.

The magnetic tape recorder was a revolutionary device that was immediately
embraced by composers and musicians alike. It was created in 1928 by the German
inventor Fritz Pleumer. Tape recorders became much more viable in 1940 when
high-frequency pre-magnetization and iron oxide (Fe2O3) tape coating enabled a
previously impossible quality of sound.

Subverting the original purpose of tape recorders, musical artists began to use
them to create sound loops and special effects such as reverb, pitch shifts, and much
more.

With the dawn of the electronic age, oscillators, filters, and envelope editing
tools suddenly emerged. Combining these tools led to the first-ever musical
synthesizers such as the Warbo Formant Organ created by Harald Bode in Germany
in 1937. Throughout the 1940s to the 1960s, these instruments continued to spread,
gradually becoming extremely complex and sophisticated as technology continued
to progress (passive components, diodes, transistors, etc.).

1 Over time, the terms “phonograph” and “gramophone” have become synonymous.
2 Earliest device for amplifying an electrical signal, invented by Lee De Forest (USA,
1873–1961) in 1906.
84 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 4.9. One of the earliest tape recorders, made by AEG/Telefunken

(source: https://www.museumofmagneticsoundrecording.org)

But before long, they were paired with sequencers that could automatically
reproduce repetitive sequences of musical notes or melodies.

The first sequencers, which appeared in the 1970s and the 1980s, were limited to
just a few notes, typically between 8 and 16. Later, more powerful models capable
of stringing together up to 256 unique notes were introduced.

Figure 4.10. The sequencer by ARP

 Sequencers 85

Some of the best-known examples are listed below:

– Korg SQ-10 (24 notes);
– ARP Sequencer 1601 (16 notes);
– Moog 960 (24 notes);
– AKS EMS Synthi sequencer (256 notes);
– Buchla Series 100 Module 123 (8 notes);
– Buchla Series 100 Module 146 (16 notes);
– Roland System 100 – Sequencer 104 (24 notes);
– Doepfer A-100 Module A-155 (2 × 8 notes).

Even today, a few models of analog sequencer can still be found, such as the
SQ-1 by Korg or the A-155 module by Doepfer (still published and manufactured to
this day).

Figure 4.11. The Korg SQ-1 analog sequencer

All of the analog sequencers listed above use the CV/gate standard (see
Appendix 1), which transmits notes as specific control voltages.
86 Electronic Music Machines

4.3. Digital sequencers

Analog sequencers almost disappeared during the 1980s when the MIDI protocol
was introduced (see Chapter 3) to standardize the wide variety of musical equipment
available on the market.

One of the key benefits of digital sequencers is that they can record an
essentially unlimited number of notes. The versatility of the digital MIDI protocol is
another important advantage; MIDI is capable of managing a large number of
parameters such as the velocity, the volume, added sound effects, and so on.

Figure 4.12. The Yamaha QY-10, a digital MIDI sequencer

Every major manufacturer active during the 1980s launched their own MIDI
sequencer model.

Figure 4.13. The CSQ-600 by Roland, a digital sequencer that also

supports the CV/gate standard
 Sequencers 87

During the transitional period between the analog age and the MIDI age, some
early digital sequencers also implemented the CV/gate standard, including the
CSQ-100 and the CSQ-600 by Roland. Table 4.1 lists some examples of digital
sequencer models.

Manufacturer Model Year

Roland CSQ-100 1979
Roland CSQ-600 1980
Roland MSQ-700 1984
Roland MSQ-100 1985
Alesis MMT-8 1987
Yamaha QX-21 1987
Roland MC-500 1988
Roland MC-300 1988
Roland PR-100 1988
Akai ASQ-10 1988
Yamaha QY-10 1990
Roland MC-50 1992
Yamaha QY-20 1992
Yamaha QY-300 1994
Yamaha QR-10 1994
Yamaha QY-8 1994
Yamaha QY-22 1995
Yamaha QY-700 1996
Yamaha QY-70 1997
Roland MC-80 1999
Yamaha QY-100 2000
Sequentix P3 Sequencer 2006

Table 4.1. Digital sequencers

No chapter on digital sequencers would be complete without saying a few words

about modern sequencers.
88 Electronic Music Machines

Today, sequencers are usually not presented as autonomous and independent

devices, although some standalone sequencers can still be found (see Table 4.2).
Instead, they are typically combined with other instruments, such as drum machines,
synthesizers, samplers, or groove machines (also known as groove boxes), which we
will explore throughout the next few chapters of this book. The sequencer elements
of these machines play a crucial role in electronic music, whether in the studio or in
real time for a live performance: the creation of musical loops.

Figure 4.14. The Octatrack sampler–sequencer by Elektron, a device that offers a

wide range of features

Manufacturer Model
Arturia BeatStep Pro
Arturia BeatStep
Sequentix Cirklon
Synthstrom Audible Deluge
Yamaha TENORI-ON (TNR-O)

Table 4.2. A few examples of modern hardware sequencers

4.4. Software sequencers

As computers became widespread in the mid-1980s, the first generation of

musical software also appeared on the market, offering a way to manage the MIDI
protocol.

The Atari 520ST was one of the first ever devices with a built-in MIDI port.
 Sequencers 89

Many types of sequencers have existed, both historically and more recently;
some are more sophisticated than others. In some cases, the sequencer functionality
is the primary focus of the software; in others, it is just an auxiliary feature; it is
difficult to state authoritatively whether a given software program should be viewed
as a standalone sequencer or a full-fledged Digital Audio Workstation (DAW).

Figure 4.15. A session in Ableton Live

Nevertheless, we can classify software sequencers into a few large families:

– omnifunctional sequencers are primarily used for studio work, although some
are also suitable for live performances. These sequencers offer features that support
the vast majority of musical styles;
– modular sequencers, designed for live performances;
– sequencer–arrangers, which can generate arrangements in different styles;
– loop sequencers, designed for creating simple or complex musical loops;
– sequencers dedicated to electronic music, with sampling features.

Many products are difficult to classify and are therefore listed under multiple
families below. Table 4.3 lists the most popular sequencers currently on the market.
90 Electronic Music Machines

Publisher Name Family

Ableton Live Electronic music
Loop management
Modular
Omnifunctional
Apple Mainstage Modular
Apple Logic Pro X Omnifunctional
Avid Pro Tools Omnifunctional
Cakewalk Sonar Omnifunctional
Defective Records Cyclic Loop management
Human Touch Technology HTP4 Arrangers
Image-Line FL Studio (Fruity Loops) Electronic music
Magix Acid Pro Loop management
Magix Samplitude Omnifunctional
Magix Music Maker Loop management
MOTU Digital Performer Omnifunctional
PG Music Band In Box Arrangers
Propellerhead Reason Electronic music
Loop management
Omnifunctional
Modular
Sample Logic Rythmology Loop management
Sensomusic Usine Hollyhock Modular
Steinberg Nuendo Omnifunctional
Steinberg Cubase Pro Omnifunctional
Open Source (CC License) Superboucle Loop management
XT Software EnergyXT Modular
ZetaOhm FLXS1 Arrangers

Table 4.3. A few examples of software sequencers

Choosing a software sequencer is not always straightforward. Many programs

have built up a dedicated fan base over time. In objective terms, none of them can
truly be described as bad. The differences between them largely reside in the
interface design and a few special features. Many software sequencers have trial
 Sequencers 91

versions. I would highly recommend downloading several different choices to form

your own impressions. The bibliography at the end of this book contains a list of
articles, books, and Internet links that can help you make the right choice.

4.5. Final remarks

This brief interlude devoted to sequencers will hopefully have provided some
idea of the possibilities offered by these machines. Today more than ever,
sequencers are an integral part of electronic music. The ancestors of repetitive music
already seem very distant; the electronic age was a major milestone in the history of
sequencing, as was the computer age with the introduction of the MIDI standard.
The next chapter has only just begun: an age of touch-based tablets, smartphones,
live software, and implicitly omnipresent “electro” music.

Sequencers are now the most important tools of modern music composition.
They empower musicians to express themselves in new ways and draw from new
sources of inspiration.
 5

Drum Machines

After keeping a low profile for much of their history, drum machines are now an
essential element of electronic music and an entirely new category of instrument.
Whether used alone or accompanied by other equipment, drum machines can be
found both in studio settings and live performances – replacing, supplementing, or
enhancing the drummer and/or percussionist.

The primary purpose of a drum machine is to generate percussion sounds, such

as snares, tom-toms, bass drums, claves, and bells, absolutely anything that can
accompany a bassline, although drum machines are sometimes also used completely
solo in some musical sequences.

Over time, other musical instruments, sounds from everyday life, and synthetic
sounds have been added to the universe of drum machines, executing colors and
sound patterns that an instrumentalist would find difficult or perhaps even
impossible to perform.

5.1. On the subject of electromechanical rhythm

The history of the drum machine can be traced back to the 1930s with the
appearance of the Rhythmicon, a revolutionary and innovative device imagined and
invented by Léon Theremin1 at the request of Henry Cowell,2 who asked for a

1 Lev Sergueïevitch Termen, more commonly known as Léon Theremin, August 27,
1896–November 3, 1993. Russian engineer and inventor of the Theremin, one of the first-ever
electronic musical instruments.
2 Henry Dixon Cowell, March 11, 1897–December 10, 1965. American composer, pianist,
theorist, and impresario.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
94 Electronic Music Machines

device capable of playing rhythmic patterns too difficult to execute on existing

instruments.

In 1932, Léon unveiled the Rhythmicon, an electromechanical machine that met

the specifications outlined by Cowell.

Figure 5.1. The “Rhythmicon” by Léon Theremin

Multiple different rhythmic patterns based on the harmonic series were possible,
with 16 different combinations. Each combination could be linked to each of the
steps in the rhythm.

The Rhythmicon originally received a warm welcome from the general public
when it was first unveiled, but interest unfortunately subsided very quickly.

Only three copies were ever produced. One still exists and is on display at the
Theremin Center of the Moscow Conservatory.

The mechanical and electronic components of this machine were completely

extraordinary and truly innovative; the Rhythmicon was unlike any of its successors,
which were based on rotating drums.
 Drum Machines 95

The Rhythmicon used vacuum tube oscillators and photoelectric sensors to

capture the light passing through disks with punched holes. It had a 17-key
polyphonic keyboard that could produce 16 different rhythms, as well as a 17th key
that added a syncopated element to the selected rhythm.

The Rhythmicon was able to generate extremely complex rhythmic sequences

that would be practically impossible for a pianist to play. Cowell was fascinated by
the idea of composing complex poly-rhythms beyond the reach of human skill,
inspiring him to commission the Rhythmicon.

In his book New Musical Resources, Cowell3 presents the underlying principles
of his music, which he describes as “rhythmic harmony”.

The pieces written by Cowell with the Rhythmicon include “Rhythmicana”

(1931) and “Music for Violin and Rhythmicon” (1932).

Twenty-five years after Cowell, the Rhythmicon was rediscovered by the

English producer Joe Meek4, who went on to use it in many of his own
compositions.

After the Rhythmicon, the first true electronic drum machine was arguably a
machine named the Rhythmate, invented by Harry Chamberlin.

In 1946, Chamberlin built a system capable of reading magnetic tapes on which

rhythmic drum sequences were recorded. Over the next few years, he perfected his
original design and invented other, more advanced models.

His very first model was baptized the Model 100 Rhythmate. It was capable of
reading 14 magnetic loops of rhythms prerecorded on ¼-inch strips. Chamberlin’s
invention was only ever manufactured in modest numbers, with possibly only
around 10 copies ever being made between 1948 and 1949.

His invention seemingly attracted some interest, so Chamberlin decided to open

a retail store in the city of Upland in California.

3 An Internet link to Cowell’s book (in pdf format) can be found in the bibliography at the
end of this book.
4 Robert George Meek, 1929–1967, English musical producer and songwriter, credited with
being one of the first-ever independent producers.
96 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 5.2. “Rhythmate 100” by Harry Chamberlin

(source: https://120years.net)

He then invented the Model 200. This new drum machine was no longer
restricted to rhythmic sequences and featured other instruments, such as violins,
flutes, and so on. The magnetic tapes were no longer loops, and the design of the
device made it relatively easy to switch the sound bank installed within the machine.
A few dozen copies were made between 1950 and 1959. Physically, the Model 200
looked like a small piece of furniture with a keyboard of 35 keys (from G to F,
around three octaves).

After 1960, new generations of this device were gradually unveiled (300, 350,
400, 600, etc.). Later versions were equipped with a 3/8″ magnetic tape system that
could store three recorded tracks on each tape.
 Drum Machines 97

Figure 5.3. An advertisement for the “Rhythmate 200”

5.2. Drum machines with presets

In parallel to the Rhythmate, Wurlitzer5 began to market one of the first-ever

electromechanical drum machines featuring a preset system, in 1959. Their
invention was proudly baptized the Wurlitzer Side Man.

Figure 5.4. A Wurlitzer electric piano

5 A specialist American company founded in 1853 by Rudolph Wurlitzer that makes and sells
musical instruments, especially electric pianos and electronic organs.
98 Electronic Music Machines

This device could reproduce a dozen different rhythm patterns from factory
presets. The tempo could be adjusted, and the sounds were generated electronically
by vacuum tubes.

Figure 5.5. The Wurlitzer Side Man (left) and its control panel (right)
(source: https://www.troperecordings.de)

The sequencing was implemented by a mechanical system with a rotating arm

that swept over a series of contacts.

Figure 5.6. The mechanical sequencing system of the Wurlitzer Side Man
(source: https://www.troperecordings.de)
 Drum Machines 99

Rotating more quickly caused the tempo to increase. The entire system was
placed inside a wooden cabinet with a built-in amplification system to boost the
selected rhythms.

In 1960, Raymond Scott manufactured a machine named the Rhythm

Synthesizer, soon followed by a drum machine called Bandito the Bongo Artist in
1963. Both systems can be heard in action on the album “Soothing Sounds for
Baby” from 1964.

As progress in electronics continued to make leaps and bounds, vacuum tubes

were replaced by transistors, giving birth to a new generation of transistor-based
drum machines that were much less bulky. The Rhythm Prince was designed and
marketed by Gulbransen6 in collaboration with the Seeburg Corporation7, a
manufacturer of automated musical equipment (jukeboxes, orchestrions, etc.). The
Rhythm Prince, equipped with electromechanical generators, was still relatively
imposing in size.

In 1964, Seeburg built a smaller model featuring transistor-based electronics –

the Select-a-Rhythm – which included a preset system to allow users to easily
choose the desired rhythm.

Figure 5.7. The “Rhythm Prince”, a drum machine by Gulbransen and Seeburg

6 An American company that manufactures pianos and organs for apartments, founded in
1904 by Axel Gulbransen.
7 An American company that manufactures and designs automated musical equipment,
e.g. jukeboxes, founded in 1902 by Justus P. Seeburg.
100 Electronic Music Machines

The compact size of this new drum machine meant that it could be fitted inside
electronic organs, to the great delight of organists, providing an ideal way to add
automatic percussion backing.

Figure 5.8. The famous “Select-A-Rhythm” drum machine

As this was unfolding in the USA around the early 1960s, Tadashi Osanai and
Tsutomu Katoh founded a new company, Keio-Giken, in Japan in 1963. Their
company developed a drum machine known as the Doncamatic DA-20 based on
vacuum tubes and an electromechanical mechanism. The DA-20 was a small piece
of furniture with a keyboard and an amplification and playback system. It not only
featured a set of rhythm presets but also allowed sequences to be played manually.

Figure 5.9. The “Doncamatic DA-20” drum machine

(source: https://encyclotronic.com)
 Drum Machines 101

Keio-Giken was later renamed Korg8, a company that is still well known for its
musical inventions and innovations today.

Shortly afterward, another model known as the Doncamatic DC-11 was unveiled
as a replacement for its predecessor, upgrading the aging electronics to a more
reliable transistor-based system. The electromechanical mechanism was also
replaced on later models, starting with the Doncamatic DE-20 in 1966.

Figure 5.10. The “Doncamatic DE-20”

In 1967, a drum machine option for Yamaha electronic organs was developed by
Korg – the Mini Pops MP-2. This was followed by other models, including the
MP-3 and the MP-7. Much of their success was due to their extremely compact size.

8 Korg is a multi-national Japanese company that manufactures electronic musical

instruments.
102 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 5.11. The “Mini Pops MP-3” distributed under the brand Univox
by the Unicord Corporation in the USA

The same year, Japanese engineer Ikutaro Kakehashi from Ace Tone Industries
created a preset rhythm-pattern generator based on a diode matrix circuit, with some
similarities to systems developed a few years earlier by Seeburg and Nippon
Columbia.

Kakehashi later founded the Roland Corporation9 after leaving Ace Tone in
1972.

Also in 1967, Ace Tone released its 16-preset drum machine, the FR-1 Rhythm
Ace. This model allowed users to change the volumes of four different instruments:
cymbals, cowbell, claves, and bass drum. Multiple different rhythms could also be
combined together. The company Hammond fitted the FR-1 into some of its organs.

Figure 5.12. The FR1-Rhythm Ace drum machine

9 A Japanese company that manufactures electronic musical instruments, founded in 1972 by

Ikutaro Kakehashi in Osaka.
 Drum Machines 103

In the USA, some FR-1s were sold under the brand Multivox (Peter Sorkin
Music Company), as well as the brand Bentley Rhythm Ace in the United Kingdom.

From the 1960s to the 1980s, various new drum machines with preset systems
appeared on the market. These models used fully synthetic sounds created
artificially by electronic systems of various degrees of sophistication, based on
oscillators, filters, and noise generators. A small, non-exhaustive list of the most
famous models is given below:

– Univox SR-95: Korg – Japan – 1975 – 20 presets;

– Mini Pops Junior: Korg – Japan – 1970 – 10 presets;
– Mini Pops MP-120W and MP-120P: Korg – Japan – 1976 – 10 presets;
– MR-101: Selmer – Japan – 1970 – 10 presets;
– TR-77: Roland – Japan – 1972 – 19 presets;
– TR-330: Roland – Japan – 1973 – 10 presets;
– TR-66: Roland – Japan – 1973 – 9 presets;
– CR5000: Roland – Japan – 1980 – 24 presets – MIDI;
– King Beat 7: King Beat – Japan – 1960 – 5 presets;
– Auto-Vari 64: Hammond – USA – 1970 – 16 presets.

Figure 5.13. Hammond Auto-Vari 64

5.3. Programmable drum machines

The mid-1970s marked the introduction of the first programmable drum

machines. One of the earliest programmable models was the ComputeRhythm
manufactured by the Italian company Eko in 1972.
104 Electronic Music Machines

This drum machine was designed as a matrix of six rows with 16 light-up
buttons. Each row was associated with a pair of percussion instruments (Rolling
Drum – Cymbal 1 / Cymbal 2 – Snare / Timbal 2 – Charleston / Triangle – Clave /
Block 2 – Timbal 1 / Block 2 – Bass Drum) that can either be toggled on or off on
each of the 16 beats by pressing the corresponding button, allowing complex
rhythmic patterns to be assembled. The volume of each instrument in any given row
could be adjusted, and the tempo of the overall pattern could be varied. The number
of beats per row was also configurable (5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, or 16).

Figure 5.14. The “ComputeRhythm” by Eko

Over time, many other programmable machines arrived on the market, including
the famous CR-78 by Roland, one of the first drum machines to use a
microprocessor, also featuring four memory banks to store user-defined rhythm
patterns.

Today, some of these drum machines have become extremely sought-after for
the characteristic colors of their analog sounds, attaining an almost legendary status.
Examples include the TR-808 (1980) and TR-909 (1983) models10 by Roland. These
devices left a mark on the musical community so profound that a modern re-release

10 TR stands for “Transistor Rhythm”.

 Drum Machines 105

was unveiled in 2014 to simulate them – the TR-8. In 2017, another clone of the
TR-808 was released, the extremely compact TR-08.

Figure 5.15. The microprocessor-based Roland CR-78

The Roland TR-8 was superseded by an even more powerful model in 2018, the
TR-8S.

Figure 5.16. Roland TR-808 (top), TR-8 (left), and TR-08 (right)
106 Electronic Music Machines

A special case that deserves a mention here is the Programmable Drum Set 3750
made by the company PAIA Electronics in 1975. It could be purchased either as a
self-assembly kit, or in pre-assembled form. Around 2,000 copies were produced.
PAIA also made the Drummer Boy, another (non-programmable) model.

Figure 5.17. The “Programmable Drum Set” (left) and

the “Drummer Boy” (right) by PAIA

5.4. The MIDI age

In 1983, the introduction of a dual system and standard for connecting musical
peripherals triggered a fundamental musical upheaval felt by both manufacturers and
performers. The MIDI communication protocol had finally arrived, with its
dedicated electronic interface based on a 5-pin DIN connector to transfer digital
data.

Figure 5.18. The three types of MIDI connectors (in, thru, and out) and a MIDI cable
(always male-to-male)

Without delving too deeply into the details, the MIDI standard was the fruit of a
collaboration between four individuals: Dave Smith (Sequential Circuits),
 Drum Machines 107

Chet Wood (Sequential Circuits), Tom Oberheim (Oberheim), and Ikutaro

Kakehashi (Roland). Their interface standardized the music industry’s approach to
communication between different instruments, synthesizers, sequencers, drum
machines, effects, and so on. There had been other communication systems before
MIDI, but they had typically relied on analog parameters. Any manufacturers that
had attempted a digital approach had done so alone, resulting in a proliferation of
proprietary interfaces.

Appendix 1 provides more details on the CV/gate analog standard for

transmitting information between musical instruments.

Many of the drum machines of the mid-1980s were MIDI-compatible. To cite

just one example, the TR-909 by Roland, created in 1984, had three MIDI
connections – one input and two outputs.

Figure 5.19. The rear panel of the TR-909 by Roland. Its three MIDI connectors
(2x out, 1x in) can be seen in the bottom center.

5.5. Drum machines with sampled sounds

In 1980, a ground-breaking new drum machine was the catalyst of an entirely

new category. Its sounds – instead of being generated electronically – were
reproduced from numerical samplers (28 kHz). Furthermore, it was fully
programmable, enabling 16-step rhythms to be put together, either in “step
recording” mode or in real time. The drum machine featured 12 different sounds
(kick, snare, hi-hat, cabasa, tambourine, tom 1, tom 2, conga 1, conga 2, cowbell,
clave, and handclap). The revolutionary quantification system automatically aligned
the rhythm pattern specified by the user with the selected tempo.

It was manufactured by the company Linn Electronics, who named it the Linn
LM-1. Barely 500 units were ever made; at the time, it was prohibitively expensive
to own (around $5,000).

The Linn LM-1 was designed by Roger Linn, a musician, guitarist, and
composer with a passion for electronics.
108 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 5.20. Linn LM-1

The initial model was followed in 1982 by the LinnDrum, which was more
sophisticated and commercially much more successful. Later, the Linn 9000 added a
32-track MIDI sequencer, a feature to allow users to save their own samples, and
velocity and pressure-sensitive touchpads.

Figure 5.21. The LinnDrum (left) and the Linn 9000 (right)

In parallel with Roger Linn’s drum machines, other manufacturers began

creating and marketing their own models, with similar features. Yamaha launched
the RX-11 and RX-15 in 1984, E-mu released their renowned Drumulator in 1983,
and Sequential Circuits marketed the Drumtraks in 1984; although these three
models may be the most famous, they are far from the only ones, with manufacturers
such as Korg, Alesis, Boss, Zoom, Roland, Akai, Kawai, Casio, Dynacord, Hohner,
Böhm, and Gem each producing their own entries.
 Drum Machines 109

Figure 5.22. E-mu Drumulator (left), Sequential Circuits Drumtraks (center),

and RX-11 (right)

Table 5.1 lists a few examples of programmable models.

Manufacturer Model Year of release

Akai XR-10 1990
Alesis SR-16 1990
Arturia DrumBrute 2016
Arturia DrumBrute Impact 2018
Boss DR-55 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1979
Boss DR-110 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1983
Boss DR-220E (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1986
Boss DR-550 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1989
Boss DR-660 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1992
Boss DR-5 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1993
Boss DR-770 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 1998
Boss DR-670 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 2001
Boss DR-3 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 2003
Boss DR-880 (Dr. Rhythm Series) 2004
Casio RZ-1 1986
Dave Smith Instruments Tempest 2011
Elektron Machine Drum 2001
Elektron Digitakt 2017
Kawai R-50 1987
Korg KPR-77 1983
Korg DDM-110 1985
110 Electronic Music Machines

Korg DDD-5 1987

Korg DDD-1 1986
Korg Volca Beats 2013
Linn Electronics LM-1 1980
Linn Electronics LinnDrum 1982
Linn Electronics Linn9000 1984
MFB Tanzbâr 2013
Oberheim DMX 1980
Oberheim DX 1982
Roland TR-808 1981
Roland TR-606 1982
Roland TR-909 1984
Roland TR-707 1984
Roland TR-727 1985
Roland TR-505 1986
Roland TR-626 1987
Roland R-5 1989
Roland R-8 1989
Roland TR-8 (AIRA Series) 2014
Roland TR-09 2016
Roland TR-08 2017
Roland TR-8S (AIRA Series) 2018
Sequential Circuits Tom 1985
Teenage Engineering PO-12 2015
Vermona DRM-1 2001
Yamaha RX-15 1984
Yamaha RX-11 1984
Yamaha RX-5 1986
Yamaha RX-7 1988
Yamaha RX-8 1989
Yamaha RY-30 1991

Table 5.1. A few examples of programmable drum machines

 Drum Machines 111

5.6. Rhythms, software, and computers

By the 1990s, there was a vast selection of standalone drum machines with many
different features. But the market then gradually began to decline after the arrival of
samplers controlled by internal and external sequencers, as well as specialized
software accompanied by or integrated within Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs).

One example is the famous MPC-60 by Akai, a giant of its time. Released in
1988, it was one of the first ever sampler-sequencers to feature touchpads, designed
to generate drum rhythm sequences in real time.

Figure 5.23. Akai MPC-60

The MPC-60 was yet another brainchild of Roger Linn, who had liquidated his
company Linn Electronics due to financial problems but had not given up on
perfecting the Linn 9000. Akai offered him another opportunity to build and
implement his ideas, ultimately leading to the first ever model of the MPC.
112 Electronic Music Machines

Many other models would follow. Over time, they have evolved from mere drum
machines, becoming something new – groove machines (see Chapter 7).

Various software-based emulators are now available for vintage drum machines,
in the form of plugins or standalone software programs, also known as virtual drum
machines.

Figure 5.24. An example of a virtual drum machine – Hydrogen by H2,

in TR-808 emulation mode

Table 5.1 provides a non-exhaustive list of tools that can emulate or replace a
traditional drum machine. Some are highly sophisticated whereas others are less so,
and some are standalone whereas others are designed to be integrated into DAWs.
There are dozens of them, and they can be very tricky to classify. In my personal
opinion, there is only one way to find the right one – try everything out (many of the
software programs listed below offer trial versions or are completely free), listen to
everything, look at everything, and see if it fits into your working environment. The
right tool for you is definitely out there – there are so many options!
 Drum Machines 113

Publisher Name Notes

8DiO Advanced For Kontakt11
Drum Series
Blackbird
8DiO Hybrid For Kontakt
Drums 808
Auddict Drum of the For Kontakt
Deep II
Audio Assault Druminator VST, AU, AAX plugin12 for Microsoft Windows and
1.0 Mac OS
Audio Imperia Sinfonia For Kontakt
Drums
Audio Imperia Decimator For Kontakt
Drums
Chocolate Audio The Black For BFD3 and Kontakt
Album
Drums
d-lusion DrumStation Freeware for Microsoft Windows
Interactive
Media
DreamPipe HTML5 Available at: https://www.html5drummachine.com/
Drum
Machine
Drumasonic Luxury For Kontakt
EOSdev Loop12 Freeware for Microsoft Windows
Fingerlab DM1 – Standalone – Mac OS – iPad
The Drum
Machine 3.1
Flatpack Analogik For Ableton
Drums
FXpansion BFD Eco VST, RTAS, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and
Mac OS

11 Kontakt is a sampling software suite by Native Instruments. Kontakt player is a free

sampler reader that can be used either standalone or as a plugin. Versions are available for
both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS.
12 More explanations about the various types of plugins are given in Appendix 4 at the end of
this book.
114 Electronic Music Machines

GetGood Drums Matt For Kontakt

Halpern
Signature
Pack
H2 Hydrogen For Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and Linux.
Available at: https://www.hydrogen-music.org/hcms/
node/21
Kontakt Soundiron For Kontakt
Antidrum
Machine
Manda Audio MT Power VST plugin for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
Drum Kit 2
MeldaProduction MDrummer Mac OS
Large V7.02
Native Abbey Road For Kontakt 5, Kontakt 5 player
Instruments Drummer
Native Studio For Kontakt 5, Kontakt 5 player
Instruments Drummer
One Motion Drum Available at: https://www.onemotion.com/drum-
Machine machine/
Overdrive Music DrumTrackz Available at: https://overdrive.music.free.fr/
01drumtrackz_zikinf.php
Power Drumkit MT Power VST, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
Drumkit 2
Roland TR-808 VST, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
Software
Rhythm
Composer
Roland TR-909 VST, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
Software
Rhythm
Composer
Samplephonics Hybrid For Mach 5 and Ableton
Drum and
Bass
Soundiron Temple For Kontakt
Drums
Steven Slate SSD 5 VST, AAX, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and
Drums Mac OS
 Drum Machines 115

Steven Slate SSD 4 VST, AAX, RTAS, AU plugin for Microsoft

Drums Windows and Mac OS
Steven Slate Trigger 2 VST, AAX, AU plugin for Microsoft Windows and
Drums Platinum Mac OS
Toontrack Superior VST, AU, RTAS plugin for Microsoft Windows and
Drummer 2.0 Mac OS
Toontrack EzDrummer Standalone or VST plugin for Microsoft Windows
2.0.1
XLN Audio Addictive For Microsoft Windows
Drums
XLN Audio Audio VST, AU, AAX for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
Addictive
Drums 2.1.7

Table 5.2. Emulators and drum machine software

5.7. Final remarks

We have now taken a tour of the category of musical hardware known as drum
machines. As we have seen, drum machines peaked in the period between 1985 and
1995. But despite everything, many models have survived and remain relevant to
this day. Vintage sounds are extremely fashionable, and collectors are willing to pay
top dollar for the legendary drum machines of a bygone era.

Drum machines can still be found throughout the musical landscape of modern
times and continue to work acoustic wonders to this day.

Whether physical or virtual, drum machines are perfectly alive and well in
electronic music.
 6

Samplers

Samplers profoundly changed the way through which audio professionals

worked. Much like early tape recorders, they were initially met with hostility and
suspicion by recording studios, who feared an unfair competitor that might replace
the instruments – and hence musicians. Samplers also raised new ethical problems,
as music could now easily be re-appropriated for new creations without obtaining
permission from the original authors.

6.1. History of samplers

The rise of the sampler began from the 1950s to the 1960s, well before the
advent of digital technology. But the phonograph invented in 1877 by Thomas
Edison could perhaps be described as an early precursor. At a fundamental level,
what is a sampler other than a device for reproducing recorded sounds? Edison’s
invention was later improved by other inventors like Graham Bell and Emile
Berliner1.

Nevertheless, our history shall begin with the introduction of the first magnetic
tape recorders (see section 4.2), which hit the market in the early 1950s. At around
this time, composers like Pierre Schaeffer began experimenting with montages,
cutting and gluing magnetic tapes together to form loops that could be reused in
future musical productions. This new experimental technique found applications in
every style of music, especially musique concrète, and early, rock-oriented forms of
electronic music.

1 Emile Berliner, originally Emil Berliner, May 20, 1851–August 3, 1929. German-born
American inventor whose creations included flat phonograph disks.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
118 Electronic Music Machines

6.1.1. Basic principles

In 1946, Harry Chamberlin designed a device that could play and mix rhythmic
drum sequences recorded on magnetic tapes (see section 5.1). Chamberlin perfected
his instrument over the next few years. His next version, Model 200, could produce
more than just rhythms: violin sounds, vibraphones, flutes, and so on. Chamberlin
even added a three-octave keyboard to this model (G2 to F5). He soon introduced
other dual-keyboard models, such as the Model 600, which allowed users to
combine backing rhythms with melodic instruments.

Figure 6.1. Chamberlin’s dual-keyboard Model 600

After making only a few hundred units of all models combined, Chamberlin’s
company stopped doing business in 1981.

Over in France, the composer Pierre Schaeffer had been pondering a new style of
music incorporating noises and sounds for some time. After numerous tests,
Schaeffer constructed his famous sliding phonogène in collaboration with Jacques
Poullin. Improvements to the original design soon followed (e.g. the chromatic
phonogène manufactured by Tolana, the universal phonogène developed by the
ORTF). The phonogène allowed the user to manipulate all kinds of sounds by
applying continuous or non-continuous transpositions to vary the pitch, either
keeping the duration fixed or allowing it to vary simultaneously.
 Samplers 119

Figure 6.2. Pierre Schaeffer’s chromatic phonogène, manufactured by Tolana

(source: https://www.musikzeitung.ch)

Chamberlin’s device attempts to reproduce a rhythm or an instrument as

faithfully as possible, whereas Schaeffer’s device invents new sounds and
transforms existing sounds. Despite being based on two very different concepts,
both are very close to the principle of a sampler.

6.1.2. The arrival of the Mellotron

In 1963, a machine known as the Mellotron (a portmanteau of the words

MELOdy and elecTRONics) was developed in Birmingham, England. The makers
of the Mellotron, the Bradley brothers, revived and renewed Chamberlin’s work
after purchasing the commercial rights to his ideas. The Mellotron Mark 1 was the
first model released by their company, Streetly Electronics. It featured two
keyboards, each with 35 keys, arranged side by side. The read heads were physically
transported to one of three available tracks by an elaborate mechanical system,
enabling the user to select another instrument or mix the sounds of two instruments
together.

Polyphony was achieved by multiple magnetic tapes containing recordings of

each instrument at the correct musical pitch – one tape for every key on the
120 Electronic Music Machines

keyboard. Limited by the length of the tape, the mechanical system could hold each
note for a maximum of 8 s.

Figure 6.3. Working principle of the Mellotron when a key is pressed. 1 – key,
2 – screw, 3 – felt pressure pad, 4 – pinch wheel, 5 – tape head, 6 – rotating capstan,
7 – tape storage bin, 8 – tension wheels, 9 – tension spring, 10 – counterweight
(source: Wikipedia)

Several models of the Mellotron were made. It had a few major drawbacks,
lacking robustness as a result of the complex mechanism and fragile tapes,
especially when moved; it was also very heavy and expensive.

However, it had the key advantages of polyphony and sound fidelity by

comparison with the other synthesizers available at the time, which were almost
exclusively monophonic and struggled to simulate melodic instruments in high
quality.

The tapes of the earliest models (Marks I and II) were not interchangeable. This
defect was remedied in later models after the M300, featuring a single 52-note
keyboard, was released in 1968.
 Samplers 121

Figure 6.4. The Mellotron M300

In 1970, the flagship model of the brand was released – the M400. It was lighter
than its predecessors, weighing only 55 kg, and had interchangeable tape racks to
support multiple different sound banks. More than 2,000 units were manufactured
up until 1986, some under the alternative brand Novatron after Streetly Electronics
went bankrupt in 1977.

Figure 6.5. The Mellotron M400 and its control panel

122 Electronic Music Machines

In 1990, David Kean bought as many spare parts as he could find. Together with
Markus Reach, he designed a new model – the Mark VI, making several major
improvements to the M400. Their company Mellotron Archives later also released
the Mark II (double keyboard). Today, Mellotron Archives is based in Canada.

Figure 6.6. The Mellotron Mark VII and its two keyboards

John Bradley, the son of Leslie Bradley, the inventor of the Mellotron, created a
new company together with Martin Smith, also named Streetly Electronics after his
father’s original company. In 2007, manufacturing resumed for the Mellotron, with
two new models: the M4000 (single keyboard) and the M5000 (double keyboard).

Figure 6.7. The Mellotron M4000 and its control panel

 Samplers 123

Today, the Mellotron is considered a vintage instrument, although digital

editions like the M4000D can still be found on the market. Its disappearance in the
early 1980s is largely explained by a flood of new, fully electronic and digital
devices from around this time – samplers and sequencers.

The Mellotron had competitors, but none ever rivalled its success. Examples
include the Optigan by Mattel Incorporated (1971), the Orchestron by David
van Koevering (1975), and the Birotron by Dave Biro and Rick Wakeman (1975).

6.1.3. Samplers

The first samplers with electronic components arrived on the market in the
mid-1970s. This was the dawn of the age of computing – over time, synthesizers
would gradually be conquered by microprocessors and specialized audio signal
processing circuits. The Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument) was one of
the first ever synthesizers equipped with electronic components.

Figure 6.8. The Fairlight CMI-3 synthesizer, with its keyboard,

monitor, and 8″ floppy disk drive

The Fairlight CMI was created by Peter Vogel, Kim Ryrie, and Tony Furse in
the late 1970s. It originally featured two 6800 microprocessors by Motorola. This
was soon upgraded to a triple processor setup, 2x 6800 + 1x 6809, then to 2x 6809 +
124 Electronic Music Machines

1x 68000, and finally to 10x 68000 + 1x 6800 + 1x 68B09 for the CMI-3 model.
The available memory also increased over time, from 4 KB on 8 bits, to 14 MB on
16 bits, then to 32 MB and 64 MB in the latest versions (CMI-3), while the sampling
frequency was upgraded from 8-bit, 24 kHz to 16-bit, 100 kHz.

Figure 6.9. The 6800, 6809, and 68000 microprocessors (top to bottom) made
by Motorola and installed in different models of the Fairlight

Alongside the CMI, the Synclavier was another major milestone in the history of
sampling.

The Synclavier was built by NED (New England Digital) in the USA in 1975.
Two versions were released. It was one of the first fully digital synthesizers and
featured the ability to record audio onto a hard drive (sample to disk). It worked on
16 bits, with sampling rates of up to 50 kHz.

Figure 6.10. NED Synclavier II

 Samplers 125

The NED discontinued manufacturing of the Synclavier in 1991. Today, both the
Synclavier and the CMI are extremely prized as vintage instruments. The Synclavier
especially has carved out an enduring niche for itself in sound design and film
music.

At the time, both the Fairlight CMI and the Synclavier were extremely
expensive. Only a select few artists, studios, and producers could afford them.

In the early 1980s, the first widely accessible samplers in terms of cost began to
appear, alongside the MIDI standard.

The American manufacturer E-mu Systems achieved widespread recognition

with their new invention, the Emulator I. This was perhaps the first-ever sampler
that was truly easy-to-use, compact, and sufficiently portable to be used onstage,
while still offering enough functionality to make it a workstation in its own right.
The Emulator I was 8-bit, 27 kHz, and had 128 KB of memory. Samples were stored
on 5-1⁄4″ floppy disks.

Figure 6.11. The Emulator I by E-mu

The invasion of the market by workstations had begun. In addition to sampling

functionality, workstations offer keyboards, editing tools, timbre processing
features, sound effect management systems, and note sequencers.

After the success of their first model, E-mu Systems released another hit in 1984
with the Emulator II – even more powerful, with 512 KB to 1 MB of memory,
8-channel polyphony, either dual floppy disk drives or a 20-MB hard drive, MIDI,
SMPTE, and RS 422.
126 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 6.12. An Emulator II with dual floppy disk drives

In 1987, the Emulator III was released, boasting 16-channel polyphony, 16-bit,
44.1-kHz sampling, and a memory capacity of up to 8 MB. This third generation
was fitted with an SCSI interface (see Appendix 2) supporting multiple connected
devices (hard drive, CD player, etc.).

Figure 6.13. The Emulator III

The fourth edition, the Emulator IV, was released in 1994, with 128 MB,
128-channel polyphony, multi-effects management, multiple inputs/outputs, and a
48-track sequencer.

In 1984, just as E-mu announced the Emulator II, their competitor AKAI
announced their own rack sampler, the S612. This was soon followed in 1985 by the
S700, as well as another model fitted with a keyboard, the S7000.
 Samplers 127

Figure 6.14. The Emulator IV sampler rack

Just one year later, the S900 hit the market, followed by the S1000 and the MPC
60 (Music Production Center) in 1988.

The MPC 60 deserves a special mention. It was a new and intuitive instrument
for musical expression unlike any of its predecessors whose creator was none other
than Roger Linn himself (see section 5.6). The design of its workflow, sensitive
pads, and powerful sound editor were revolutionary for the time – nothing else came
close. The MPC 60 was the first of the many variants. Even today, AKAI is still
producing new models, even though other manufacturers have rushed to target the
same niche.

The MPC 60 was arguably one of the most influential machines of all time.
Although originally designed as a drum machine, it was very quickly adopted and
repurposed by the emerging hip-hop community, who used it to record melodic
sound samples. Its real-time sound inputs were perfect for live performances.

Figure 6.15. The MPC 60 by AKAI: 12-bit, 40 kHz, with 1.5 MB of memory,
32 percussion sounds, a 60,000-note sequencer, MIDI, MTC (MIDI Time Code),
SMPTE, FSK 24 sync, and 16 velocity- and aftertouch-sensitive pads
128 Electronic Music Machines

More recent models include the MPC 2000, 2000XL, and 3000, loved by
beatmakers and still extremely fashionable to this day.

Figure 6.16. The MPC 2000XL by AKAI: 16-bit, 44.1 kHz, with 2 MB to 32 MB
of memory, an SCSI port, 32-channel polyphony, two LFOs, sound effects (optional),
a 300,000-note sequencer, MIDI, MTC, and SMPTE (optional), eight separate
outputs (optional)

By contrast, the S1000 was geared more toward studio work, designed to be
compatible with the powerful software tools available on computers.

Figure 6.17. The AKAI S1000 sampler

The S1000 works on 16 bits, from 22 to 44.1 kHz, with 2 to 32 MB of memory.

It has eight separate stereo outputs, one stereo input and output, effects loops, MIDI
ports, an SCSI interface (see Appendix 2) with two ports, an 18 dB/octave digital
filter, a VCA (Voltage-Controlled Amplifier), an LFO (Low-Frequency Oscillator),
an ADSR (Attack-Decay-Sustain-Release) envelope generator, and 16-channel
polyphony.
 Samplers 129

This ends our brief tour of historical hardware samplers. The early 1990s marked
the start of a sampling arms race, with many manufacturers such as Korg, Roland,
Ensoniq, Kurzweil, and others competing to offer increasingly powerful equipment
to musicians at affordable prices.

Broadly speaking, the main differences between the various models can be
reduced to a few key criteria:
– Memory size: there are two types of memory to consider, RAM (or live
memory) and mass storage memory. The RAM of a sampler determines the
maximum length of each sound sample during playback, ranging from just a few
seconds in the 1980s to dozens of minutes today. Mass storage memory, on the other
hand, was largely limited to floppy disks in the 1980s (a few seconds of recording).
Later, in the 1990s, hard drives with a memory capacity of 20 MB to 100 MB (a few
minutes of recording) began to spread. Today, truly massive amounts of mass
storage space are available, often well above 1 TB (terabyte), even at extremely
affordable prices, enough for hundreds of hours of recording.
– Processing power: the amount of available processing power has historically
followed Moore’s second law2, meaning that it has improved quickly and
consistently. Over time, audio processing operations have become increasingly
complex, incorporating new, highly sophisticated editing and rendering functionality
(loops, transposition, effects, etc.).
– Quality of the sound rendering: the first generation of processors worked on
8 bits. Later generations could handle 12, 16, 24, 32 bits, or even higher, achieving
ever better quality of sound. In parallel, bandwidth increased from 12 kHz (8 bits)
and a dynamic range of 48 dB in 1980 to 48 kHz (24 bits) and a dynamic range of
144 dB in the 2000s.
– Polyphony: this refers to the number of notes that can be played
simultaneously. Today, the MIDI standard limits the polyphony to 128 notes. Feats
that would have seemed impossible in the 1980s have now become entirely trivial.
– Multi-timbrality: this refers to the number of timbres that can be played
simultaneously. The MIDI standard limits the number of timbres to 16, although this
restriction can be circumvented by using more than one MIDI port.

2 Moore’s laws are empirical laws (conjectures) that describe the evolution of computational
processing power and complexity over time. The most commonly cited principle predicts that
the power of computers will increase exponentially, with the number of transistors doubling
every 18 months. This has no longer been the case in recent years; somewhere around 2014,
progress began to run into physical restrictions that limit the performance of semiconductor
materials.
130 Electronic Music Machines

– Timbre: as technology improved over time, so did the sampling performance of

the latest generations of equipment. By increasing the amount of bandwidth used for
sampling sounds, incredible levels of accuracy became possible. Nevertheless,
timbre is highly subjective, and sound colors are often closely associated with
specific technologies. The colors generated by an old 12-bit sampler can be just as
musically desirable as those produced by the state-of-the-art models. Everything is
ultimately a question of sound esthetics; each model offers its own set of nuances
and a specific granularity.
– Software functionality: the earliest samplers already had very powerful editing
features, but that did not stop manufacturers from constantly innovating and
improving them. New features were added, such as loop management, quantization3,
resampling, time-stretching, transposition, and many others, alongside a vast range
of sound effects, such as delay, reverb, compression, equalization, phasing, vibrato,
and filtering.
– Interfaces: as computer technology advanced, the number of interface
standards used by samplers multiplied. In addition to MIDI and SMPTE, the SCSI,
USB, ADA, and S/PDIF standards (see Appendix 2) were introduced, allowing
samplers to be hooked up to all kinds of peripherals – audio, computer-based,
analog, digital, and so on.
– Keyboard: most of the early samplers had a built-in keyboard, but rack models
designed to be controlled from a master keyboard via MIDI were soon introduced.
Even today, some models featuring a keyboard are still available. These models tend
to be full-blown workstations rather than just samplers. Keyboards are no longer
strictly needed for the latest models, which instead implement new interfaces such
as pressure- and velocity-sensitive pads, not to mention the various possibilities
offered by software-based virtual systems.
– Price: the first generation of samplers tended to be prohibitively expensive.
Since then, they have gradually become more and more affordable. Samplers
revolutionized the musical community as their popularity grew. Today, good-quality
samplers are easy to find and cost much less than the classical acoustic instruments.
As samplers become cheaper, the newest releases go out of fashion and are
superseded more quickly, a trend that can be observed with many other types of
electronic products. Nevertheless, a few so-called vintage models are safe bets; they
will always remain prized by musicians who appreciate their characteristic colors
and timbres.

3 Quantization is the process of “intelligently” aligning a sound signal (for example a

sequence of notes in a musical track) to correct small imperfections in a musician’s
performance and remain perfectly on-beat.
 Samplers 131

Table 6.1 lists a few of the most famous samplers4 from the period between 1975
and 2000. The table does not include any romplers5 – devices that are somewhat
similar to samplers but that cannot record musical sequences. Romplers simply store
sound banks of samples that can be combined with audio processing and sound
effects.

Manufacturer Model Year Processor/interface

AKAI S612 1985 Interface: MIDI
S700 1987 Interface: MIDI
S900 1986 Interface: MIDI
S950 1988 Interface: MIDI
S1000 1988–1993 Interface: MIDI – SCSI
S1100 1990 Interface: MIDI – SCSI –
AES/EBU – SMPTE
S2000 1995 Interface: MIDI – SCSI
S3000 1996 Interface: MIDI – S/PDIF – SCSI –
AES/EBU – SMPTE
S5000 1998–1999 Interface: MIDI –SCSI – AES/EBU
S6000 1998–1999 Interface: MIDI –SCSI – AES/EBU
MPC60 1988 Interface: MIDI – MTC – SMPTE
– FSK24 – Pulse 96 – click in
MPC2000 1997 Interface: MIDI – MTC – SMPTE
MPC2000 XL 1999 Interface: MIDI – MTC – SMPTE
Ensoniq Mirage 1984–1988 Interface: MIDI
EPS 1988 Interface: MIDI – SCSI
EPS-16+ 1990 Interface: MIDI – SCSI
ASR10 1992–1998 Interface: MIDI – SCSI
E-mu Emulator I 1981–1983 Interface: MIDI
Emulator II 1984–1988 Interface: MIDI – SMPTE – RS422
Emulator III 1987–1990 Interface: MIDI – SMPTE – SCSI
Emulator IV 1994 Interface: SPDIF/AES – SCSI –
MIDI

4 For more information, visit the bibliography at the end of the book.
5 Rompler: portmanteau of ROM (Read-Only Memory) and “sampler”.
132 Electronic Music Machines

SP12 1985–1987 Interface: MIDI – SMPTE

SP1200 1987 Interface: MIDI – SMPTE
Fairlight CMI 1975–1977 Motorola 6800
CMI – Series I 1979 Motorola 6800
CMI – Series II 1980 Motorola 6800 and 6809
Interface: MIDI
CMI – Series IIx 1983 Motorola 6809 and 68000
Interface: MIDI – SMPTE
CMI – Series III 1985 Motorola 68000 and 68020
Interface: MIDI SMPTE
Kurzweil K250 1984–1990 Interface: MIDI
K2000 – 1991 Interface: MIDI
K2000RS
K2500 – K2500S 1996 Interface: MIDI – SCSI –
– K2500R AES/EBU – S/PDIF
K2600 1999 Interface: MIDI – SCSI –
AES/EBU – ADAT – TDIF
NED Synclavier I 1977 ABLE processor
Interface: CV – RS232
Synclavier II 1979 Interface: MIDI – CV/gate –
SMPTE
Synclavier PSMT 1984 Interface: MIDI – CV/gate –
SMPTE
Synclavier 3200 After 1980 Interface: MIDI – CV/gate –
SMPTE
Synclavier 6400 After 1980 Interface: MIDI – CV/gate –
SMPTE
Synclavier 9600 After 1990 Interface: MIDI – CV/gate –
SMPTE
Roland S10 1986 Interface: MIDI
S50 1986–1987 Interface: MIDI
S330 1987–1988 Interface: MIDI
S770 1989–1993 Interface: MIDI
Yamaha A3000 1997 Interface: MIDI – SCSI

Table 6.1. A few examples of samplers

 Samplers 133

6.1.4. Software samplers

Not long after hardware samplers had finally managed to establish themselves,
the next chapter in the history of sampling was initiated – the first software samplers
hit the markets in the 1990s. Computers were becoming increasingly widespread and
had become standard in studios. Keenly aware of this trend, musical manufacturers
began to design and develop software systems. There are many similarities between
a hardware sampler and a computer; both have processors, RAM, a display or
monitor, mass storage (floppy, hard drive, etc.), and proprietary internal (software)
applications. The transition from hardware samplers to computers was one small
step for manufacturers, one giant leap for music.

Figure 6.18. The Digidesign SampleCell (Nubus) card for Apple Macintosh

At the time, samplers could only be integrated into a computer with a dedicated
peripheral for audio signal acquisition and processing. Accordingly, many
manufacturers released specialized audio processing cards.

Figure 6.19. The Emulator X studio system by E-mu with its cards and interface box
134 Electronic Music Machines

Dozens of different sound cards were developed by manufacturers such as

Creative Labs, Digidesign, Gravis, Turtle Beach, Yamaha, Ensoniq, and E-mu.
Table 6.2 lists a few models.

Manufacturer Model Year

Media Vision Pro Audio Spectrum 1991–1992
Creative Labs Sound Blaster 2.0 1993
Gravis Ultrasound 93 1993
Audiomedia Audiomedia II 1994
Digidesign SampleCell II 1994
Turtle Beach Monte Carlo 1995
Ensoniq Soundscape 95 1995
Digidesign DAE 882 1995
Roland Audio Producer RAP-10 1994
Creative Labs Sound Blaster AWE32 1994
Creative Labs Sound Blaster AWE 64 1997
Echo Gina 20 1997
Ensoniq Audio PCI 1997
Yamaha SW1000XG 1997
Terratec EWS 1997
Mediatrix Audiotrix 1997
Digidesign 888 1997
Digidesign D24 1997
Lexicon Core 2 1998
Creative Labs Sound Blaster Live! 1998
Digidesign 888 – 24 bits 1999
Creative Labs Sound Blaster Audigy 2001
Creative Labs Sound Blaster Audigy 2 2002
ESI Prodigy 192 2003
Creative Labs Sound Blaster Audigy 4 2004
E-mu Emulator X 2004

Table 6.2. A few examples of sound cards

 Samplers 135

By the mid-2000s, few manufacturers were still making hardware samplers.

Most had either ceased physical production and focused instead on software
development or disappeared to make way for companies specializing in the
development of digital audio programs.

Software samplers can be divided into two categories: standalone software

programs and plugins6. Plugins are designed to “plug into” and extend other
sequencers, editing environments, or digital audio workstations (DAWs).

Various rompler plugins are also available, offering access to large sound banks
of samples of all kinds: acoustic instruments (strings, brass, wind, etc.), electronic
instruments (organs, synthesizers, drum machines, etc.), and noises.

Figure 6.20. The MachFive 3 software/virtual sampler by MOTU

6 See Appendix 4.
136 Electronic Music Machines

To name just a few models:

Publisher Name Type Operating system

Serato Sample Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Native Instruments Kontakt Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin Mac OS
Steinberg Halion Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
NemeSys GigaSampler Plugin Microsoft Windows
MOTU MachFive Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Plugin Boutique Zampler RX Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
IK multimedia SampleTank 3 Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Image Line DirectWave Plugin Microsoft Windows
Arturia CMI V Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin Mac OS
Ableton Sampler Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
AIR Music Structure 2 Plugin Microsoft Windows
Technology Mac OS
VSL Vienna Instruments Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
E-mu Proteus VX (free) Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin
E-mu Proteus X2 Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin
Speedsoft VSampler Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin
Native Instruments Kompakt Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Spectrasonics Omnisphere 1.5w Plugin Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
 Samplers 137

TASCAM Gigastudio Standalone Microsoft Windows

Mac OS
E-mu Emulator X Standalone Microsoft Windows
Plugin
Yellow Tools Independence Pro Standalone Microsoft Windows
Mac OS

Table 6.3. A few examples of software samplers

Modern digital audio editors typically include sampling functionality alongside

various other features such as multitrack mixing and editing, soundtrack extraction
from video files, and spectral analysis.

Figure 6.21. The digital audio editor “WaveLab” by Steinberg

Some audio editors also include sampling or audio recording functionality.

138 Electronic Music Machines

Publisher Name Type Operating system

Audacity Audacity (free) Standalone Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Linux
Magix Sound Forge Standalone Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Steinberg WaveLab Standalone Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Adobe Audition Standalone Microsoft Windows
Mac OS
Propellerhead ReCycle Standalone Mac OS
Wavosaur Wavosaur (free) Standalone Microsoft Windows
Ocenaudio Ocenaudio (free) Standalone Mac OS

Table 6.4. A few examples of digital audio editors

As we bring this section to a close, note that many recent models of musical
equipment include advanced sampling functionality, such as the highly sought-after
sampler-sequencers (Elektron Octatrack, AKAI MPC Series, Korg Electribe
Sampler, Teenage Engineering PO32 and PO33, Korg Volca Sample, etc.) loved by
the modern generation of musicians, especially in hip-hop, rap, and electro.

Figure 6.22. The Octatrack MKII sampler-sequencer by Elektron

 Samplers 139

6.2. History of musical styles

The arrival of samplers profoundly changed the world of music and pop music7
production. The first samplers became available in the 1970s, but their cost was so
prohibitive that they remained relatively inaccessible. Samplers only truly became
viable in the early 1980s, once smaller customers could purchase and use them.

From as early as 1965, many bands and groups used equipment like the
Mellotron to add novel and innovative colors to their music. Samplers followed
about 15 years later; the compositions that arrived with them had an even more
radical impact on the progression of popular musical styles.

Various rock, progressive rock, and new wave bands integrated samplers into
their hardware line-ups and started creating their own samples. In parallel, as hip-
hop and rap gradually took shape, samplers began to be used in new ways, drawing
from the repertoire of other artists to mix together original music and recorded
sequences (samples). New controversies were soon ignited on topics such as rights
management, musical ethics, and plagiarism.

Hip-hop uses breakbeat loops and samples to create a rhythmic foundation for its
music. DJs had been doing this since the late 1960s and early 1970s, but samplers
made it much easier, no longer requiring skilled manipulations on record turntables.

The following list presents a few of the most famous sampled tracks from
hip-hop, disco, new wave, minimalist music, musique concrète, techno, and house
between 1965 and 2009, in no particular order:
– 1966: Lee Dorsey – “Get Out of My Life, Woman”;
– 1966: Joe Tex – “Papa Was Too”;
– 1968: The Mohawks – “The Champ”;
– 1969: The Winstons – “Amen, Brother”;
– 1970: James Brown – “Funky Drummer”;
– 1970: The J.B.’s – “The Grunt”;
– 1971: Kool & The Kang – “N.T”;
– 1972: Lyn Collins – “Think (About It)”;

7 Here, the concept of pop music includes any style of music targeting a wide audience,
including rock, commercial music, jazz, and other styles, as opposed to so-called classical
music.
140 Electronic Music Machines

– 1973: Ohio Players – “Funky Worm”;

– 1973: The Honey Drippers – “Impeach the President”;
– 1973: Skull Snaps – “It’s a New Day”;
– 1973: Lafayette Afro Rock Band – “Hihache”;
– 1973: Melvin Bliss – “Synthetic Substitution”;
– 1973: Barry White – “I’m Gonna Love You Just a Little More, Baby”;
– 1974: Bob James – “Nautilus”;
– 1974: Fred Wesley and the J.B.’s – “Blow Your Head”;
– 1974: Soul Searchers – “Ashley’s Roachclip”;
– 1976: The Headhunters – “God Make Me Funky”;
– 1978: Yellow Magic Orchestra – “Computer Game / Firecracker”;
– 1979: Van Halen – “Jamie’s Crying’”;
– 1980: Zapp – “More Bounce to the Ounce”;
– 1980: Billy Squier – “The Big Beat”;
– 1981: Yellow Magic Orchestra – “Technodelic”;
– 1981: ESG – “UFO”;
– 1981: Queen and David Bowie – “Under Pressure”;
– 1981: Sugarhill Gang – “8th Wonder”;
– 1983: AC/DC – “Flick of the Switch”;
– 1983: Art of Noise – “Beat Box”;
– 1984: Art of Noise – “Close (to the Edit)”;
– 1985: LL Cool J – “Rock the Bells”;
– 1985: Beastie Boys – “Slow and Low”;
– 1985: Big Audio Dynamite – “The Bottom Line”;
– 1985: François Bernard Mâche – “Iter Memor”;
– 1985: Propaganda – “Duel”;
– 1986: Ultramagnetic MCs – “Ego Trippin”;
– 1986: Run DMC – “My Adidas”;
– 1986: Frank Zappa – “Jazz from Hell”;
 Samplers 141

– 1987: MARRS – “Pump Up the Volume”;

– 1989: Black Box – “Ride on Time”;
– 1989: Biz Markie – “Just a Friend”;
– 1990: Vanilla Ice – “Ice Ice Baby”;
– 1990: François Bernard Mâche – “Khnoum”;
– 1991: The Prodigy – “Charly”;
– 1993: Dr. Dre – “Let Me Ride”;
– 1994: The Notorious B.I.G. – “Ready to Die”;
– 1994: The Notorious B.I.G. – “Big Poppa”;
– 1995: Steve Reich – “City Life”;
– 1995: Coolio – “Gangsta’s Paradise”;
– 1996: The Ganja Kru – “Super Sharp Shooter”;
– 2000: François Bernard Mâche – “Vectigal Libens”;
– 2004: Gwen Stefani – “Luxurious”;
– 2006: The Incredible Bongo Band – “Apache”;
– 2007: Rihanna – “Don’t Stop the Music”.
– 2009: Flo Rida – “Right Round”;

The number of artists using sampling techniques has exploded since the early
2000s. It would be impossible to cite them all.

The list above does not include any progressive rock bands such as Genesis,
Rick Wakeman, Yes, and Pink Floyd. Although these bands have been regularly
using samplers since the 1980s, their compositions use them in subtler and less
representative ways, making it difficult for an untrained ear to appreciate exactly
how the samplers are being used.

Any interested readers are invited to listen carefully to each of these examples of
the so-called “sampled” music, which cover a large variety of different musical
styles. You should soon recognize that these new compositions mix together old
beats and melodic or rhythmic patterns with new and original elements.
142 Electronic Music Machines

6.3. Architecture and principles

This final section presents the general internal architecture of a sampler and
describes its internal components.

Figure 6.23 shows the key blocks of a sampler and the interactions between
them.

Figure 6.23. Classical sampler architecture

The software interface acts as a gateway between the user and the machine. It
allows the user to access the various features of the sampler: sampling, sample
editing, and audio processing (looping, transposition, time-stretching, envelopment
management (ADSR), recording, playback, etc.). This interface communicates with
the operating system to access the various electronic devices, input/output interfaces,
memory, and storage media (floppy disk, hard drive, CD, USB key, SD card, etc.).

The hardware interface assigns the audio signals stored in the sampler to a
keyboard through a MIDI or USB interface, or to internal or external pads through a
MIDI or USB controller.

Real-time processing can be performed whenever the user generates a note or an

audio signal. In addition to the effects already specified by the MIDI standard,
namely, the velocity and the pressure, others can be added – e.g. acoustic effects
(reverb, delay, phasing, etc.).
 Samplers 143

Figure 6.24. The MPD 26, a USB/MIDI controller by AKAI

The sound processing block performs sample editing and formatting (ASDR,
looping, transposition, time-stretching, effects, saving, loading, mixing, etc.).

The sampled signal is supplied by the inputs. These inputs could, for example, be
a microphone, an audio line (CD player, turntables, tape recorder, etc.), S/PDIF8,
and AES/EBU.

The live memory block stores any samples that the user is currently working on.

The mass storage memory contains a library of audio samples, often organized
into sound banks. These samples can be read by the user and/or saved onto various
types of medium: floppy disk, hard drive, optical drive, CD, zip9, USB key, compact
flash cards, SD cards, and so on.

The outputs deliver the signal after it has been processed by the sampler. Each
output can be mono, stereo, or multi-channel: 4, 8, or even more channels.

8 See Appendix 2 at the end of this book.

9 Zip is a mass memory storage format based on removable disks created by Iomega in 1994.
Their storage capacity can range up to 100 MB, 250 MB, or even 750 MB. The disk reader
can be connected by SCSI, parallel port, USB, Firewire, PCMCIA, or IDE.
144 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 6.25. The stereo outputs (top left) and eight multi-outputs (bottom center)
of the MPC 2000XL by AKAI

The analog-to-digital conversion block transforms the recorded audio into a

digital signal, and the digital-to-analog conversion block performs the reverse
operation, transforming the processed digital signal back into analog form so that it
can be delivered to a mixing console, amplifier, etc. The output signal does not
necessarily need to be converted back into analog form if the device placed after the
sampler in the musical chain supports digital inputs.

The architecture presented above is significantly simplified. Many samplers have

highly advanced features that require extremely specific technological components.
For more information, readers are welcome to visit the bibliography at the end of the
book.

6.4. Final remarks

Samplers are recent inventions that gave little warning before making a sudden
and dramatic appearance in the musical world. For most other instruments, we can
identify some kind of ancestor or predecessor – synthesizers are derived from
pianos, drum machines are derived from percussion instruments, electric guitars are
derived from acoustic guitars, and so on.

But samplers are not burdened with a similar heritage. When they arrived, they
were not tied to any specific culture, repertoire, or tradition. They are also extremely
versatile instruments – samplers can simulate any traditional instrument, record
noises or musical sequences, and mix completely different sounds together to
produce new sound materials for musical creation.
 Samplers 145

Samplers have enriched and inspired musical styles of the past and present
throughout the entire world and will continue to do so in the future. They have
completely abolished many of the constraints of conventional music.

They have also created a new approach to writing music that is no longer bound
by musical scores or written notes. Finally, samplers have become almost
indispensable for live music.
 7

Groove Machines

At the intersection of synthesizers, sequencers, and samplers, there is another

category of machines, one that works hard to defy description – groove machines.

We have already encountered a few groove machines in the previous chapters;

indeed, many of them are difficult to classify.

The term groovebox is sometimes also used, typically referring to machines

geared toward loop-based musical sequences, e.g. rhythm patterns for live
performances. These devices need to be user-friendly and suitable for improvization.

The manufacturer Roland was the first to use the term groovebox to describe the
MC-303, which was released in 1996.

7.1. Structure

A groove machine combines several key elements into a single device:

– a sequencer;
– a control surface or a controller, e.g. linear/rotary encoders, buttons, pads
(usually velocity- and pressure-sensitive), and keys (keyboard);
– a control monitor (LCD display) and display indicators (LEDs);
– one or more sound generators, e.g. samplers, drum machines, synthesizers.

The objective of a groovebox is to provide an integrated array of instruments to

allow musicians to quickly and easily construct musical sequences in real time from
patterns, loops, instrumental voices, and percussions – all at the same time.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
148 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 7.1. Structure of a groovebox

Groove machines can therefore be used to perform alone or integrated into a

musical lineup like any other instrument.

They can also be used as a controller for external electronic instruments via the
MIDI interface. In this sense, groove machines could be characterized as the
hardware-based alter ego of a digital audio workstation (DAW).

7.2. Famous groove machines

This section presents a few of the most significant groove machines, ordered by
their date of release. For the most part, we shall only focus on multi-purpose
machines, leaving aside the drum machines discussed earlier in Chapter 5.

I am fortunate to have owned many of these models personally and tried out
many others over the years. Each model has its own unique workflow. It can be
difficult to choose between them, although a few are now somewhat technologically
outdated.

Personally, I find that the technology itself is almost irrelevant to me – more than
anything else, I value the unique sound colors generated by each instrument.

Many other groove machines did not find their way into these pages, but no
single book would be capable of presenting them all, especially given that their
numbers have skyrocketed in recent years.
 Groove Machines 149

7.2.1. E-mu SP12 (1985)

One of the first-ever drum machines with a built-in sampler, the E-mu SP12 was
a trailblazer for future generations of grooveboxes. It featured a collection of
integrated drum sounds and allowed the user to add their own sounds with a 12-bit
sampler. In 1987, it was replaced by the hugely successful SP-1200 model.

The SP12 has an extremely recognizable sound, due to its 12-bit sampling. It is
incredibly straightforward to use, with highly versatile mixing features.

Figure 7.2. E-mu SP12

Technical specifications:
– Drums: 24 samples (kick, snare, cymbal, toms, clap, bell, etc.);
– Polyphony: 8 voices;
– Sampler: 27,500 Hz – 12 bits;
– Memory: 48 to 192 KB;
– Rhythm patterns: 100;
– Sound sequences: 100 by pattern chaining;
– Interfaces: MIDI, SMPTE;
– Controls: 8 pads.
150 Electronic Music Machines

7.2.2. AKAI MPC-60 (1988)

Widely used in rap, hip-hop, and R&B, the AKAI MPC-60 designed by Roger
Linn combines a drum machine, a sequencer, and a sampler. Sound patterns can be
created in real time by adding elements to a rhythm loop.

Figure 7.3. AKAI MPC-60

Technical specifications:
– Drums: 24 integrated samples (kick, snare drum, cymbal, toms, clap, bell, etc.);
– Sampler: 40 kHz – 12 bits – stereo;
– Memory: 768 KB to 1.5 MB;
– Mass storage: 3½-inch floppy disks;
– Factory sounds: 32 samples;
– Polyphony: 16 voices;
– Rhythm patterns: 99;
– Sequencer: 99 sequences, 99 tracks, 60,000 notes;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, SMPTE, MTC, FSK 24, Pulse 96;
– Controls: 16 pads (velocity + pressure).
 Groove Machines 151

7.2.3. Roland MC-303 (1996)

The MC-303 was always predestined for dance and techno music. It combines a
range of sound kits with a sequencer, allowing users to store music sequences while
simultaneously making real-time modifications, thanks to a number of commands
with a wide range of functionality.

Figure 7.4. The MC-303 by Roland

Technical specifications:
– Drums: 12 kits including the Roland TR-808 and TR-909 drum machines;
– Presets: 448 sounds;
– Polyphony: 28 voices;
– Rhythm patterns: 120 presets and 50 user slots;
– Sequencer: 8 tracks, 10 sequences + arpeggiator;
– Memory: around 14,000 notes;
– Effects: filter, resonance, pan, chorus, flanger, reverb, delay;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI;
– Controls: 12 buttons (arranged as a microkeyboard).
152 Electronic Music Machines

7.2.4. AKAI MPC 2000XL (1999)

One of the most famous models in the Music Production Center (MPC) series,
the MPC 2000XL is a sequencer and a sampler extended by extremely powerful
editing functionality (loops, pitch shifter, transposition, quantization, etc.). It is
nothing less than an upgradeable DAW that can serve as the centerpiece of a small
production studio.

An SCSI device (hard disk, CD player, flash drive reader, etc.) can be added to
provide mass storage.

The sequencer is user-friendly and intuitive, equally suitable for both recording
and real-time work. It can also send MIDI sync information to other devices.

Over time, the MPC 2000 XL has established itself as an authoritative reference
for music composition and live hip-hop.

The optional expansions make it a virtually universal machine that remains

extremely popular with music professionals to this day, despite being somewhat
technologically outdated.

Figure 7.5. AKAI MPC 2000XL

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: 44.1 kHz – 16 bits – stereo – 8 independent outputs (optional, multi-8
card) – S/PDIF output (optional, DM card);
– Polyphony: 32 voices;
 Groove Machines 153

– Sequencer: 64 tracks, 99 sequencers, 300,000 notes;

– Memory: 2 MB to 32 MB;
– Mass storage: 3½-inch floppy disks;
– Effects: optional with the EB16 card (4 effects);
– Filter: 12-dB resonance;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, MTC, and SMPTE (optional, IB-M20T card),
SCSI;
– Controls: 16 pads (velocity + pressure).

7.2.5. Roland MC-909 (2003)

Some of the features of the sequencer and sampler built into the Roland MC-909
are extremely sophisticated, making this groovebox a powerful workstation with a
high-performance sound synthesis engine.

Audio and MIDI compatibility is very present throughout every aspect of the
MC-909, producing a fully integrated working environment.

The large LCD display makes it effortless to edit or manipulate audio sequences
and perform sample processing.

The sound synthesis engine can manage four different keys simultaneously with
64-voice polyphony. The workflow design closely mirrors that of an analog
synthesizer, making the MC-909 an extremely easy device to operate. Most of its
features are directly accessible via buttons and dials.

The MC-909 also boasts impressive real-time time-stretching capabilities

inspired by the popular Turntable Emulation controller by Roland.

The sequencer can handle up to 16 tracks, with a resolution of 480 ticks per
quarter note. Up to 998 bars of each rhythm pattern can be saved using a highly
innovative recording method.

Sequences can easily be imported or exported via the MIDI and USB ports. With
its S/PDIF inputs/outputs, six analog outputs, and a V-LINK function for adding
video, the MC-909 is extremely open to external devices and communication-ready.

It also features integrated sound effects, including reverb, filtering, phasing,

distortion, as well as a mastering processor with an equalizer and a three-band
compressor.
154 Electronic Music Machines

This groovebox was designed for dance, house, and techno. Any sounds needed
for these styles are stored in ROM (organs, pianos, bass guitars, drum kits, etc.).

Figure 7.6. The Roland MC-909

The specifications below only mention the basic characteristics of the MC-909.
There are so many other features that it would be difficult to list them exhaustively.

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: 44.1 kHz (WAV or AIFF) – 16 bits – S/PDIF i/o;
– Polyphony: 64 voices;
– Sequencer: 16 tracks, 99 sequences, 300,000 notes, arpeggiator (128 presets,
128 user slots);
– Rhythm patterns: 333 presets, 200 user slots, 999 on card – 50 songs;
– Memory: 16–272 MB with a SmartMedia card;
– Mass storage: SmartMedia card, record to USB on a computer;
 Groove Machines 155

– Effects: various, 38 types (MFX1) + 47 types (MFX2), 4 types of reverb,

1 compressor – three-band equalizer;
– Filters: cutoff, resonance, ADSR;
– Low-frequency oscillators (LFOs): 8 waveforms;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, USB;
– Controls: 16 pads.

7.2.6. Elektron Octatrack DPS 1 (2011)

The Octatrack is a Swedish invention with surprisingly rich functionality and a

very unique workflow: a sampler-sequencer with 8 tracks and 256 patterns divided
into 16 banks. Each pattern contains triggers for audio, MIDI, internal, or external
events.

Four different types of software machine can be hosted on each track. The first
two are designed for manipulating audio samples, which are either supplied by a
streaming source or loaded from the main memory. The other two software
machines are reserved for external audio processing or effects dedicated to other
tracks.

The Octatrack sequencer is undoubtedly one of the most sophisticated

grooveboxes available on the market, although it can be quite challenging to operate.

The hardware alone is unlike anything else on the market. The AKAI MPC
series perhaps comes closest.

While it is truly an extraordinary groovebox, mastering its quirks can be

daunting due to the sheer range of possibilities and completely unique workflow
design.

Chapters 9 and 10 of this book are devoted to this machine, one of the most
intriguing and captivating devices that I personally have ever had the pleasure to
work with. On a technical level, we will discuss how to circumvent and remedy
some of its flaws. We will also spend a few pages exploring its unique software
design.

Another version of the Octatrack, the MK II, was released in 2017. The new
model features some improvements, but the workflow remains unchanged.
156 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 7.7. The Elektron Octatrack

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: 44.1 kHz (WAV or AIFF) – 24 bits;
– Sequencer: 8 tracks, 16 scenes per track, 16 banks per project, 8 arrangements
per project;
– Rhythm patterns: 256 patterns per project;
– Memory: 64 MB internal memory;
– Mass storage: Compact Flash Card, 80 MB per project;
– Effects: phaser, flanger, chorus, delay, reverb, compressor, Lo-Fi, and two-
band parametric equalizer;
– Filters: multimode;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, USB 2.0;
– Controls: 16 triggers.

7.2.7. Korg Electribe 2 (2014) and Korg Electribe Sampler (2015)

The Electribe 2 and Electribe Sampler are later additions to the series, after the
original Electribe was launched in 1999 and perfected in 2003. Both the Electribe 2
and the Electribe Sampler are strongly oriented toward house, dance, and electro,
featuring both real-time and step-by-step modes, as well as a “touch scale” function
that automatically blocks incorrect notes.

Both grooveboxes feature a sequencer, a drum machine, and a sound synthesis

engine. Unsurprisingly, the Sampler model also has a sampler.
 Groove Machines 157

These machines are delightfully easy to operate. Each control can be accessed
directly by buttons on the top panel.

Like the Octatrack, this book will devote a couple of chapters to the Electribe
series – Chapters 11 and 12. The Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler have the
same basic electronic components. Might it be possible to upgrade the former so that
it has the same sampling capabilities as the latter? The answer to the question, and a
few others, can be found in these two chapters.

Figure 7.8. The blue Korg Electribe 2

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: 48 kHz – 24 bits;
– Polyphony: 24 voices;
– Sequencer: 4 × 16 steps;
– Rhythm patterns: 200 presets, 50 user slots;
– Mass storage: SD card (512 MB–32 GB);
– Effects: compression, overdrive;
– Synthesizer: 409 oscillators, analog modeling and PCM, ring modulation, cross
modulation, and so on;
– Filters: cutoff, resonance, low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, ADSR;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, USB;
– Controls: 16 velocity-sensitive pads, 1 touchpad (“Kaoss”).
158 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 7.9. The Korg Electribe Sampler

7.2.8. Novation Circuit (2015)

Sequencer, synth, and sampler – the Novation Circuit boasts a playful and
intuitive design with a well-designed workflow. It has a range of features, including
two built-in Nova synthesizers1 that deliver impressively high-performance results.

Real-time operations are effortless, the editor is extremely effective, and a range
of attractive effects are available.

The Novation Circuit allows the user to control and synchronize external
processes (drum machines, synthesizers, etc.) via MIDI, providing lots of room for
creativity.

This groovebox is easy to hook up to Ableton and can also be used as a standard
USB-MIDI controller.

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: 48 kHz – 24 bits;
– Sequencer: 32 sessions, 8 tracks per session, 8 patterns per track;
– Drums: four control parameters (pitch, distortion, decay, filter);
– Synthesizer: two Nova synths, drum machine, 6-note polyphony per synth;

1 Analog modeling synthesizer by Novation.

 Groove Machines 159

– Effects: 16 delays, 8 reverbs – effect chaining;

– Filter: low-pass, high-pass;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, USB;
– Controls: 32 velocity-sensitive pads, 28 function buttons.

Figure 7.10. The Novation Circuit

7.2.9. Teenage Electronics Pocket Operator PO-32 (2017)

The PO-32 is a micro-groovebox that combines a drum machine, sequencer, and

sampler. This small machine with only a few controls is an interesting model and
definitely deserves a mention in this list. Its modest price and concept might seem
alien, but the possibilities are spectacular for its size, especially because it is
surprisingly easy to use and program.

The sequencer can be used either in real time or step by step, and audio can be
recorded in real time.

The Microtonic software program by Sonic Charge allows users to transfer and
edit the device memory and thus each of the 16 sounds that it stores.

The sound rendering of the PO-32 is reasonably good, with warm, dynamic
undertones and plenty of aggression, even if it can sometimes lack volume.
160 Electronic Music Machines

There is an entire series of specialized Pocket Operators, each designed for

certain types of sounds (speak – PO-35, arcade – PO-20, rhythm – PO-12, factory –
PO-16, etc.). Each of these small devices can be chained together (by a 3.5-mm
stereo jack cable), with one of them serving as the master machine.

Figure 7.11. Teenage Electronics Pocket Operator 32 (Tonic)

Technical specifications:
– Sampler: microphone-based recording;
– Polyphony: 16 voices;
– Sequencer: 16 steps;
– Rhythm patterns: 16, up to 64 with chaining;
– Effects: 16 effects (distortion, echo, pitch, reverse, megamorph, etc.), real-time
calls;
– Interfaces and controls: Sonic Charge Microtonic VST (sound transfer and
editing);
– Controls: 16 buttons.

7.3. Software groove machines

As well as hardware-based grooveboxes, the 2000s saw the introduction of a new

generation of groovebox software, whose proliferation was encouraged by new
tablets running Android or iOS.
 Groove Machines 161

A new approach was born with them – the idea of connecting a hardware
controller or control surface to a computer or tablet running musical software.

One of the most famous software grooveboxes is the ReBirth RB-338 by

Propellerhead. This program emulates several machines made by Roland, namely,
the TB-303, the TR-808, and the TR-909. Other noteworthy mentions include
Caustic 3, Reason, and the iconic Ableton Live.

ReBirth was released in 1996. Its development was discontinued by

Propellerhead in 1999, who then completely abandoned it in 2005, although it could
still be downloaded until 2016. A freeware version (2.01) of the software has since
been made available by the Rebirth Museum website. Version 2.0 emulates two
Roland TB-303 synthesizers, as well as the TR-808 drum machine and the TR-909.

ReBirth was revolutionary for its time. It offered virtually unlimited

programming possibilities, flexibility, and a new approach to understanding
the process of computer-assisted musical composition. The design and
user-configurable graphical interface was extremely innovative and would be copied
by many software programs from later generations.

Figure 7.12. ReBirth RB-338 by Propellerhead

162 Electronic Music Machines

At the time, many musicians criticized ReBirth for its audio quality, which could
not rival the authentic sounds of the hardware it was trying to emulate. Like any
software synthesizer, the sound rendering was strongly limited by the available CPU
power and sound card. A digital imitation of an analog machine is never completely
perfect, especially with the limited computational resources available in the late
1990s.

Over time, many of the original generation of software-based groove machines

were developed into full-blown and extremely sophisticated DAWs. This was, for
example, the case with Digital Performer, Cubase, Cakewalk, Fruity Loops, and
many of the other software programs around in 1997.

The next few sections give a brief presentation of three famous groove machine
software programs available on the market today: Image Line Groove Machine,
Propellerhead Reason, and Ableton Live.

7.3.1. Image Line Groove Machine

Sequencer, sampler, synthesizer, and drum machine – this virtual machine can
do anything. Its main characteristics are listed below, reproduced directly from the
Image Line website (www.imageline.com):
– five hybrid synthesizer channels (subtractive/FM);
– eight flexible sampler channels, each with four sample layers;
– multiple independent outputs for the four synth channels and eight sampler
channels;
– 10 DJ style effects + equalizer and stutter on each channel;
– step-by-step sequencer with automation functions;
– optimized for live performance;
– internal connection system for maximum compatibility with MIDI controllers;
– ideal for dubstep, trance, house, and hip-hop producers;
– available in VST, AU (see Appendix 4), and as a standalone.

The software can run under both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS.

To fully master the functionality of the Groove Machine, especially in live

settings, it can be helpful to have a MIDI controller, although a computer mouse and
keyboard are theoretically sufficient.
 Groove Machines 163

Figure 7.13. Image Line Groove Machine

It is worth noting that IL Groove Machine and Ableton Live can be linked
together, multiplying the possibilities offered by either of them alone.

Figure 7.14. Ableton Live and IL Groove Machine

7.3.2. Propellerhead Reason

Reason has been around since 2001, developed by Propellerhead Software. The
more recent versions especially have become much more than just a groovebox.
164 Electronic Music Machines

Reason features synthesizers, samplers, sequencers, mixers, drum machines, and

sound effects, presented as virtual racks that can be linked together to interact.

The idea is to create a software-based music studio from a selection of different

instruments. Each instrument is either implemented virtually or imported from an
external software sequencer, such as Pro Tools, Logic, Fruity Loops, Digital
Performer, Cubase, Sonar, and GarageBand by means of a specific protocol known
as Rewire.

Since version 2.0, Reason can be controlled from an external MIDI device.

Figure 7.15. Screenshot of Propellerhead Reason 2 (top to bottom: Mixer,

Redrum, D-11, RV-7, CF-101, DDL-1, Malström, DDL-1,
PH-90, Dr. Rex, transport bar + parameters)
 Groove Machines 165

Changes are made with each new version of Reason. Its functionality is
constantly evolving and has never stopped being innovative.

The potential is incredible. Despite its complexity, the interface design makes it
relatively straightforward to operate compared to other software studios, with an
extremely attractive workflow.

Figure 7.16. An example of the wiring configuration on the rear

panels of virtual racks in Propellerhead Reason

Without going into too much detail, Table 7.1 lists some of the musical devices
available in versions 1.0 to 10.1 of Reason, which was released in May 2018.
166 Electronic Music Machines

Version Hardware Description

1.0 (2001) Dr. Rex Loop reader
NN-19 Sampler
Redrum Drum box
Matrix Pattern sequencer
Subtractor Analog synthesizer
RV-7 Reverb
DDL-1 Digital delay
D-11 Distortion
F-101 Chorus/flanger
COMP-01 Compressor
PH-90 Phaser
PEQ-2 Two-band parametric equalizer
ECF-42 Envelope control filter
Rebirth Rebirth insertion module
Sequencer module
Mixer – Mixer module
MIDI module – Audio out: communication interface
2.0 (2002) Malström Synthesizer
NN-XT Sampler
2.5 (2003) RV7000 Reverb
BV512 Vocoder
Scream 4 Sound destroyer
UN16 Unison
Spider Audio Router
Spider CV Router
3.0 (2005) MClass Mastering Suite 4-band parametric equalizer
Stereo processor
Compressor
Maximization modules
Combinator Peripheral chaining
4.0 (2007) Thor Polysonic Oscillators
Filters
Sound processing modules
 Groove Machines 167

RPG8 Arpeggiator
ReGroove Mixer
Improvements to Reason’s linear sequencer
5.0 (2010) Dr. Octo Rex (replaces Loop reader
Dr. Rex)
Korg drum designer Set of 16 pads
Blocks Song editor, arranger, and mixer
6.0 (2011) Pulverizer Compressor, distortion, filter
The Echo Analog stereo echo
Alligator 3-channel signal divider
ID-8 Instrument Device Sound bank (piano, organ, guitar, drum kits, etc.)
Record External sound recording module
6.5 (2012) Polar Harmonizer, pitch-shifter
Pulsar 2-channel LFO
Radical Piano Sampled piano
7.0 (2013) Audiomatic Various vintage-oriented audio sound effects
Parsec Spectral synthesizer with additive synthesis
PX7 DX7-type synthesizer with FM synthesis
Radical Keys Electric pianos: Fender Rhodes, Wurlitzer,
Hohner Pianet-T
Rotor Leslie speakers
Synchronous Time effect modulator (distortion, delay, filter)
8.0 (2014) Softtube Amp Guitar amp emulator
Softtube Bass Amp Bass guitar amp emulator
A-List Acoustic Rack extension – Acoustic guitar emulator
Guitarist
A-List Studio Drummer Rack extension – Acoustic drum emulator
A-List Classic Rack extension – Acoustic drum emulator, pop
Drummer sounds
A-List Power Drummer Rack extension – Acoustic drum emulator,
powerful sounds
Pop Chords – A-List Rack extension – Guitar emulator with pop, rock,
Electric Guitarist funk sounds
Power Chords – A-List Rack extension – Rock, metal guitar emulator
Electric Guitarist
168 Electronic Music Machines

9.0 Dual Arpeggio Polyphonic arpeggiator

Note Echo MIDI delay
Scales and Chords Key analyzer – Finger chords
Pitch Editor Monophonic pitch editor designed for voice
audio sources
Fingerpicking Nylon Rack extension – Nylon-string guitar emulator
Layers Quadraphonic sampler with synth emulator:
Roland Jupiter-4, Korg MS-20, Yamaha CS-80,
Oberheim Matrix
10.0 Europa Wavetable synthesizer
Grain Granular synthesizer
Klang Special percussions (glockenspiel, music box,
bottles, etc.)
Pangea Strings and wind instruments for world music
Humana Sampled choir emulator
Layers Wave Edition Synthesizer emulating the Waldorf Wave, a
wavetable synthesizer from the 1980s
10.1 Drum Sequencer Rhythm pattern reader
Umpf Club Drums Drums and percussions for dance, electro, techno,
house designed around sampled sounds

Table 7.1. Devices and instruments added with each

new release of Propellerhead Reason

Figure 7.17. Screenshot of Propellerhead Reason 10

 Groove Machines 169

7.3.3. Ableton Live

It almost seems unfair to include Ableton Live in this section. Its sheer power
and functionality make it much more than just a regular groovebox. Ableton Live
runs on both Microsoft Windows and MacOS.

Ever since its very first version in 1999, Ableton was born and raised as a
sequencer. In 2001, it became Ableton Live, a composition and arrangement tool
primarily geared toward real-time and live performances.

Ableton is the name of the German company that develops the software.

Everything about Ableton Live is designed with concerts in mind, even the
visual interfaces, which avoid pop-up windows2 in favor of five fullscreen
workspaces divided into multiple windows (or zones).

One of the highly innovative features of this software is the warp function,
which can be activated at any time. As the user edits the looping points of a sound
sequence (clip) in real time, the warp function automatically realigns the clip with
all other sequences that are currently playing.

Figure 7.18. Ableton Live in session view

2 Secondary window that “pops up” over the main window.

170 Electronic Music Machines

Every processing step applied to a sequence, e.g. every sound effect, is

performed in real time. MIDI controllers can be assigned to any of the software
parameters, or even multiple parameters simultaneously.

Another of Ableton’s strengths lies in its routing capabilities, with the support
for multiple inserts on each track.

Session view and arrangement view are two of the main windows in Ableton
Live.

Sound sequences are known as clips; they can be MIDI or some other audio
format. Ableton supports VST and AU instruments and plugins.

Figure 7.19. Ableton Live in arrangement view

The following list of instruments is included in Ableton Live (some are only
supported in certain versions):

– Simpler: sampler with a single sound;

– Operator: FM synthesizer;
– Sampler: multi-format sampler (AKAI, Soundfonts, etc.);
– Impulse: sampler dedicated to rhythm patterns;
– Analog: modular synthesizer based on subtractive synthesis;
 Groove Machines 171

– Electric: virtual electric piano;

– Wavetable: wavetable synthesizer;
– Tension: string instrument synthesizer.

Together with these instruments, a wide variety of effects are available: filters,
compressor, equalizer, limiter, pan, flanger, phaser, vocoder, chorus, looper, reverb,
and so on.

MIDI effects are also available, including an arpeggiator, a chord generator, and
much more.

In 2009, Ableton partnered with Cycling ’74 to produce Max for Live, a version
of the Max audio synthesis, analysis, recording, and MIDI instrument control
software.

Figure 7.20. Ableton Live in session view with a Max for Live
window open in the foreground

In 2017, Cycling ’74 was acquired by Ableton.

172 Electronic Music Machines

7.4. Controllers and software

This section briefly discusses an alternative approach, which involves combining

a control surface (or controller) with software installed on a computer.

The control surface usually features a set of pads and button controls that
visually resemble a conventional groovebox.

There are several ways of approaching this trend, which has been growing ever
since computers and sound cards became powerful enough to support this type of
set-up.

The controller and the computer are typically connected via USB.

Two examples are presented in the next few sections of this chapter, but there are
many other alternatives (see Table 7.2).

Manufacturer Model Manufacturer Model

Ableton Push AKAI MPC Renaissance
AKAI PUSH 2 AKAI MPD 218
Korg PadKONTROL Livid Instruments OhmRGB
M-Audio Trigger Finger Pro Novation Launchpad
Novation Launchpad MK2 Zvuk Machines Zvuk9

Table 7.2. A few examples of controllers and control surfaces

7.4.1. Native Instruments Maschine (2009)

Maschine is the perfect competitor for the MPC by AKAI. The latest version is
the MK3, a very sophisticated control surface accompanied by a software-based
groovebox. The control surface itself does not generate any sound; the set-up can
only be used in combination with a computer.

Maschine has dedicated software for managing its interactions. A configuration

program is also available to allow Maschine to be used with other software. The
sound bank and rhythm patterns are delivered when the device is purchased.

Maschine is powered by the computer over the USB port.

 Groove Machines 173

Its design revolves around a set of eight groups that can store 16 sounds (one for
each pad) and 64 rhythm patterns, divided into four banks, as well as a collection of
scenes to define sound sequences (introduction, chorus, verse, etc.).

Patterns and sounds can be modified in real time; the synchronization is taken
care of automatically. Maschine is specifically designed with live performance in
mind.

A total of 21 sound effects are available (delay, reverb, chorus, filter, compressor,
etc.), as well as various routing features that make it highly flexible to use.

Figure 7.21. Native Instruments Maschine I

The original version was released in 2009. Since then, there have been two new
models (MKII and MK3), each providing various novelties, features, and
performance improvements. Improvements in sound cards and computers
contributed significantly to the progress over time.

Figure 7.22. The Native Instruments Maschine I software,

delivered together with the controller
174 Electronic Music Machines

Although Maschine was extremely innovative in 2009, other manufacturers have

since developed various strong competitors.

7.4.2. Roland MPC Studio Black (2017)

This control surface is delivered together with MPC 2.0, a musical production
software suite with advanced editing functions.

The sound bank takes up 7 GB of space and includes 300 different instruments.

Figure 7.23. One possible set-up for the Roland MPC Studio Black
(source: Quickstart Guide – AKAI Professional)

MPC 2.0 is compatible with both Microsoft Windows and MacOS. VST and AU
plugins are also supported.
 Groove Machines 175

Figure 7.24. The Roland MPC Studio Black

Specifications:

– Polyphony: 64 voices;
– Sequencer: 128 sequences and 128 tracks;
– Effects: 50;
– Filter: low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, analog modeling, voice shaper, and so on;
– Interfaces and controls: MIDI, USB;
– Supported audio formats: WAV, MP3, REX, AIFF, SND;
– Controls: 16 pressure and velocity-sensitive pads.

Figure 7.25. The AKAI MPC 2.0 software suite

(source: Quickstart Guide – AKAI professional)
176 Electronic Music Machines

7.5. iGroove machines

Virtual instruments made their grand entrance when touchscreen tablets started
to become popular. A range of groove machines have been developed for handheld
devices, both on Android and iOS.

These groove machines are sometimes referred to as iGroove machines. Some of

them are virtual reproductions of hardware instruments, such as the iElectribe by
Korg. Table 7.3 provides a non-exhaustive list of a few iGroove machines.

Publisher Model Operating System

2beat Oscilab Android
AQ AudioId Android
AKAI iMPC Pro 2 iOS
Ampify – Novation Groovebox iOS – iPhone – iPad
Fingerlab DM1 iOS – iPhone – iPad – Mac OS
Korg iElectribe iOS – iPad
Image Line Groove Machine Mobile Android, iOS, Windows
Jimaudio Groove Rider GR16 iOS
Mikrosonic Groovebox RD3 Android
Mikrosonic RD4 Android
Native Instruments iMachine 2 iOS – iPhone – iPad

Table 7.3. A few examples of iGroove machines

7.6. Final remarks

Today, groove machines (or grooveboxes) are more popular than ever. Many
musicians use them for live sessions, although they have also proved to be
invaluable in home studios.

Groove machines are new tools that allow musicians to easily craft complex
musical sequences as an arrangement of sound patterns. They encourage innovative
approaches to composition and live performance which have delighted an entire
generation of modern musicians, despite often being unfairly disparaged for
operating outside of the bounds of conventional music, which has historically and
traditionally been confined to written sheet music.
 Groove Machines 177

Groove machines have contributed extensively to the rise of new and original
hip-hop, rap, and electro artists and creators, sweeping away the cobwebs from the
conventional approach to live music and inventing new ways to make music, on
stage and in the studio.
 8

Vocoders

Researchers have long been inspired by the dream of recreating the human voice.
Reproducing, transforming, falsifying, modifying, and synthesizing vocals have all
sparked an incredible amount of creative effort. Even today, despite leaps and
bounds in technology, many challenges remain unsolved.

This chapter presents a few milestones in the history of musical voice

processing.

8.1. History

In 1937, at Bell Laboratories, Homer Dudley developed the Voder (Voice

Operation DEmonstratoR), one of the first-ever devices capable of imitating the
human voice.

Figure 8.1. Helen Harper demonstrating the Vocoder at the Franklin Institute in 1939

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
180 Electronic Music Machines

The Voder was difficult to operate. However, with some training and practice,
users could create astonishingly high-quality machine-synthesized sentences.

Dudley continued his research, which led him to unveil another instrument, the
vocoder (VOice enCODER), in late 1939.

One of the primary applications of the vocoder was the SIGGSALY system1,
also known as Project X, developed by Bell Laboratories in a partnership with the
British mathematician Alan Turing, to provide secure voice communications over
telephone lines during the Second World War. The SIGGSALY system became
operational in 1943.

Figure 8.2. SIGGSALY terminal station (source: www.cryptomuseum.com)

Thus, the vocoder was not originally designed as a musical instrument but as a
cryptographic tool. Nevertheless, Bell Laboratories decided to record a piece of Irish
folk music, “Love’s Old Sweet Son”, as the very first demonstration of the device.
Perhaps the ancestors of electronic music were already anticipating the musical
applications of their invention?

1 SIGGSALY is not an acronym but the code name of the project.

 Vocoders 181

In addition to voice encryption, another objective of the vocoder was to reduce

the bandwidth needed by voice messages to allow them to be transmitted more
quickly over telecommunication networks.

The idea was to design an end-to-end encoding system for voice messages that
would allow the receiver to accurately reconstruct the original message.

Figure 8.3. Vocoder HY-2 (1961), used by the U.S. military to transmit less
bandwidth-intensive voice messages (source: commons.wikimedia.org)

In 1968, the Canadian composer and musician Bruce Haack built one of the first
vocoders specifically designed for music. At around the same time, the famous
American engineer Robert Moog, founder of the brand that bears his name, Moog
Music, developed his own version of the vocoder from the original drawings by
Homer Dudley.

These two early instruments can be heard on the albums “The Electronic Record
for Children” by Bruce Haack and “Clockwork Orange” by Wendy Carlos2 (Walter
Carlos).

2 Wendy Carlos, born Walter Carlos, November 14, 1939. American composer and performer
of electronic music.
182 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 8.4. The two albums “The Electronic Record for Children”
and “Clockwork Orange”

The vocoder remained mostly under the radar until 1974, when it was used by
the German group Kraftwerk in their album “Autobahn.”

Figure 8.5. The album “Autobahn” by Kraftwerk

Kraftwerk inspired many later musicians. Popular artists from the early 1980s
include Laurie Anderson and Herbie Hancock, as well as Afrika Bambaataa and her
group, Soulsonic Force.
 Vocoders 183

Figure 8.6. The VP-CP330 vocoder keyboard by Roland, one of

the classics of the 1980s

It was the dawn of a new era. The robotic vocals created by the vocoder
suddenly became extremely popular. They are still going strong to this day.

The Alan Parsons Project, Tangerine Dream, Frank Zappa, Electric Light
Orchestra, Pink Floyd, The Buggles, Joe Zawinul, Boney M, Earth Wind & Fire,
Jean-Michel Jarre, Madonna, Scorpions, Joe Walsh, Stevie Wonder, Booba, The
Chemical Brothers, and Daft Punk – these are just a few of the artists who left their
mark along the journey of the vocoder from the mid-1980s to the 2010s.

8.2. Working principle of the vocoder

Human vocal sounds are generated by the opening and closing action of vocal
cords on the glottis. Vocals are periodic signals that are very rich in harmonics.
Together, the throat and the nose form a highly sophisticated resonance system that
filters the sounds generated by the glottis to shape the voice (formants).

To put it simply, the vocoder divides the sound signals of the voice into narrow
frequency bands, then analyzes the level of each band (with an envelope follower).
This gives an instantaneous representation of the voice signal, encoded in a way that
allows the spectral content of the original message to be accurately reproduced.

The encoded voice information is just a sequence of numbers which requires

very little storage space (band number and level).

To recreate speech, the vocoder reverses this procedure by processing a

broadband audio signal (carrier signal), applying filters to reconstruct the original
frequency bands and their levels (VCA modulator3).

3 VCA stands for voltage-controlled amplifier.

184 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 8.7. Basic principle of the vocoder

Some of the information from the original message, such as the instantaneous
frequency of the voice, is not particularly useful – the primary objective of the
vocoder is to reproduce intelligible speech. It does not matter if the result sounds
unnatural and non-human.

The robotic, metallic, and industrial character created by this process is

extremely attractive to composers and musicians.

8.3. Machines and equipment

As the musical community gradually began to embrace the vocoder, a range of

new models appeared on the market.

This section presents some of the devices along the historical path taken by the
vocoder through electronic music, from the 1970s until modern times.

8.3.1. EMS Vocoder 2000

This analog machine was designed by Tim Orr and manufactured between 1975
and 1979. It features 16 bandpass filters with 16 envelope followers, as well as a
single VCO (Voltage-Controlled Oscillator), and a white noise generator.

Figure 8.8. The EMS Vocoder 2000

 Vocoders 185

8.3.2. EMS Vocoder 5000

Released in 1975, the EMS Vocoder 5000 is an analog model with 22 bandpass
filters, two oscillators with multiple waveforms (pulse, sawtooth, sine, square), and a
parameterizable noise generator. It features a patch matrix (22 × 22), an oscilloscope
interface, a voice detector, and various control voltage (CV) features. The 5000 is
the most sophisticated model of vocoder produced by EMS.

Figure 8.9. The EMS Vocoder 5000

8.3.3. EMS Vocoder 3000

The EMS Vocoder 3000 is another analog model released in 1987 by EMS
Rehberg as a successor to the 2000 model. It has 16 individually configurable
bandpass filters, a VCO, a white noise generator, 4 mic/line jack inputs, 2 inputs,
and an XLR output on the rear panel.

Figure 8.10. The EMS Rehberg 3000

186 Electronic Music Machines

8.3.4. Roland VP-330

Manufactured from 1979 to 1980, the VP-330 is an analog vocoder and

synthesizer that emulates synth pads (strings) and choir sounds. It has a 49-key
keyboard that can be divided into two sections (splittable), 3 oscillators (VCOs), an
LFO, a VCA, 18 bandpass filters, 1 high-pass or low-pass filter, a chorus effect
generator, and 20 VCFs. The VP-330 includes a CV/gate mode (see Appendix 1).
Two models were produced – the MK1 and the MK2 – with slightly different
interface designs. The chorus circuits were made by Reticon in the MK1 and by
Panasonic in the MK2.

Figure 8.11. The VP-330 MK1 (top) and VP-330 MK2 (bottom) vocoders by Roland

NOTE.– More recently, several clones of this machine have been made – some
better than others. Examples include the VP-03 by Roland and the VC-340 by
Behring (a prototype at the time of writing).
 Vocoders 187

Figure 8.12. Two clones of the Roland VP-330 – the Roland VP-03
and the Behringer VC-340

8.3.5. Korg VC-10

Released in 1978 and manufactured until 1982, this analog vocoder was one of
the first widely accessible consumer models with an affordable price. Its design was
inspired by the contemporary MS-10/MS-20 synthesizers, featuring a 32-key
keyboard, an LFO, a VCA, and a CV/gate input (see Appendix 1). The VC-10 is
polyphonic and works on 20 bands. It was extremely popular with musicians,
despite some limitations in performance and sound quality.

Figure 8.13. The Korg VC-10 vocoder

188 Electronic Music Machines

8.3.6. Moog Vocoder

Made in 1979, the Moog Vocoder is an analog model with 16 separate frequency
bands. It has no internal oscillators, no LFOs, and no filters – instead, it is designed
to be used with external sources.

The Moog Vocoder has 16 synthesizer inputs and 16 outputs, organized into a
cross-matrix patching system that can be used to switch between the synthesizer and
the vocoder components in a modular system.

Figure 8.14. The vocoder by Moog

8.3.7. Roland SVC-350

The SVC-350 by Roland is an 11-band analog vocoder with two microphone

inputs, one instrument input, and one guitar input with harmonic correction. Each of
the 11 filters can be configured individually. The raw vocals and the processed
output can be mixed together by adjusting the balance settings.

This model also features a headphones output, a guitar amp output, and two line
outputs (mono, voice amp, or stereo simulated by a chorus effect).

Figure 8.15. The SVC-350 vocoder by Roland

 Vocoders 189

8.3.8. Electrix Warp Factory

This digital vocoder first hit the markets in 1999. It is primarily aimed toward
DJs and is optimized for vocals, featuring an XLR microphone input, two line jack
outputs, two RCA phono inputs, one line input for the carrier signal, two line jack
outputs, and two RCA line outputs. It also has MIDI in/out/thru ports, as well as two
filters: one high-pass and one low-pass.

There are only a few settings, but they are powerful. The filter width is
configurable, as well as the pitch of the formant, to convert between male and
female voices. The filter resolution can be customized to adjust the clarity of the
vocal effects. The noise generator is also configurable, as is the pitch of the source
signal, which can be parametrized by a pitch control function.

Figure 8.16. The Electrix Warp Factory vocoder

8.3.9. Korg MS2000

The MS2000 is an analog modeling synthesizer with a built-in vocoder function,

released by Korg in 2000.

This model features a velocity-sensitive 44-key keyboard, a primary oscillator

(eight classical waveforms – sine, sawtooth, triangle, etc. – and 64 DWGS (Digital
Waveform Generator System) waveforms), a secondary oscillator (three classical
shapes), two LFOs, two ADSR (Attack Decay Sustain Release) envelope generators,
128 programs, effects (chorus, equalizer, delay, etc.), two low-pass filters, a high-
pass filter and a bandpass filter, an arpeggiator, and a 16-note sequencer that
supports three sequences.

The vocoder function is implemented by two sets of 16 bandpass filters with an

envelope follower filter. These filters are parameterizable and can be modulated
with an LFO.
190 Electronic Music Machines

The MS2000 is equipped with MIDI in/out/thru ports, as well as two micro and
line inputs specifically for the vocoder.

A rack version with the same features but without a keyboard was also released –
the MS2000R.

Figure 8.17. The Korg MS2000 synthesizer-vocoder

8.3.10. Microkorg

Released in 2002, this synthesizer-vocoder is built on the same synthesis engine

as the Korg MS2000 (analog modeling synthesizer).

It features a keyboard with 37 velocity-sensitive keys and 4-voice polyphony. It

also includes two oscillators capable of generating a wide range of waveforms (sine,
sawtooth, triangle, pulse, white noise, etc., as well as 64 DWGS waveforms). It has
two LFOs and a multimodal filter, with several types of effects (delay, equalizer,
8-band vocoder, arpeggiator, flanger, chorus, and phaser). Up to 128 programs can
be stored in memory, and the device can be controlled over its MIDI in/out ports.

The “Microkorg Sound Editor” software editor makes it easy to access the
various parameters of the device.

Figure 8.18. Microkorg synthesizer-vocoder

 Vocoders 191

NOTE.– In addition to the Microkorg, there are several other models: the
Microkorg XL (8-channel polyphony, 16-band vocoder, USB port), the
Microkorg S (multi-timbres – 2 channels, 256 programs with 64 user slots, built-
in speakers), the Microkorg PT (platinum finish), and the Microkorg XL+
(8-channel polyphony, 16-band vocoder, USB port, 17 Kaoss effects, new
vintage black finish).

8.3.11. Roland VP-550

Released in 2006, this keyboard is a highly unique instrument that combines

synthesizer, vocoder, and harmonizer. Alongside the usual features, the Roland VP-
550 can create a virtual vocals track from the keyboard player’s voice and add
certain colors: classical choir, male or female vocal ensemble, gospel, jazzy or pop,
vintage vocoder, or even synth pads (strings).

As the user plays the keyboard and sings into the microphone, his or her voice is
automatically realigned onto the keyboard notes in real time.

The VP-550 also features bass and percussion sounds, with a sampler function
that can store sequences of around 10 s. The effects panel manages three different
types of reverb. The VP-550 has 128-voice polyphony, with four memory banks and
a 49-key keyboard. Like the Microkorg, it can be controlled over its MIDI in/out
port.

The Roland VP-550 can be described as more of a voice processor than a

classical vocoder. The interface design and workflow are fairly straightforward,
although some of the musical backing functionality requires practice.

Figure 8.19. The Roland VP-550

192 Electronic Music Machines

8.3.12. The Music and More VF11

The VF11 has 11 bandpass filters plus an oscillator (VCO), with a line input for
the carrier signal, two microphone and line inputs for the modulating signal, one
input for a non-voice signal to improve the clarity of the voice, and one line output.

It needs two external sources, typically a voice for the modulating signal and a
synthesizer for the carrier signal.

There are four settings to mix the different signals together and adjust the
modulation amplitude of the filter. The frequency of the oscillator can be configured
to adjust the pitch and gain of each of the 11 frequency bands of the signal.

Figure 8.20. The VF11 vocoder by Music and More

8.3.13. Novation Mininova

The Mininova is an 18-channel polyphonic synthesizer-vocoder based on the

same sound engine as the Ultranova, an analog modeling synthesizer by Novation.
The Mininova features 348 programs including 128 user slots, 3 oscillators, a noise
generator, and 2 ring modulators. As for oscillators, 70 different waveforms are
available. All sources can be processed with two multimodal filters. The Mininova
also has an arpeggiator, as well as MIDI in/out ports and a USB port.

The built-in vocoder supports 12 bands with programmable widths and has a
Vocaltune function which, as the name suggests, automatically tunes vocals to the
notes played on the keyboard. Effects like chorus, reverb, phaser, distortion,
compression, and equalization can also be added to the vocals line.

All of these features can be easily accessed via the editing software.
 Vocoders 193

Figure 8.21. The Novation Mininova synthesizer-vocoder

8.3.14. Digitech Talker

Released in the 1990s, this vocoder is built into an effects pedal. It has six
program presets (NuVo, nu Wah, TazMania, Talkbox, Alien, Autotalk) and three
settings to configure the microphone input level, instrument level, and effect output
level.

The Talker needs two sound sources, typically a guitar (or synthesizer) on the
instrument jack and a microphone (XLR) for the voice. It has two outputs: an
amplifier (jack) and a line output (XLR).

Figure 8.22. The Digitech Talker vocoder pedal

194 Electronic Music Machines

8.3.15. Electro-Harmonix V256

Like the previous entry, this vocoder is an effects pedal. It has a balanced XLR
microphone input (switchable phantom power), one instrument input (guitar, bass,
keyboard, etc.), one MIDI input, one effects output, and one instrument output, all
powered by an external 9V adapter.

It manages 9 presets and 8–256 frequency bands. A tune corrector feature called
Reflex Tune is built-in, as well as a transposer, an instrument control function, and
three different robotic voice modes.

Figure 8.23. The analog V256 vocoder pedal by Electro-Harmonix

8.3.16. A few more unusual examples

Most of the vocoders presented above are still being mass-produced today. But
there are also non-mainstream machines that venture off the beaten path, with only a
few dozen units ever being made.

Some of these models are known because they were used by famous artists, such
as the Synton Syntovox 221 (Wendy Carlos) and the Sennheiser VSM 201
(Kraftwerk).
 Vocoders 195

Figure 8.24. The Synton Syntovox 221, a 20-band analog synth-vocoder,

and its synth/vocoder routing matrix

Synton also made three other models of vocoder: the Syntovox 202, 216, and
222.

Figure 8.25. The Sennheiser VSM 201 analog vocoder

8.4. Software vocoders

Like most instruments, vocoders can also be found in software form, as virtual
machines. Table 8.1 provides a few examples.

Many of these software programs feature advanced functionality, combining

vocoder, talkbox, transposer, sound effects, etc.
196 Electronic Music Machines

Publisher Name Notes Type

EVM Syncoder 32 32-band vocoder VST for Windows
G200kg Vocovee Vocoder, 6 bands, Freeware – VST for
3 oscillators, 2 LFOs, Windows
and multiple effects
iZotope VocalSynth Vocoder, talkbox, harmonizer, VST, AU, AAX for
and synthetic voice generator Windows and Mac OS
Native Vokator 4-to-1024-band vocoder, VST, AU, DXI, MAS,
Instruments synthesizer, sampler, and RTAS for Windows
sequencer and Mac OS
Sonivox MI Vocalizer Pro Vocoder VST, AU, AAX, RTAS
for Windows and
Mac OS
ToneBytes Vocotron 32-band vocoder VST for Windows
Waldorf Lector 3-to-100-band vocoder, one VST, AU, for
LFO, multiple waveforms, Windows and Mac OS
3-band equalizer, and multiple
effects
XILS-lab XILS 22-band vocoder, 2 oscillators, Windows and Mac OS
Vocoder 5000 2 LFOs, and one VCA

Table 8.1. A few examples of software vocoders

8.5. One step further

The concept of vocoder immediately conjures up associations with two of its

close relatives – talkbox and Auto-Tune. Although often confused, these three
technologies are not the same.

8.5.1. Talkbox

In a certain sense, the talkbox is the opposite of the vocoder. The original sounds
are produced by an instrument, often a guitar or a synthesizer, and sent to a device
with a speaker that plays them into a tube. By holding this tube in their mouth, users
can modulate these sounds and re-record them with a standard microphone. Thus, a
talkbox is in fact just a speaker extended by a tube.

Historically, the talkbox descended from the Sonovox, which was invented by
Gilbert Wright in 1939. In 1964, Peter Drake was one of the first to use a talkbox
with a guitar. The first commercially available talkboxes were “The Bag” by
 Vocoders 197

Kustom Electronics, released in 1969, and the “Heil High Powered Talk Box” by
Bob Hell, released in 1970.

Figure 8.26. The HT-1 Heil Talkbox by Dunlop

Figures 8.27 and 8.28 show two examples of talkbox setups, one for synthesizer
and one for guitar.

Figure 8.27. Talkbox with a synthesizer

Figure 8.28. Talkbox with a guitar

198 Electronic Music Machines

Talkbox users do not actually sing into the tube. Instead, they mouth out the
lyrics, without producing any sound themselves. Together, the shape of the mouth’s
opening, the position of the tongue, and the pinching of the lips create a natural
resonance chamber that modulates the sound exiting the tube (just like the formants
of speech).

For a while, talkboxes were mostly limited to guitarists such as Peter Frampton
(“Show Me The Way” – 1975) and Bon Jovi (“Livin’ On A Prayer” – 1986). Over
time, they gradually captured the attention of the electronic music scene. Roger
Troutman of Zapp and Stevie Wonder were inspirations for many modern artists.

8.5.2. Auto-Tune

Auto-Tune is a software program that was originally created to correct the pitch
of vocal tracks in 1997. Since then, it has grown into a full-fledged vocal synthesis
instrument, inspiring a whole new generation of voice processors.

Auto-Tune was created by Harold (Andy) Hildebrand, who, interestingly, was

not a musical audio specialist. He worked for the oil industry – his job was to
determine which oil deposits were viable and feasible to exploit.

To do this, he developed a method based on autocorrelation4 that emits acoustic

waves into the ground. After developing this method, he sold it to the oil company
Exxon, then retired.

Sometime later – at a dinner party, as he tells the story – a guest challenged him
to develop a computer program that prevents people from singing out of tune. Using
the same technique of autocorrelation, he developed a preliminary version of Auto-
Tune in 1996.

In 1997, the company Audio Antares Technologies, founded by Hildebrand

specifically for this purpose, released the commercial version of Auto-Tune.

Auto-Tune is not just a voice editing tool. It can also be used as a full-fledged
instrument that transforms vocals by giving them a robotic, synthetic feel. This
effect is perhaps why it is so often confused with vocoders.

4 Autocorrelation is a mathematical method used in signal processing to detect similarities in

a signal, among other things.
 Vocoders 199

Figure 8.29. Version 8 of the Auto-Tune software plugin by Antares

“Believe,” performed by the singer Cher in 1998, was one of the first big hits to
use the Auto-Tune effect.

8.6. Final remarks

Synthesizing vocals and modifying them to create new sounds has always been a
source of fascination for artists, whether in cinema or in music. Today, we have
become accustomed to the distinctive sound of mechanical or robotic vocals. Rap,
hip-hop, and electro are using these sounds more than ever before.

Of course, too much of any good thing can become a burden. On the other hand,
many trends just keep coming back, fresher and stronger than ever. Perhaps the
popularity of Auto-Tune will stand the test of time.
 9

Octatrack: Maintenance,
Repairs, and Tips

This chapter presents some of the common failures and issues encountered by
Octatrack (OT) users, as well as a few possible solutions. Many problems can be
solved simply by taking advantage of the built-in features of the OT; these solutions
are accessible to all readers. However, hardware-level failures can be trickier. The
solutions to these issues presented in this chapter are intended for more adventurous
DIY enthusiasts with the appropriate equipment and knowledge of electronics.
Please note that all operations are performed at your own risk. The author cannot be
held responsible under any circumstances for damage to your OT or other connected
devices resulting from the following procedures.

9.1. Updating the software

Preordering for the earliest version of the OT was opened on December 13,
2010. The first-generation OT was delivered with a 4-GB CF card, preloaded with
two gigabytes of copyright-free loop samples from the publisher Loopmasters, as
well as a user manual and a power adapter.

The OS (operating system) has progressed through the following versions:

– 2011: version 0.995;

– 2011: version 0.998b;
– end of June 2011: version 1.00;
– October 2011: version 1.03;
– May 2012: version 1.2;

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
202 Electronic Music Machines

– 2012: version 1.21;

– May 2013: version 1.25.

Figure 9.1. OT with the standard accessories

Version 1.25 was followed by a few patches: 1.25B, 1.25C (October 2014),
1.25D, 1.25E, 1.25F, 1.25G, and 1.25H.

The latest update as of the time of writing is version 1.30C, released on

November 24, 2017, replacing versions 1.30 and 1.30B.

The user manual delivered with the OT is updated with each new version. The
following notice can be found at the bottom of page 3 (before the section “Panel
layout and connectors”):

Figure 9.2. The notice in the manual stating the version of OT (source: Elektron:
OT DPS-1 Dynamic Performance Sampler – User Manual)
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 203

9.1.1. Updating the operating system

Before performing an update, you may need to find out which version of the OS
your OT is currently running.
– Start up the OT.
– Press FUNCTION + PROJECT, select SYSTEM and STATUS, and press
ENTER/YES.
– The SYSTEM STATUS window should be displayed, stating the version of
your OS.

Figure 9.3. The SYSTEM STATUS window, showing the OS version.

Here, the OT is running version 1.25H

NOTE.– Whenever you reboot your OT, the OS version is also briefly displayed
in the bottom right-hand corner of the start-up screen.

Figure 9.4. The OS version displayed in the OT start-up window

If you are not running the latest version of the OS, there are two ways to update
it. The first procedure sends the update files over the MIDI connection, whereas the
second loads the new OS from a Compact Flash (CF) card.

NOTE.– Many users will find updating by CF easier and quicker.

204 Electronic Music Machines

9.1.1.1. Updating over MIDI

– Using two MIDI cables, connect the MIDI interface of your computer to the
OT (OT MIDI In to Computer Midi Out and OT MIDI Out to Computer MIDI In).
– Download the new OS files from the SUPPORT section1 of the Elektron
website. You will also need to download a MIDI management software program (C6
SysEx Manager) if you do not already have one.

Figure 9.5. The contents of the two ZIP files (OS files and C6 SysEx Manager)

NOTE.– There are plenty of alternative MIDI management programs such as

“SysEx Librarian” for OSX, “MIDIOX” and “Bome Send FX” for Windows,
“Simple Sysexxer” for Linux, and many others.
– Launch a MIDI management program on your computer and load up the .sys
MIDI file containing the OS.
– Start up the OT by holding down the FUNCTION key.
– The OT MENU window will now be displayed. Press trigger 3 and select
MIDI UPGRADE. The OT enter a waiting state, ready to receive the OS files,
displaying the message “READY TO RECEIVE MIDI UPGRADE...”.

Figure 9.6. The OT is ready to receive a sysex MIDI message

1 As of the time of writing (early September 2017), the download for the operating system
had the filename “OCTATRACK_DPS-1_OS1.25H.zip” and the download for the MIDI
management software had the filename “Elektron_C6_MAC_AND_WIN_1.51.zip”.
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 205

– Send the .sys file from the MIDI management program on your computer.

While the update is being loaded by the OT, the trigger LEDs will light up one
by one. Once the transfer is complete, the message “PREPARING FLASH” will be
displayed, followed by the message “UPDATING FLASH.” At the end of this
phase, your system will be successfully updated.

WARNING.– The next time you turn on the OT after the update, the system may
still need to update its booting sequence. Do not turn off the OT until the start-up
sequence has finished or the machine asks for a reboot.

9.1.1.2. Updating via CF card

– Download the new OS files from the SUPPORT section2 of the Elektron
website.
– Start up your OT after inserting a flash card with at least one megabyte of free
space.
– Transfer control of the CF card to your computer by pressing FUNCTION +
PROJECT, then SYSTEM and USB DISK MODE.
– Press the ENTER/YES button. The OT should now display the message “USB
DISK ACCESS IS NOW ENABLED...”.

Figure 9.7. The message indicating that the USB is ready

for access by the computer

– Open the CF card on your computer and copy the .bin file containing the OS
into the root directory of the card.

2 At the time of writing (early September 2018), the download for the operating system had
the filename “OCTATRACK_DPS-1_OS1.30C.zip”.
206 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 9.8. The root directory of the CF card after copying the .bin file

– Eject the card from your computer. The OT should take back control.
– Press FUNCTION + PROJECT, select SYSTEM and OS UPGRADE, then
press ENTER/YES. A message should ask you to confirm.
– Press ENTER/YES again to confirm the update or EXIT/NO to cancel.
– WARNING.– The next time you turn on the OT after the update, the system may
still need to update its booting sequence. Do not turn off the OT until the start-up
sequence has finished or the machine asks for a reboot.

9.2. Testing the OT

The OT has a fairly sophisticated self-testing program that is not fully

documented in the manual.

In the TESTMODE section, the manual simply states that troubleshooting

information will be shown on the display. In fact, we can go into a lot more detail.
– Press the FUNCTION button to start up the OT.

Figure 9.9. The five options in the OT menu

 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 207

– Press trigger 1 to activate the testing mode. After a few moments, the OT will
display the choices shown in Figure 9.10.

Figure 9.10. The window shown after selecting TESTMODE

You can now perform a range of different tests by pressing the buttons of the OT.

9.2.1. Testing the push buttons

– Pressing the trigger 1 button allows you to check the pixels of your screen at
maximum contrast ratio (black pixels).

Figure 9.11. The screen with pixels at maximum contrast

– Pressing the trigger 2 button allows you to check the pixels of your screen at
minimum contrast ratio (light gray pixels).

Figure 9.12. The screen with pixels at minimum contrast

208 Electronic Music Machines

– The trigger 3 button allows you to check the yellow LEDs.

– The trigger 4 button allows you to check the green LEDs.

Figure 9.13. The OT with all green LEDs turned on

– The trigger 5 button allows you to check the red LEDs.

– The trigger 6 button allows you to check the LEDs in their off state.
– The trigger 7 button lights up the LED of trigger 1 in green (the x-fader needs
to be in the left position).
– The trigger 8 button lights up the LED of trigger 8 in red.
– The trigger 9 button lights up the LED of trigger 1 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 10 button lights up the LED of trigger 2 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 11 button lights up the LED of trigger 3 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 12 button lights up the LED of trigger 4 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 13 button lights up the LED of trigger 5 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 14 button lights up the LED of trigger 6 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– The trigger 15 button lights up the LED of trigger 7 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 209

– The trigger 16 button lights up the LED of trigger 8 in red. When released, the
LED should turn off.
– Pressing the buttons in certain sequences produces the results listed in
Table 9.1 (see Figure 9.14 for the numbering).

Figure 9.14. Numbering of the OT buttons for the testing mode

Button no. Action LEDs on (red)

1 Record A---B Trigger 4 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
2 Record C---D Trigger 5 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
3 T1 Trigger 1 and 2:4 (continuous)
4 T2 Trigger 2 and 2:4 (continuous)
5 T3 Trigger 3 and 2:4 (continuous)
6 T4 Trigger 4 and 2:4 (continuous)
7 T5 Trigger 5 and 2:4 (continuous)
8 T6 Trigger 6 and 2:4 (continuous)
9 T7 Trigger 7 and 2:4 (continuous)
10 T8 Trigger 8 and 2:4 (continuous)
11 Mixer Trigger 1 and 2:4 3:4 (continuous)
12 MIDI Trigger 6 and 2:4 3:4 (continuous)
13 Tempo Trigger 1 and 1:4 2:4 (continuous)
14 Playback Trigger 3 and 3:4
15 Amp Trigger 4 and 3:4
210 Electronic Music Machines

16 LFO Trigger 5 and 3:4

17 Effect 1 Trigger 6 and 3:4
18 Effect 2 Trigger 7 and 3:4
19 Function Trigger 6 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
20 Cue Trigger 3 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
21 Pattern Trigger 7 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
22 Bank Trigger 8 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
23 Enter/Yes Trigger 2 and 2:4 3:4 (continuous)
24 Exit/No Trigger 3 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
25 ⌃ Trigger 4 and 2:4 3:4 (continuous)
26 < Trigger 5 and 2:4 3:4 (continuous)
27 ⌄ Trigger 1 and 3:4 (continuous)
28 > Trigger 2 and 3:4 (continuous)
29 ● Record Trigger 2 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
30 ▶ Play Trigger 1 and 1:4 3:4 (continuous)
31 ◼ Stop Trigger 8 and 3:4 (continuous)
32 Scene A Trigger 2 and 1:4 2:4 (continuous)
33 Scene B Trigger 3 and 1:4 2:4 (continuous)
34 1:2 2:4 3:4 4:4 Trigger 4 and 1:4 2:4 (continuous)

Table 9.1. The LEDs that light up when each button is pressed. The word
“continuous” indicates that the diodes remain continuously lit up

9.2.2. Testing the dials

– You can test each of the dials (excluding the headphones volume) as follows:

- LEVEL: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the
other, with 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- A: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the other;
- B: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 light up in green, one after the other, with 1:4
(continuous);
- C: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the other,
with 2:4 (continuous);
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 211

- D: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the other,
with 1:4 2:4 (continuous);
- E: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the other,
with 3:4 (continuous);
- F: the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should light up in green, one after the other,
with 1:4 3:4 (continuous).

– You can test the button press function of the dials as follows:

- LEVEL should light up the LED of trigger 7 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- A should light up the LED of trigger 1 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- B should light up the LED of trigger 2 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- C should light up the LED of trigger 3 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- D should light up the LED of trigger 4 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- E should light up the LED of trigger 5 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous);
- F should light up the LED of trigger 6 and 1:4 2:4 3:4 (continuous).

9.2.3. Testing the x-fader

As you slide the x-fader from left to right, the LEDs of triggers 1 to 16 should
light up one after the other. LED 1 (x-fader to the left) and LED 16 (x-fader to the
right) should light up in green, and the others should light up in red.

9.2.4. Analysis and results

If any of the aforementioned actions do not produce the expected result, your OT
may have some form of hardware fault. Common issues include worn-out push
buttons, dirty x-faders, or defective dial encoders. Section 9.3 explains how to
perform certain repairs for DIY enthusiasts.
– Turn off the OT to exit the testing mode.

9.3. Hardware repairs

This section describes procedures on the internal components of the OT. To any
readers who are not already DIY enthusiasts with a strong understanding of
212 Electronic Music Machines

electronics, I recommend consulting with a qualified expert or company to replace

any faulty components and repair your OT.

All of the following operations are performed at your own risk3. If you are not
confident in your own abilities, the (admittedly high) cost of expert assistance is
likely worth paying to avoid damage to your machine.

9.3.1. Opening up the OT

Opening up the OT is very straightforward and only requires a few simple tools.
You will need an M2 Allen key (also known as a hex key, 6-pan key, BTR key, or
Allen wrench) and a T10 TORX (six-pointed star) key.

Figure 9.15. M2 BTR and T10 TORX screwdriver tips

The BTR key is needed to unscrew the front panel and the x-fader (cross-fader),
and the TORX key will be used to unscrew the internal circuit board attached to the
front panel.

To open up the OT, perform the following steps:

– Disconnect the power supply, as well as any other cables (audio, MIDI, USB).
– Loosen and remove the six BTR screws on the front panel (Figure 9.16).

3 The author of this book cannot be held responsible under any circumstances for the damage
caused by improper handling.
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 213

Figure 9.16. The six BTR screws to be removed

– Carefully lift off the front panel from underneath. You should see three ribbon
cables (see Figure 9.17).

Figure 9.17. Ribbon cables 1 and 2 on the left and ribbon cable 3 on the right
214 Electronic Music Machines

Ribbon cables 1, 2, and 3 are respectively plugged into the connectors J3, J2, and
J5 on the motherboard, located at the back of the housing.
– Disconnect ribbon cables 1 and 3 from the bottom circuit board (motherboard),
making a note of which ribbon cable is plugged into which connector (J3 and J5).
These ribbon cables are not keyed, so they risk being switched if not careful. Ribbon
cable 2, which is connected to the x-fader SCENE A/SCENE B, can be disconnected
from either the motherboard (J2) or the x-fader circuit board (or both).
– You should now have two separate pieces – the housing with the motherboard
and power supply board, and the front panel with the control board and x-fader
board.

Figure 9.18. The two pieces obtained after opening up the OT. The top image shows
the main housing and the boards inside it. The bottom image shows the separate
control board attached to the front panel
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 215

9.3.2. Replacing the push buttons

NOTE.– This operation requires an understanding of tin soldering and

desoldering. You will also need soldering equipment: a desoldering pump or
desoldering station, as well as a soldering iron with a fine tip. Readers who are
not confident in their abilities should seek professional assistance for this
operation; there is a risk of causing serious damage to your OT.

Figure 9.19. A soldering/desoldering station

9.3.2.1. Unmounting the control card

To replace the push buttons, we first need to unmount the control board from the
front panel.
– First, turn over the front panel and remove the eight dials by pulling gently
away from the panel.
– Next, remove the x-fader SCENE A/SCENE B button.
216 Electronic Music Machines

– On the control board side of the front panel, loosen and remove the 16
star-shaped screws with your TORX key.

Figure 9.20. The 16 TORX screws that need to be removed from the
back of the control board

NOTE.– If you unplugged the ribbon cable between the x-fader SCENE A
/SCENE B and the motherboard from the other side (as shown in Figure 9.20),
you can optionally remove it completely to make the control board easier to
unmount. This ribbon cable is keyed to prevent you from plugging it in the
wrong way.

Figure 9.21. The ribbon cable of the x-fader with its two keyed connectors
(x-fader board side on the top, motherboard side on the bottom)
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 217

– After removing the screws, you can detach the metal panel from the control
board. The x-fader board is attached separately to the metal panel.

Figure 9.22. The front panel with the x-fader board still attached,
the 16 TORX screws, and the control board

9.3.2.2. Removing and replacing the push buttons

For example, the following procedure explains how to replace the following five
push buttons: MIDI, ENTER/YES, T2, T3, and 6 (F T6).
– Remove the gray or white cap of each button by pulling it gently away from
the panel.
218 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 9.23. The control board, showing the five buttons being replaced.
The caps have already been removed

– Turn the board over and desolder each of the five buttons.
– Check that the perforations are not blocked by tin residue after desoldering
(two holes per button).

Figure 9.24. The empty positions of the five buttons after desoldering and removal
(from top to bottom: T2, T3, MIDI, ENTER/YES, 6)

The push buttons are based on a ball-bearing mechanism, which is shown in

Figure 9.25. A gold-plated ball-bearing creates electrical contact between the two
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 219

terminals when the button and the spring are pressed. Mechanically, this mechanism
is very reliable, but it suffers from a different issue – over time, the contacts can
oxidize. This can be exacerbated by environmental factors such as usage frequency,
humidity, heat, cold, dust, etc. Note that the button does not have any kind of seal.
This is perhaps a design flaw, but we can also use it to our advantage by injecting
anti-oxidation products at the contact between the moving element (white) and the
fixed element (black).

Finding replacement buttons for the OT can be difficult, although I have

personally been successful in finding suppliers on eBay in the past. The best solution
might simply be to contact the Elektron technical department to order replacement
parts. They offer very reasonable prices and rapid delivery times.

In fact, I suspect that these push buttons were developed specifically for the OT
by its manufacturer (Marquardt), although I have not yet been able to find any
sources confirming this.

Figure 9.25. Working principle of the OT ball-bearing push buttons

NOTE.– An alternative fix that I have personally used in the past is to inject
contact cleaner4 into faulty buttons. Although this was successful, replacing a
faulty button is the best way to ensure that it continues to operate robustly.

4 Various aerosol-based contact cleaners are available. Some of the best-known brands
include: “KF F2 special contacts”, “Chemie Kontakt 60”, “Bardahl Nettoyant Contact”,
“WD40 Smart Straw”, “CRC Contact Cleaner”, and “3-en-Un Nettoyant Contact”. These
products or alternatives should be easy to find in any large DIY store or online retailer.
220 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 9.26. Injecting a special contact product into a push button

– Resolder the new push buttons back into place. Make sure that they are firmly
pressed against the control board. Even a slight offset or crooked alignment will
prevent them from working properly after the front panel is replaced because the
plastic caps will rub against the edges of the opening. There is very little clearance
between the cap and the opening in the front panel – just a few tenths of a
millimeter.
– Replace the button caps.
– Screw the control board back onto the front panel. After placing the first few
TORX screws (e.g. one in each corner), check that the buttons work properly
through the front panel by pressing each of them in turn.
– Replace the remaining screws, tightening firmly but without excessive force to
avoid damaging the printed circuit board.
– Replace the three ribbon cables, taking care to connect ribbons 1 and 3
correctly (see Figure 9.17).
– Remount the front panel by replacing each of the six BTR screws. You have
now successfully replaced the push buttons!
– Plug in the OT, turn it on, activate the TEST mode, and check that each button
is working properly (see section 9.2.1).

9.3.3. Replacing the battery

According to Elektron, the internal battery of the OT should last at least six
years. If the battery runs out and needs to be replaced, the OT will notify you with a
“BATTERY LOW” message. Replacing the battery is extremely straightforward.
– Disconnect the power supply, as well as any other cables (e.g. audio, MIDI,
and USB).
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 221

– Unmount the front panel as described in section 9.3.1.

– You should be able to see the battery at the back of the motherboard. The
battery is usually placed in a battery holder.

NOTE.– Some models of the OT have a soldered battery instead of a battery

holder. If so, I recommend inserting a battery holder after desoldering the old
battery. Please be careful – you will need to unmount the motherboard to do this,
which is held in place by nine TORX screws. The desoldering operation requires
extreme caution.

Figure 9.27. A battery holder for 25 mm 2430 or 2450 button cells

– Gently lift up the metal tab holding the battery in place and slide the battery
out of the battery holder.

Figure 9.28. The opened-up case of the OT, showing the motherboard
with its battery, held in place by a metal tab
222 Electronic Music Machines

– For the battery, a 3 V lithium button cell with reference number CR2450
should be used. Insert the new battery under the tab, with the positive terminal
facing upward.
– Check that the metal tab is not twisted and is making firm contact with the
positive terminal of the battery.
– Replace the front panel.

9.3.4. Replacing the x-fader

In a few rare cases, you may need to replace the x-fader. However, cleaning will
often suffice.

Figure 9.29. The x-fader of the OT

To unmount the x-fader, perform the following steps:

– Disconnect the power supply, as well as any other cables (audio, MIDI, USB).
– Unmount the front panel as described in section 9.3.1.
– Remove the fader button by gently pulling it away from the panel.
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 223

– Unscrew the two BTR screws on either side of the fader, and remove the fader
from the front panel through the control board.

Figure 9.30. The two BTR screws on either side of the x-fader

The x-fader is based on an optical mechanism that is much more reliable than the
standard linear potentiometers with carbon tracks.

The component used by the OT is the Infinium Crossfader DX400221 with a

45-mm track.

Figure 9.31. The x-fader circuit board with its printed model number

Figure 9.32 shows a blown-up view of the fader.

The x-fader can develop a fault for several reasons.

One common durability issue is the guiding of the head along the two parallel
steel tracks. The head needs to move fluidly and continuously, without sticking.
Unless one or several structural elements of the x-fader, e.g. the two plastic end
plates, have physically broken or split, most problems can be resolved in a simple
way by cleaning the two sliding tracks and possibly applying a light film of silicone
grease. Be careful not to apply too much – this can cause dust to accumulate and
create much bigger issues later.
224 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 9.32. A blown-up view of the x-fader (source: etherpod.org)

Irregularities in sound sequences or transitions are often caused by dust on the

two lower parabolic reflectors or the incremental shutter under the head. Try gently
running a soft-bristled brush over the reflectors and the shutter. You can also try
blowing compressed air over these components with an anti-dust aerosol cleaner5.

Figure 9.33. One of the parabolic reflectors (left) and the incremental shutter (right)
located on the lower part of the head, which slides along the two tracks

5 A wide variety of anti-dust products can be found in any supermarket, DIY store, or online
retailer. Examples of possible brands include: “Dacomex Aerosol Duster”, “Metronic Air
Sec”, “Tecnoware”, “Jelt Dry Duster”, “Logilink Spray Duster”, and “DCS Airo Duster”.
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 225

WARNING.– The following operations are risky and may cause permanent
damage to the x-fader. They must be performed with extreme care and precision
to avoid breakage. The plastic components are extremely fragile. The presented
cleaning process will be sufficient to resolve problems with the x-fader in the
vast majority of cases.
– For more stubborn residue, you can use a soft cloth as the last resort. You can
access the head and reflector blocks more easily by unclipping the x-fader circuit
board, which is held in place by a series of small plastic hooks between the two
flanges supporting the metal tracks.
– The blocks can be removed from their mounts on the board, and the mounts
themselves can also be removed. They are held in place by three small plastic clips
built into the mounts.

Figure 9.34. Part of the x-fader printed circuit board, showing the mount of the
optical block, the emission LED, and the photoreceptors

– Each block mount has eight holes; the square hole allows light from the central
infrared LED to pass, and the seven other smaller holes capture any light reflected
by the incremental channels engraved on the head, redirecting it to seven
photoreceptors.

9.3.5. Replacing an incremental encoder

There are incremental encoders under each of the dials, which rotate indefinitely.
They also operate as a push button when pressed along their axis.

These encoders are much less sensitive to dust than the x-fader because their
contact elements are less exposed. Any faults that develop are usually caused by
226 Electronic Music Machines

internal wear. They can be replaced relatively easily, although this becomes much
more difficult without the right equipment, including a good desoldering pump.

The encoders are manufactured by the company Bourns, with reference number
PEC16-4020F-S0024. You can find them and order them from various distributors,
such as Mouser Electronics and Digi-Key Electronics, or from eBay.

Figure 9.35. The encoder by Bourns (source: www.bourns.com)

To replace one or multiple encoders, perform the following steps:

– Disconnect the power supply, as well as any other cables (audio, MIDI, USB).
– Unmount the front panel, then the control panel, as described in sections 9.3.1
and 9.3.2.1.
– Some models of the OT have a metal plate that holds the seven encoders in
place, as shown in Figure 9.36. Other models do not have this plate.

Figure 9.36. The metal plate holding the encoders,

present in some models of the OT
 Octatrack: Maintenance, Repairs, and Tips 227

– If your model has a plate, unscrew the seven nuts securing the plate in place. If
your model does not have a metal plate, proceed to the next step.

Each encoder is soldered to the circuit board at seven different points – five
electronic connections and two additional solder points for structuring.

Figure 9.37. The seven solder points of an encoder

(on the back of the control board)

Now that your encoders are accessible, you simply need to desolder them. This
should be straightforward with any good electric or manual pump.

If you wish to attempt this operation without a pump, which is more difficult and
riskier, you can perform the following extra preparatory steps:
– Open the metal clasps of each encoder with a small flat-headed screwdriver
(Figure 9.38).

Figure 9.38. The four clasps of the encoder,

after being opened (on the left)
228 Electronic Music Machines

– Remove the upper part of the encoder; then, using small cutting pliers or a
Dremel-type multi-tool with a cutting disk, cut through each of its
brackets/connectors.
– You can now remove the encoder much more easily by gently pulling it away
from the board from the component side with pliers while heating each of the solder
points on the other side with a fine-tip soldering iron.

Figure 9.39. The seven holes after desoldering the encoder

After removing the old encoder, check that the seven holes are clean to prevent
issues when placing the new one. When soldering the new encoder, make sure that it
is firmly pressed against the board.

9.4. Final remarks

I hope that this chapter will answer some of the questions and issues that you
may encounter with your Elektron OT DSP1 (MK I).

We have not talked about every single problem or fault that an OT might
develop, but it would, unfortunately, be impossible to compile an exhaustive list.
Most of the scenarios discussed earlier draw from either my own personal
experience with the OT or that of my friends who regularly use it.

Once again, please do not hesitate to seek assistance from a professional or

directly from Elektron if you are not confident about any of the maintenance
operations described earlier.
 10

Octatrack: MIDI Sequences

and Arpeggios

This chapter explores how to create sound sequences by connecting the

Octatrack to other instruments over MIDI. In general, sequences can contain
arpeggios or even be entirely constructed from them.

We will focus on sequences and arpeggios rather than the other features of the
Octatrack simply because there are very few straightforward tutorials on these
topics. Dozens of tutorials on recording sound sequences, editing samples, creating
loops, and many other features of the OT can be easily found on the Internet. There
would be little benefit in trying to reinvent the wheel here! Readers interested in
these topics are welcome to refer to the bibliography at the end of the book.

The examples described next were designed with version 1.25H of the operating
system. Some changes may be necessary if you are using a more recent version.

The later parts of this chapter focus specifically on the arpeggiator function of
the Octatrack.

10.1. Setup and configuration

This section presents a few hardware and software setups that we can use to
create sequences and arpeggios.

10.1.1. Connections and software settings

– Connect the output(s) of the OT to a playback system (amp, mixing desk, etc.).
In the example, we will use an amp.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
230 Electronic Music Machines

– Connect the MIDI out port of the Octatrack to the MIDI in port of the
instrument (synthesizer, expander, etc.) receiving the commands. In the example, we
use a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer1.

Figure 10.1. The hardware setup

– Connect the audio output of the instrument to one of the inputs A, B, C, or D of

the OT. In our example, we will use input A. If your instrument is stereo, connect the
two outputs to inputs A-B or C-D.
– Start up your instrument (in our example, the Yamaha DX7 synth).

Figure 10.2. The famous DX7 synthesizer by Yamaha

– Start up the OT.

1 This (legendary) synthesizer is just a convenient example, mainly chosen because its MIDI
parameters are straightforward to set up and configure. Any synthesizer will work, whether a
keyboard or an expander-type rack.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 231

10.1.2. Creating a new project

– Press the FUNCTION + PROJECT buttons. When the CHOOSE PROJECT

window appears, choose PROJECT and CHANGE, then select <CREATE EMPTY
PROJECT> and confirm by pressing the ENTER/YES button.

Figure 10.3. The CHOOSE PROJECT window with the <CREATE

EMPTY PROJECT> option

– Enter a name for your project (e.g. “SEQUENCE 1”). The default name is
“PROJECT” followed by the date (year, month, day: YYMMDD). To erase the
current name, press CUE + EXIT/NO or FUNCTION + EXIT/NO. Pressing
FUNCTION opens a character selection menu that allows you to enter a project
name using the arrows. Release FUNCTION to confirm your selection. After
entering a name for your project, press ENTER/YES to confirm.

10.1.3. Creating a THRU device (machine)

– Select a track, e.g. track 1 by pressing the T1 button.

– Double-press PLAYBACK/NOTE to open the PLAYBACK SETUP window.
– Choose THRU for the machine type.

Figure 10.4. The PLAYBACK SETUP window with the

THRU machine option selected
232 Electronic Music Machines

– Press ENTER/YES.
– Press PLAYBACK/NOTE again to confirm.
– Using the A or D button, select the input(s) of the instrument (A, B, A-B, C, D,
C-D). In the example, channel A. If necessary, you can adjust the input volume
(gain) using the B button (for inputs A, B, A-B) or the D button (for inputs C, D, C-
D). In the example, we will keep the volume at 0.

Figure 10.5. The settings window of the THRU machine

10.1.4. Setting up the MIDI connection between the OT and the

instrument

– Select the receiving channel on the instrument, e.g. channel 1.

– On the OT, press the MIDI button.

Figure 10.6. Track 1 in MIDI mode

– Check that you are on the correct track on the THRU machine, in our case
track 1 (T1). If not, press the T1 button.
– Double-press PLAYBACK/NOTE to open the MIDI settings window (MIDI
NOTE SETUP).
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 233

– Using dial A, select the same channel as on your instrument. In our example,
we need to select channel 1.

Figure 10.7. The MIDI NOTE SETUP window showing the MIDI channel settings

– Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

NOTE.– Another way to confirm a parameter selection is to press the dial like a
button. This works in many different scenarios – you can use this tip in any of
the following examples.
– Press PLAYBACK/NOTE again to exit the MIDI settings window.

Figure 10.8. Track 1 configured on the MIDI channel 1 (top left)

– Play a few notes on the keyboard of your instrument (if it has one) to check
that the sound is correctly passing through the OT (THRU). If you cannot hear any
sound, the THRU machine might be turned off. To fix this, press the key for your
track, in our case T1, then press the PLAY button (). You should now be able to
hear your instrument when you play notes on the keyboard. A small triangle icon
should replace the square icon under the track number whenever you are playing.

NOTE.– Whenever a MIDI signal is being transmitted or received by the OT, two
pixels light up on the display, just above the tempo (see Figure 10.9). The left
pixel means that MIDI data are being received, and the right pixel means that
MIDI data are being sent.
234 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 10.9. The pixels indicating the receipt and transmission of MIDI data

10.2. Creating a MIDI sequence using triggers

To begin, let us present each section of the MIDI track window.

10.2.1. MIDI track

Figure 10.10. The window of a MIDI track and its parameters

Figure 10.10 shows the window of a MIDI track. On the right, there are data
boxes for six settings, which are managed using the A–E buttons:

– NOTE: defines the default note sent to MIDI out. After pressing a trigger (1 to
16), you can adjust the value of this setting by turning the data input dial A (the
selected note is displayed in letter notation and the corresponding key is highlighted
on the mini-keyboard at the bottom of the LCD screen).
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 235

– VEL: defines the velocity of the transmitted notes (0 is equivalent to NOTE

OFF2).
– LEN: defines the length of each note. This can be set to infinite (INF). When
the arpeggiator is turned on, this parameter controls the length of the arpeggio.
– NOT2 to NOT4: layers up to three additional notes on top of the default note to
create a chord. Whenever the fundamental note (NOTE) is changed, the notes NOT2
to NOT4 are automatically transposed (the selected notes are displayed in letter
notation and the corresponding keys are highlighted on the mini-keyboard at the
bottom of the LCD screen).

NOTE.– The icons along the right and left edges of the LCD display indicate the
MIDI channel that has currently been selected for each track. The symbol “x”
means that no channel has been assigned to that track.

10.2.2. Creating a musical sequence

As an example, we will consider the tune of “Das Model” by Kraftwerk:

Figure 10.11. The musical score that we will reproduce on the

sequencer (“Das Model” by Kraftwerk)

2 See the section on the MIDI format in Chapter 3 of this book.

236 Electronic Music Machines

The instrumental voice of the synthesizer connected to the OT should be set to

either an organ or a piano.
– Press RECORD ().
– Press TEMPO and set the tempo to 62 using the LEVEL button.

Figure 10.12. The tempo input window

– Press TEMPO again to confirm.

– Using the C button, set the note length LEN to 32. This duration will be
applied to every note in the sequence.

To begin, we will now enter the first nine notes of “Das Model” into the
sequencer. To create these notes, we need to assign a trigger to each of them. The
sequencer scrolls through the steps at a constant speed determined by the tempo; the
spacing between the triggers therefore determines the duration of each note. By
default, the OT will play the 16 triggers on page 1 at tempo 1×, i.e. the base tempo
multiplied by a factor of 1, or 62 eighth notes per minute in this example. If we view
each step of the sequencer as an eighth note, the tune shown previously becomes: 2
steps – 2 steps – 1 step – 1 step – 1 step – 1 step – 3 steps – 1 step – 2 steps – 2 steps
– 8 steps. This corresponds to the following sequence of notes: quarter note (A),
quarter note (A), eighth note (A), eighth note (C), eighth note (B), eighth note (A),
dotted quarter note (B), eighth note (G), quarter note (E), and quarter rest (silence
lasting for one quarter note).

A sequence of triggers is also known as a pattern.

– Check that you are in the MIDI mode – the yellow LED next to the MIDI
button should be on. If not, press this button once.
– Press the first trigger (trigger 1). The LED directly above it should light up in
red. While holding down 1, turn dial A to set this note to A2.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 237

NOTE.– Setting a trigger to a note is called “p-locking” (which stands for

“parameter-locking”).
– Press trigger 3 to advance two steps (one quarter note). The LED directly
above it should light up in red. While holding down 3, turn dial A to set this note
to A2.
– Press trigger 5 to advance two steps (one quarter note). The LED directly
above it should light up in red. While holding down 5, turn dial A to set this note
to A2.
– Press trigger 6 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 6, turn dial A to set this note to C3.
– Press trigger 7 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 7, turn dial A to set this note to B2.
– Press trigger 8 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 8, turn dial A to set this note to A2.
– Press trigger 9 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 9, turn dial A to set this note to B2.
– Press trigger 12 to advance three steps (one dotted eighth note). The LED
directly above it should light up in red. While holding down 12, turn dial A to set
this note to G2.
– Press trigger 13 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 13, turn dial A to set this note to E2.

NOTE.– The quarter rest at the end of the second measure will be added by
default, since triggers 15 and 16 are not used.

Figure 10.13. The trigger sequence for the first two measures of “Das Model”

NOTE.– After entering these notes, the LEDs of each active trigger should flash
rapidly in red and yellow, indicating that changes have been made (deviation
from the default note).
238 Electronic Music Machines

– Press the PLAY button (). Triggers 1 to 16 should light up in yellow one
after the other, and you should hear the sound sequence being played and repeated.
– To stop playback, press STOP ().
– If necessary, you can save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
then selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

NOTE.– If an alert window pops up with the message “Any previously saved
state will be lost. Continue?” when saving the project, press ENTER/YES to
overwrite the saved version of the project.

10.2.3. A multi-page sequence

To continue the sequence and enter the rest of the melody, we need to define
more steps. Any given sequence on the OT is limited to 4 pages of 16 steps, for a
total of 64 steps (this is the maximum length of a pattern).
– Press FUNCTION + SCALE SETUP. The PATTERN SCALE window will be
displayed.
– Press SCALE SETUP twice to increase the length to 48/48, which is
equivalent to three pages. The LEDs 1:4, 2:4, and 3:4 above SCALE SETUP should
now light up, indicating that the three pages are now active.
– Press EXIT/NO to exit and confirm.
– The 1:4 LED should light up more brightly in red than the 2:4 LED, indicating
that you are currently on page 1 of the sequencer. Press SCALE SETUP to go to
page 2. The 2:4 LED should now be brighter.
– The trigger sequence entered on page 1 is copied over to page 2 by default.
Press each of the triggers lit up in red to turn them off.

On page 2 (2:4), we can now enter the rest of the tune of “Das Model”.
Continuing from the start of the third measure, the next section of the tune is as
follows: 8 steps – 4 steps – 2 steps – 1 step – 1 step. This corresponds to the
sequence: whole rest (silence lasting for 8 eighth notes), half rest (silence lasting for
4 eighth notes), quarter rest (silence lasting for 2 eighth notes), eighth rest (silence
lasting for 1 eighth note), eighth note (E).
– Press trigger 16 to advance 15 steps (whole rest + half rest + quarter rest +
eighth rest). The LED directly above it should light up in red. While holding down
3, turn dial A to set this note to E2.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 239

Figure 10.14. The trigger sequence for the third and fourth measures of “Das Model”

– Next, go to page 3 of the sequencer (3:4) by pressing SCALE SETUP. The 3:4
LED should now be brighter.
– The trigger sequence entered on page 1 is copied over to page 3 by default.
Press each of the triggers lit up in red to turn them off.

In the previous step, we entered measures 3 and 4 of the melody. On page 3

(3:4), we now need to enter measures 5 and 6 of “Das Model”, which are as follows:
2 steps – 2 steps – 1 step – 1 step – 1 step – 1 step – 3 steps – 1 step – 2 steps – 2
steps. This corresponds to the sequence: quarter note (A), quarter note (A), eighth
note (A), eighth note (C), eighth note (B), eighth note (A), dotted quarter note (B),
eighth note (G), quarter note (E).
– Press trigger 1. The LED directly above it should light up in red. While holding
down 1, turn dial A to set this note to A2.
– Press trigger 3 to advance two steps (one quarter note). The LED directly
above it should light up in red. While holding down 3, turn dial A to set this note
to A2.
– Press trigger 5 to advance two steps (one quarter note). The LED directly
above it should light up in red. While holding down 5, turn dial A to set this note
to A2.
– Press trigger 6 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 6, turn dial A to set this note to C3.
– Press trigger 7 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 7, turn dial A to set this note to B2.
– Press trigger 8 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 8, turn dial A to set this note to A2.
– Press trigger 9 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 9, turn dial A to set this note to B2.
240 Electronic Music Machines

– Press trigger 12 to advance three steps (one dotted quarter note). The LED
directly above it should light up in red. While holding down 11, turn dial A to set
this note to G2.
– Press trigger 13 to advance one step (one eighth note). The LED directly above
it should light up in red. While holding down 12, turn dial A to set this note to E2.

Figure 10.15. The trigger sequence for the fifth and sixth measures of “Das Model”

NOTE.– The quarter rest at the end of the sixth measure is included
automatically, since triggers 15 and 16 are not used.
– Press the PLAY button (). Triggers 1 to 16 should light up in yellow one
after the other, and you should hear the sound sequence being played and repeated.
– You have the option to save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
then selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

NOTE.– If an alert window pops up with the message “Any previously saved
state will be lost. Continue?” when saving, press ENTER/YES to overwrite the
last saved version of the project.

10.3. Creating a sequence with the arpeggiator3

The next section presents the built-in arpeggiator of the OT, with an explanation
of how this feature works and a few examples of how it can be used.

3 Any synthesizer with at least 4-note polyphony will work, whether a keyboard or an
expander-type rack. Monophonic synthesizers will ignore the chords generated by the
arpeggiator.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 241

10.3.1. Presentation of the arpeggiator

Although the arpeggiator might seem complicated at first glance, there is no need
to be intimidated – it is entirely straightforward and logical. Any apparent
complexity is simply created by a wide range of parameter options.

Figure 10.16 shows the arpeggiator window.

Figure 10.16. The arpeggiator window

The six data boxes are managed by buttons A to E:

– TRAN: transposes the arpeggio up or down by a certain number of semitones.
– LEG: controls the legato, i.e. the smoothness of the transition between notes.
When the legato is ON, each pair of consecutive notes overlaps by an amount that
depends on the NLEN parameter if the arpeggiator is active or the LEN parameter if
not (see the MIDI track settings window in Figure 10.7). When the legato is OFF,
each note is cutoff (NOTE OFF4) before the next note in the arpeggio.
– MODE: turns the arpeggiator on or off.
– OFF: arpeggiator off.
– TRUE: the notes are played in the order of insertion.
– UP: the notes are played in ascending order, from lowest to highest.
– DOWN: the notes are played in descending order, from highest to lowest.
– CYCL: the notes are played in ascending and descending order, in a repeating
cycle.
– SHFL: the notes of a certain octave are played in random order (shuffle) before
moving to the next octave (if the number of octaves is greater than 1).

4 See the section on the MIDI standard in Chapter 3.

242 Electronic Music Machines

– RNO: the notes are played in random order.

– SPD: sets the speed of the arpeggiator, synchronized to the BPM of the project.
A setting of 6 equals sixteenth-notes, a speed of 12 equals eighth-notes, and so on.
– RNGE: defines the number of octaves (range) of the arpeggiator, from 1 to 8.
After each cycle of the arpeggiator, the notes are transposed upward by one octave.
After running through every octave, the arpeggiator returns to the original octave.
– NLEN: defines the length of the notes in the arpeggio.

10.3.2. A simple arpeggio

The first step is to create a new project (e.g. “ARP 1”) and a THRU machine (on
track T1), as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.

For example, we will create an arpeggio of the C-major chord defined by the
four notes C3, E3, G3, and C4. We can arpeggiate these notes in different ways; the
OT is very versatile.

First, create the chord on trigger 1:

– Check that MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button should
be lit up. Check also that you are on track T1 and MIDI channel 1 (see section
10.1.4).
– Press PLAYBACK/NOTE.
– Switch to the GRID RECORDING mode by pressing the red RECORD
button ().
– Press trigger 1 and set the second note of the chord (E3) using button D.
– Set the third note (G3) using button E.
– Similarly, set the fourth note (C4) using button F.
– Release the trigger. Its LED should flash red and yellow.

After setting these three notes and releasing trigger 1, you should have the same
result as shown in Figure 10.17. The first note is C35 by default.

5 C3 has frequency 261.626 Hz (note 60 in the MIDI standard). This is the note between the
second and third lines of a treble clef score. It is usually the default starting note of any given
octave, as it includes the famous 440-Hz note (A3) frequently used for tuning.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 243

Figure 10.17. The keyboard, with a chord defined on trigger 1

Now, if you press the PLAY button (), you should hear a chord when the
sequencer passes through trigger 1. If you cannot hear anything, press T1 + PLAY
().
– You can stop playing the sequence by pressing STOP ().
– Turn dial C to set the length LEN to 1/8.

Each page of the sequence has 16 steps, and each step is assigned to one trigger.
The sequencer will, therefore, always spend 1/16th of the duration of the page on
each trigger (regardless of the tempo).

Therefore, if we set the length of the arpeggio to 1/8, the sequencer will have
time to play two notes (2 × 1/16), in this case: C3 and E3.

The arpeggiator applies the same logic as the sequencer to determine the
duration of each note in the arpeggio.
– Press the AMP/ARP button to open the arpeggiator.
– Turn dial C to set the MODE to UP.
– Set the speed SPD to X6 (16th notes, see section 10.3.1) using dial D.
– Set the number of octaves RNGE to 1OCT using button E.
– Set the duration NLEN of the arpeggio notes to 1/16 using button F.

If you press the PLAY button (), you should now hear a sequence of two notes,
C3 and E3.
– Return to the MIDI track by pressing PLAYBACK/NOTE.
– Press trigger 1 and set the length LEN to 1/4 (4 × 1/16, which is (1 × 16) / 4 =
4 notes) using dial C.
244 Electronic Music Machines

You should now hear the full C-major arpeggio, with four notes.
– Press trigger 1 and set the length LEN to 1/2 (8 × 1/16, which is (1 × 16) / 2 =
8 notes) using dial C.

You should now hear the full C-major arpeggio twice, with eight notes in total.
– Press trigger 1 and set the length LEN to 1/1 (16 × 1/16, which is (1 × 16) / 16
= 16 notes) using dial C.

You should now hear the full C-major arpeggio four times, with a total of 16
notes. I am sure you get the idea!
– You have the option to save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
then selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

10.3.3. Defining an arpeggio graphically

Arpeggios can also be configured from the MIDI ARP SETUP window of the
arpeggiator.

To begin, create a new project (e.g. “ARP 1”) and a THRU machine (on track
T1), as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.

For example, we shall create an arpeggio from the C-minor + D-major chords,
containing the six notes C3, Eb3, G3 and D3, F3, A3. We will arpeggiate these notes
in a few different ways to explore the possibilities of the OT.
– Check that MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button should
be lit up. Similarly, check that you are on track T1, MIDI channel 1 (see section
10.1.4), and PLAYBACK/NOTE (yellow LED should be on).
– Turn dial C to set the length LEN to 3/8 (which is (3 × 16)/8 = 6 notes).
– Switch to GRID RECORDING mode by pressing the red RECORD
button ().
– Press trigger 1 and check that the NOTE parameter is C3. If not, set NOTE to
C3 using button A.
– Press the AMP/ARP button to open the arpeggiator.
– Turn dial C to set the MODE to TRUE.
– Set the speed SPD to X6 (16 notes, see section 10.3.1) using dial D.
– Set the number of octaves RNGE to 1OCT using button E.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 245

– Set the duration NLEN of the notes in the arpeggio to 1/16 using button F.
– Press AMP/ARP twice to open the MIDI ARP SETUP window. This window
allows you to configure and create arpeggios.
– Set the length of the arpeggio to 6 (for the notes C3, Eb3, G3, D3, F3, A3)
using button C. The LEDs of the first six triggers should light up in green.
– Now, press trigger 2 and, using the LEVEL button, increase the base note (C3)
by 3 semitones to Eb3. Release trigger 2.
– Press trigger 3 and, using the LEVEL button, increase the base note (C3) by 7
semitones to G3. Release trigger 3.
– Similarly, increase the base notes of triggers 4, 5, and 6 to D3, F3, and A3.
– Press AMP/ARP to exit the arpeggiator.

If you press the PLAY button (), you should now hear a sequence of six notes.
– Press FUNCTION + SCALE SETUP (1:4 2:4 3:4 4:4). In the PATTERN
SCALE window, set the scale to 6/16 by using the LEVEL button to modify the first
parameter. This will limit the sequence to six notes (six 16th notes).

Figure 10.18. The PATTERN SCALE window with the scale

parameter, currently set to six notes

– Press FUNCTION + SCALE SETUP (1:4 2:4 3:4 4:4) again to confirm.

The sequence should now continuously repeat the six notes of the arpeggio.
– You can stop playback by pressing STOP ().
– You have the option to save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
then selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.
246 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 10.19. The MIDI ARP SETUP window for creating a 6-note arpeggio

NOTE.– The KEY parameter in the MIDI ARP SETUP window sets the key
scale. When set to OFF, all notes and note offsets will play according to their set
values. The value of the MODE parameter in the arpeggiator window (TRUE,
UP, DOWN, CYCL, SHFL, RND) does not affect the arpeggio – the arpeggio
will always play unless MODE is set to OFF.

10.3.4. More complex arpeggios

The length LEN (button C of the MIDI track) can be combined with the number
of octaves RNGE of the arpeggiator (button E of the arpeggiator, see section 10.3.1).
– Press trigger 1 and set the length LEN to 1/8 using dial C.
– Press AMP/ARP to open the arpeggiator.
– Set the number of octaves RNGE to 4OCT using button E.

If you press the PLAY button (), you should now hear a sequence of four notes
four times at four different octaves.

By changing NLEN (button F of the arpeggiator), you can adjust the length of
each note in the arpeggio (see section 10.3.1).

You can also assign one or more chords, or the same chord multiple times, to one
or more other triggers, which will change how the sequence unfolds.

As you can see, the possibilities are endless. Feel free to experiment by playing
with the parameters, such as LEN, NLEN, MODE, NOT1, NOT2, NOT3, NOT4,
SPD, TRAN, etc., to gain a better understanding and mastery of the various
functions of the arpeggiator.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 247

Figure 10.20. The arpeggiator in shuffle mode on four octaves at 4× speed

The transition between consecutive notes is determined by the MODE setting of

the arpeggiator (see section 10.3.1).

10.3.5. Triggers in chromatic mode

Triggers can also be added to a MIDI track in a so-called chromatic mode6. In

this mode, the 16 triggers of the OT act like a keyboard spanning 1½ octaves,
equivalent to the 16 chromatic notes of a piano keyboard.
– To begin, create a new project (e.g. “CHROMATIC”) and a THRU machine
(on track T1), as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.
– Check that the MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button
should be lit up. Also, check that you are on track T1, channel 1 (see section 10.1.4),
and PLAYBACK/NOTE (yellow LED underneath should be on).
– Press FUNCTION and  (down arrow) to select CHROMATIC.
– The triggers will light up. The note C is yellow, the white keys of the keyboard
are red, and the black keys are represented by unlit LEDs. When you press a trigger,
you should hear a note, ranging from C3 for trigger 1 to Eb4 for trigger 16.
– By pressing FUNCTION +  (left arrow) or FUNCTION +  (right arrow),
you can increase or decrease the pitch by one octave.

For example, we will now record a sequence directly by using the OT triggers as
a keyboard. The OT can then play the recorded sequence back to us.
– Switch to LIVE RECORDING mode by pressing RECORD () + PLAY ().
– Play a few notes on the triggers. You should hear the tune being played back.

6 Chromatic mode can also be used with non-MIDI tracks for STATIC, FLEX devices, etc.
248 Electronic Music Machines

If you stop the recording by pressing STOP (), you can restart playback by
pressing PLAY (). You can resume recording at any time by pressing RECORD
() + PLAY () again to switch back to LIVE RECORDING mode.

To record a sequence of notes on the triggers, you may find it useful to turn on
the metronome ticks.
– To do this, go into the PROJECT menu by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
select CONTROL and METRONOME, then press ENTER/YES.
– Check ACTIVE by pressing ENTER/YES, scroll down with  (down arrow),
go to MAIN VOLUME, and set the volume of the metronome to 10 or higher. If you
are in PLAY mode (), you should hear the metronome immediately.
– Press EXIT/NO twice to exit both menus and confirm your settings.
– You have the option to save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT,
then selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

10.3.6. Saving a MIDI sequence from an external instrument

Rather than recording an audio sample from an external instrument, you might
want to record a sequence onto a track directly in MIDI.

To record, we need to configure MIDI channels to send and receive the data. On
the OT, the receiving channel is called the AUTOCHANNEL and is set to 11 by
default.

At the hardware level, connect a MIDI cable from the MIDI out of the OT to the
MIDI in of your instrument. In our case, the instrument is the DX7 keyboard.

Figure 10.21. Hardware setup for recording a MIDI sequence from the DX7
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 249

There are several ways to perform the MIDI recording. One possibility is to
configure your instrument to send and receive on channel 11 (or OMNI ON7).
Alternatively, you can reconfigure the AUTOCHANNEL on the OT to the same
channel as your instrument. This second option is to take the following approach:

To begin, create a new project (e.g. “REC-MIDI”) and a THRU machine (on
track T1) as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.
– Press FUNCTION + PROJECT and select MIDI and CHANNELS.
– Press ENTER/YES.
– Using the LEVEL dial, change AUTO CH from 11 to 1.

Figure 10.22. The MIDI CHANNELS window and the AUTO CH parameter

– Press EXIT/NO to exit.

– On your instrument (in our case, the DK7), set the MIDI transmission channel
to 1.
– Check that the sound signal is being properly transmitted by pressing one of
the keys on the instrument. If not, press T1 + PLAY () to activate the THRU
machine. You should now be able to hear the instrument when you play notes on the
keyboard. A small triangle icon should replace the square icon under the track
number whenever you are playing.

To improve the quantization of the recorded sequence, we will set the OT to

microtiming mode, which quantizes the notes in fractions of 1/384 rather than the
default setting of 1/16. The quantization determines how a recorded sound sequence,

7 See Chapter 3 on the MIDI standard.

250 Electronic Music Machines

whether originally from an audio source or a MIDI source, will be divided into
segments. We can increase the time resolution by modifying the TEMPO
MULTIPLIER in PATTERN SCALE, but this will reduce the number of available
measures accordingly.
– Press FUNCTION + PROJECT and select SYSTEM and PERSONALIZE.
– Press ENTER/YES.
– The PERSONAL SETTINGS window will be displayed. Navigate to
QUANTIZE LIVE REC and turn this option on by pressing  (right arrow).

Figure 10.23. The PERSONAL SETTINGS window

with the QUANTIZE LIVE REC setting

– Press EXIT/NO twice.

– Check that the MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button
should be lit up. Check also that you are on track T1, channel 1 (see section 10.1.4),
and PLAYBACK/NOTE (the yellow LED underneath should be on).
– Press RECORD () + PLAY () to switch to LIVE RECORDING mode.
– Play the sequence that you would like to record on your instrument, in our case
the DX7. Note that the sequence is limited to a single measure8 by default. After
recording a measure, the sequencer will play the recorded notes back to you.
– You can stop the recording by pressing STOP () and restart the playback by
pressing PLAY ().
– You can optionally save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT, then
selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

8 You can record up to four measures (4 × 16 steps) by increasing the number of pages in the
rhythm pattern.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 251

NOTE.– In general, you can record up to 4 pages of 16 steps each, for a total of
64 steps. To do this, press FUNCTION + SCALE SETUP (1:4 2:4 3:4 4:4). In
the PATTERN SCALE window, change the number of steps using the LEVEL
dial: 16 steps – 1 page; 32 steps – 2 pages; 48 steps – 3 pages; 64 steps – 4 pages.
An intermediate number of steps can also be chosen to record sequences of
specific durations (in musical measures). The LEDs of the triggers for each step
should light up in red. Press FUNCTION + SCALE SETUP (1:4 2:4 3:4 4:4)
again to confirm.

Figure 10.24. The PATTERN SCALE window, which allows you

to manage the number of pages or measures

10.4. Creating a MIDI sequence with a drum machine

This section considers a different hardware setup for generating rhythm patterns
from a drum machine. The MIDI notes representing percussion instruments are
transmitted over the MIDI interface.

Figure 10.25 shows the hardware setup. For example, the OT is connected to a
Roland TR-505, but you can use any other model of a drum machine instead.

Figure 10.25. Hardware setup for creating a rhythm sequence with a drum machine
252 Electronic Music Machines

– To begin, create a new project (e.g. “DM 1”) and a THRU machine (on track
T1), as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.
– Check that the MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button
should be lit up. Similarly, check that you are on track T1.

Figure 10.26. The TR-505 drum machine by Roland

– Configure the MIDI channel to be the same as the MIDI receiving channel9 of
the drum machine. On the TR-505, this is MIDI channel 10.

Figure 10.27. MIDI channel 10 on the Roland TR-505 ready to receive data (top),
and the same channel on the OT ready to send data (bottom)

9 The OMNI mode must of course be set to OFF (see Chapter 3 on the MIDI standard) on the
drum machine, otherwise the drum machine will receive on all channels regardless of the
specified receiving channel. If the OMNI mode of the drum machine is set to ON, any channel
will work on the Octatrack.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 253

– Check that the sound signal is being properly transmitted by pressing one of
the buttons of the drum machine, in our case the TR-505. If not, press T1 + PLAY
() to activate the THRU machine. You should now be able to hear the drum
machine.
– Press TEMPO and set the speed to 90 using the LEVEL dial. Press TEMPO
again to confirm.
– Press RECORD () to switch to the GRID RECORDING mode.

The rhythm pattern that we will create as an example is shown in Figure 10.28.

Figure 10.28. An example rhythm pattern

For the purposes of this example, we will use the following four instruments on
the Roland TR-505: snare drum, bass drum, closed hi-hat, and hiconga.

Figure 10.29. The triggers of each instrument on the Roland TR-505 drum machine
254 Electronic Music Machines

The instrument assignments10 on the Roland TR-505 are shown in Figure 10.30.

Figure 10.30. The assignments of the instruments on the

TR-505 and their MIDI codes

– Set NOTE to C#3. The snare drum is now the default sound for all 16 triggers.
– Press triggers 1, 4, and 9 to activate them (their LEDs should light up in red).

To add the bass drum, perform the following actions:

– Hold down trigger 5 and set NOTE to C3.
– Hold down trigger 13 and set NOTE to C3.

To add the closed hi-hat, perform the following actions:

– For each of the triggers 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16, set NOTE to
F#3.
– NOTE has already been assigned for the triggers 1, 4, and 9 (snare drum –
C#3), but we can use NOT2 to set up multiple sounds in parallel. For each of these
triggers, set NOT2 to F#3 (+5 semitones).

10 These assignments are not the factory defaults of the TR-505. They were redefined to
make them easier to implement on the OT. Most drum machines allow you to do this. Any
other choice of notes would also work if the rhythm pattern is adjusted accordingly.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 255

– Similarly, NOTE has already been assigned for the triggers 5 and 13 (bass
drum – C3), so we need to use NOT2 in parallel. For each of these triggers, set
NOT2 to F#3 (+6 semitones).

To add the hi conga, perform the following actions:

– NOTE has already been assigned for the triggers 11, 14, and 15 (closed hi-hat
– F#3) in NOTE, so we will use NOT2. For each of these triggers, set NOT2 to A3
(+3 semitones).

Press PLAY () to start the sequence and play the rhythm pattern. If you cannot
hear anything, press T1 + PLAY () to activate the THRU machine.
– You can stop playback by pressing STOP () and restart it by pressing
PLAY ().
– You can optionally save your work by pressing FUNCTION + PROJECT and,
then, selecting the PROJECT and SAVE options. Press ENTER/YES to confirm.

10.5. MIDI sequences, rhythms, and CC codes

Our next example of a hardware setup will allow us to create MIDI rhythm
sequences from an expander. For example, we will consider the SC-55 MKII (or
Sound Canvas) by Roland.

Figure 10.31. Hardware setup with an expander

Like many other synthesizers, the SC-55 MKII has a rhythm section where each
note is assigned to a percussion instrument. It also emulates several rhythm
ensembles: Standard, Jazz, Room, Power, Electronic, TR-808, Brush, and Orchestra.
256 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 10.32. The SC-55 MKII expander by Roland

For this example, we will use the TR-808 rhythm ensemble. The composition of
this ensemble is shown in Table 10.1, reproduced from the manual of the SC-55.

Table 10.1. TR-808 rhythm ensemble on the SC-55 MKII (source: Roland)

The objective of this example is to create a rhythm sequence that sends MIDI CC
(Control Change) codes containing instructions for the expander from the OT, as
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 257

well as the rhythm notes themselves. In our case, we will send CC codes to modify
the volume, reverb, and chorus settings on the SC-55.

Function… Transmitted Recognized Remarks

Base channel Default x 1 – 16 Memorized
Changed x 1 – 16
Mode Default x Mode 3
Message x Mode 3, 4 (M = 1) *2
Altered *****
Note number: x 0 – 127
True voice ***** 0 – 127
Velocity On x o
Off x x
Aftertouch Polyphonic x o
(pressure) Channel x o
Pitch bend x o
Control change 0, 32 x o Bank selection
1 x o Modulation
5 x o Portamento length
6, 38 x o Data input
7 x o Volume
10 x o Pan
11 x o Expression
64 x o Sustain (Hold-1)
65 x o Portamento
66 x o Sostenuto
67 x o Soft pedal
84 x o Portamento control
91 x o (Reverb) Effect 1 (intensity)
93 x o (Chorus) Effect 3 (intensity)
98, 99 x o NRPN (LSB,
100, 101 x o MSB)
120 x o RPN (LSB, MSB)
121 x o All sounds off
Initialize controls

Table 10.2. Excerpt of the MIDI implementation chart of the SC-55 MKII. The CC
codes of the volume, reverb, and chorus are highlighted in red (source: Roland)

– To begin, create a new project (e.g. “DM 1”) and a THRU machine (on track
T1), as described in sections 10.1.2 and 10.1.3.
– Check that the MIDI mode is on. The yellow LED next to the MIDI button
should be lit up. Similarly, check that you are on track T1.
– Configure the MIDI channel to be the same as the MIDI receiving channel of
the expander. In our case, this is MIDI channel 10 on the SC-55.
258 Electronic Music Machines

The rhythm pattern to be entered into the OT is shown in Figure 10.32.

Figure 10.33. The rhythm pattern for the example

Enter this sequence as described in the previous section. Table 10.3 summarizes
the assignments of each of the 16 triggers that produce the desired rhythm pattern.

Trigger
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
no.
NOTE F#2 F#2 F#2 D2 F#2 F#2 F#2 F#2 F#2 D2 F#2 F#2 F#2

C#3 F#2 C#3 C2 F#2 C2

NOT2
+7 +4 +7 -6 +4 -6

C2 C2
NOT3
-6 -6

Table 10.3. Note assignments for the rhythm pattern

– After entering these notes for each trigger, press PLAY () to start playback
of the sequence. If you cannot hear anything, press T1 + PLAY () to activate the
THRU machine.
– You can stop playback by pressing STOP ().

We are now ready to add the CC codes to this rhythm pattern. Before doing so,
we will briefly review the relevant CC codes and how they are assigned to the
commands of the OT.
– Press FUNCTION + EFFECT1 to display the MIDI CTRL 1 SETUP window.
 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 259

Figure 10.34. The MIDI CTRL 1 SETUP window. The CC1 code is set to 7 by default

The CC1 code should currently be set to 7. This is usually the default CC code
for the volume on most MIDI instruments, so we can leave it unchanged.

We now need to add CC codes for the reverb and chorus.

For this example, we need to add a CC2 code of 91 (reverb) and a CC3 code
of 93 (chorus), in accordance with the MIDI implementation chart shown in
Table 10.3.
– Using button D, set CC2 to 91 (FX1 DEP).
– Confirm by pressing D.
– Using button E, set CC3 to 93 (FX3 DEP).
– Confirm by pressing E.

NOTE.– You can alternatively confirm the settings with ENTER/YES instead of
pressing the dials.

Figure 10.35. The CC1 code is still set to its default value of 7. The CC2
and CC3 codes now have values 91 and 93, respectively
260 Electronic Music Machines

– Press PLAY () to start playback of the sequence.

– Press EFFECT 1 to display information about CC, CC1, CC2, and CC3; each
of them should currently be set to OFF.

Figure 10.36. The window displayed by pressing EFFECT 1. The

parameters CC1, CC2, and CC3 are set to OFF

– Press FUNCTION and use the dials C, D, and E to activate these codes.
– You can also use these dials to adjust the main volume (CC1: 0 – 127), reverb
(CC2: 0 – 127), and chorus (CC3: 0 – 127). The value of each code is immediately
sent to the expander. In our case, the SC-55 displays them on its screen.

Figure 10.37. The values of CC1, CC2, and CC3 displayed both on
the Octatrack and on the SC-55 (LEVEL, REVERB, CHORUS)

NOTE.– You can check the current value of each parameter on the Octatrack by
pressing the corresponding dial. The value is displayed for a few seconds before
disappearing.

EFFECT 1 can be used to configure a fourth control code (CC4).

 Octatrack: MIDI Sequences and Arpeggios 261

EFFECT 2 supports six additional control codes (CC5 to CC10). Each of these
codes can be activated and adjusted in the same way as the first three.

LFOs can also be configured and applied to MIDI tracks using the LFO button,
in the same way as they would be used with audio tracks. Readers are very welcome
to experiment with these features. The results will vary drastically according to the
choice of settings and the MIDI instrument connected to the Octatrack.
 11

Korg Electribe: Maintenance

and Hardware Tips

This chapter presents a few operations and hardware or software tips for the
Korg Electribe 2 groove machine. The tips regarding the built-in features and
controls of the machine (buttons, keys, pads, etc.) are perfectly safe and accessible
to all readers.

Reprogramming and cable-making may be slightly more challenging. These tips

are intended for more adventurous DIY enthusiasts who already have some basic
equipment and knowledge of electronics.

All operations are performed at your own risk. The author is not responsible
under any circumstances for damage to your Electribe or connected devices arising
as a result of the procedures described in the following sections.

11.1. Overview

We shall begin by briefly reviewing the various models of the Electribe 2. Users
often wonder whether there any major differences between models.

There are four versions of the Electribe 2, which can be easily distinguished by
their colors:
– the gray Electribe 2 was released in 2014;
– the blue Electribe 2 was released in 2015;
– the black Electribe 2 Sampler was released in 2016;
– the red Electribe 2 Sampler was also released in 2016.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
264 Electronic Music Machines

The main characteristics of all four models are identical:

– synthesizer with oscillators, filters, LFO, and envelope generator;
– 24-note polyphony;
– 48-kHz sampling rate, 24-bit A/D and D/A conversion;
– 16 tracks;
– 32 effects (MFX);
– 38 insertion effects (IFX) per track;
– 72 types of modulation;
– MIDI sequencer with input/output sync, 4 × 16 steps;
– “Kaoss” XY pad to control effects and notes;
– 16 velocity-sensitive pads;
– USB port (type-B micro-USB);
– SD card reader;
– power supply from 9V adapter or six A4 batteries;
– export feature to Ableton Live.

11.1.1. Electribe 2

The gray and blue models of the Electribe 2 are essentially equivalent – the gray
model is just slightly older. After updating the operating system (OS) of a gray
Electribe 2 to v2.02 (July 21, 2016), it will be completely identical to the blue
model. The procedure for updating the OS is presented later in this chapter.

Both models have 409 different sounds (including some multi-sampled sounds),
200 factory rhythm patterns, and 50 user-definable patterns.

They also have 16 different filters – 6 low-pass filters, 5 high-pass filters,

5 bandpass filters – and 54 oscillators.
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 265

Figure 11.1. The two models of the Electribe 2

Low-pass High-pass Bandpass

Moog Electribe Electribe
Electribe MS20 MS20
MS20 Prophet 5 Prophet 5
Prophet 5 Oberheim Oberheim
Oberheim Acid – TB303 Acid – TB303
Acid – TB303

Table 11.1. The three categories of filter available on the Electribe 2

Input effects are handled monophonically.

266 Electronic Music Machines

11.1.2. Electribe Sampler

The red and black models of the Electribe Sampler include a sampler that can
record a monophonic sound sequence of up to 273 s if the factory samples are erased
for space (and 99 s otherwise).

Multiple sampling sources are supported: audio input, SD card, and resampling.

Figure 11.2. The two models of the Electribe Sampler

Sample looping, cutting, and editing features – the standard functionality that
you would expect to find on any sampler – are included.

Samples can be used to construct musical sequences. Note that the Electribe
Sampler does not include a built-in warping function1.

1 Warping means applying a time-stretching algorithm to stretch or compress a sampled loop

without changing its pitch in order to synchronize it with the tempo of the user’s session. In
other words, warping modifies the quantization (or autocorrection) of a sample. The software
suites, Acid Pro and Ableton Live, offer this feature, which is extremely useful and widely
used in electronic music.
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 267

The Electribe Sampler has 421 different sounds (no multi-sampled sounds),
150 factory rhythm patterns, and 100 user-definable patterns.

It also has three filters – one low-pass filter, one high-pass filter, one bandpass
filter – and 16 oscillators.

Input effects can be handled either monophonically or stereophonically.

11.2. MIDI cables

Presumably with the goal of minimizing cable congestion, the MIDI ports of the
Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler are not the standard 5-pin DIN sockets but
3.5 mm stereo mini-jacks. In some situations, you may therefore need an adapter.

Figure 11.3. The two adapters delivered with the Electribe

The Electribe comes with two gender changers (adapters) in the box. If you lose
them or buy a second-hand Electribe that comes without adapters, you can make
your own adapters and cables by following the diagrams shown in Figures 11.4
and 11.5.

11.2.1. Male 3.5 mm jack to female 5-pin DIN adapter

Figure 11.4 shows the connection diagram of an adapter that is equivalent to the
gender changers delivered with the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler. It is short,
measuring about 10 cm in total, but can simply be extended with a standard MIDI
cable (2× male 5-pin DIN) to connect to the input or output of a MIDI device.
268 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 11.4. Male 3.5 mm jack to female 5-pin DIN adapter for the Electribe

11.2.2. Male 3.5 mm jack to male 5-pin DIN cable

Figure 11.5 shows the connection diagram of a cable that can be used to connect
the Electribe 2 or the Electribe Sampler directly to the input or output ports of a
MIDI device. Note that this cable will typically need to be relatively long (1–5 m).

Figure 11.5. MIDI cable to connect the Electribe directly to a hardware device
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 269

11.3. Updating the operating system

Before updating your OS, you may need to check the version installed on your
device.
– For the Electribe 2, if you are currently running version 1.18, you should install
version 1.19 first before upgrading to version 2.02.

Figure 11.6. The OS update files for the Electribe 2 available

for download from Korg’s website (source: www.korg.com)

For the Electribe Sampler, if you are currently running versions 1.0, 1.15, or any
other version older than 1.16, you should install version 1.16 first before upgrading
to version 2.02.

Figure 11.7. The OS update files for the Electribe Sampler available
for download from Korg’s website (source: www.korg.com)

The update files for the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler can be downloaded
from Korg’s website (www.korg.com) in the “Support” section.

You will need an SD card that is compatible with the Electribe and a computer
(PC or Mac) with an SD card reader. The Electribe needs to be either plugged into
the mains power supply with its adapter or running off batteries (six A4 batteries).

To avoid any issues, it is recommended to use the mains power supply during the
update process.
270 Electronic Music Machines

After downloading the update files, the remaining steps are the same for every
version of the OS:
– Unzip the downloaded files.
– After unzipping, you should have a folder containing several files, one of
which is called “SYSTEM.VSB”.

Figure 11.8. Example of the unzipped folder containing the “SYSTEM.VSB” file,
in this case, version 2.02 of the OS for Electribe, viewed on MacOS

– Check that your Electribe is turned off 2.

– Insert the SD card into the Electribe.
– Start up the Electribe.
– Format the SD card:

- Press MENU/ENTER on the Electribe.

- Select DATA UTILITY using the < and > buttons (Data Util 27/28).
- Press MENU/ENTER.
- Select CARD FORMAT using the < and > buttons.
- Confirm by pressing MENU/ENTER.
- Press MENU/ENTER to confirm when the prompt “Are You Sure?” appears.
- If formatting was successful, the message “OK” will be displayed after the
working phase.
– Turn off the Electribe and eject the card.

2 Be careful – inserting or removing an SD card from the Electribe without turning it off first
may cause undesirable behavior or damage to the device.
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 271

Figure 11.9. Procedure for formatting an SD card on the Electribe

(left to right and top to bottom)

– Insert the formatted SD card into your computer’s SD drive.

– Copy the “SYSTEM.VSB” file from your computer into the “System”
subfolder in the “Electribe” (or “Electribe Sampler”) subfolder of the “KORG”
folder on the SD card.

Figure 11.10. The “System” subfolder on the SD card after copying “SYSTEM.VSB”

– Eject the SD card from your computer.

– Insert the SD card into your Electribe.
– Start up the Electribe.
– Press MENU/ENTER.
– Select DATA UTILITY using the < and > buttons.
– Press MENU/ENTER.
272 Electronic Music Machines

– Select SOFTWARE UPDATE from the DATA UTILITY menu using the <
and > buttons.
– Press MENU/ENTER. The Electribe will display both the current version of
the system (Now Version) and the version being installed (Next Version).
– Press MENU/ENTER. The Electribe will ask you to confirm (Are You Sure?).
– Press MENU/ENTER.
– After a working phase, the Electribe will ask you to restart.
– Turn off the Electribe, wait for a few seconds, then turn it back on. The OS has
now been updated!

Figure 11.11. Procedure for updating the OS of the Electribe

(left to right and top to bottom)

11.4. Electribe 2 to Electribe Sampler

This section explains how to transform, or migrate, the Electribe 2 into an

Electribe Sampler to gain access to the sampling features of the latter. It is worth
bearing in mind that this migration does not yield a completely perfect replica of the
Electribe Sampler because some of the differences between the two models are
hardware based and therefore cannot be overcome by making changes to the
software.

The operations described in this chapter are not completely risk-free, but many
Electribe owners (including me) have successfully performed them without
encountering any issues. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, the author cannot
be held responsible under any circumstances for damage to your device if something
goes wrong.

I have performed this procedure myself several times on a gray Electribe 2, a

blue Electribe 2, and a red Electribe Sampler, without any problems.
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 273

I edited the “SYSTEM.VSB” files with a hexadecimal editor myself (see below)
to check the steps suggested by sources found on the Internet.

In parallel, I had some fun experimenting with a specialized tool for Texas
Instruments microprocessors to deconstruct the code and gain more insight into the
inner workings of the device. The Electribe is based on a Sitara ARM9 (AM1802)
microprocessor.

Figure 11.12. The AM1802 microprocessor (300 MHz – RISC Architecture)

by Texas Instruments on the motherboard of the Electribe

Most of the steps described in this section were discovered or developed by

others. My personal contribution is to simply compile and summarize a collection of
articles, comments, and notes encountered on various forums and websites, as well
as during social media discussions with other users of the Electribe 2 or Electribe
Sampler.

The main sources are as follows:

– Victor Piscue: piscue.com/author/admin; twitter.com/piscue; youtube.com/
piscue.

– Jergling: jergling.wordpress.com/2015/09/19/electribe-2-firmware-disassembly/.

– The Korg forum: www.korgforums.com/forum/phpBB2/index.php.

– Robin Domingo, a.k.a. “The Beat Bender”.
274 Electronic Music Machines

– Tarekith: innerportalstudio.com/hacking-the-new-electribe/.

– Synthtopia: www.synthtopia.com/content/2015/09/14/hack-turns-korg-electribe-
music-production-station-into-an-electribe-sampler/.

– Gearslutz.com: www.gearslutz.com/board/electronic-music-instruments-and-
electronic-music-production/1178703-i-just-bricked-my-electribe-2-a-2.html.

– Korg Electribe 2 & Sampler Facebook group: www.facebook.com/groups/

1587573334805635/.

To migrate the Electribe 2 (gray or blue) to the Electribe Sampler, the current
firmware installed on your Electribe must be version 1.10 or earlier. If not, the
migration will not work.

If you already have a later version of the firmware, you will need to
“downgrade” your Electribe before performing the update because more recent
versions prevent you from downgrading directly. However, there is a workaround
that is described a little later in this chapter; see section 11.4.3.

There are two ways to obtain the files that you will need. You can download
edited versions from the Internet3 or edit the original files yourself with a
hexadecimal editor4 (see section 11.4.4).

11.4.1. Migrating to the Electribe Sampler

The procedure for migrating to the Electribe Sampler is as follows:

1. Format an SD card that is compatible with your Electribe:

– Check that your Electribe is turned off.

– Insert the SD card into the Electribe.

3 Please be careful with any download links. These links were correct at the time of writing,
but Internet resources are by their very nature extremely volatile, and some links may no
longer work. It should be possible to use a search engine to find alternatives to any expired
links.
4 For example, you can use any of the following editors for Microsoft Windows: Hex Edit
(free), HxD Hex Editor (free), and WinHex (free trial software); or for MacOS: HexEdit
(free), Hex Fiend (free), iBored (free), and 0xed (free). This list is not exhaustive; many other
editors are available. Online editors are another option (e.g. https://hexed.it).
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 275

– Turn on your Electribe. Using the mains power supply is recommended to

avoid any problems that might interfere with the process (if running on batteries is
the only option, make sure they are fresh!).
– Press MENU/ENTER.
– Select CARD FORMAT using the < and > buttons.
– Press MENU/ENTER.
– Select CARD FORMAT using the < and > buttons.
– Confirm by pressing MENU/ENTER.
– Press MENU/ENTER to confirm when the prompt “Are You Sure?” appears.
– If formatting was successful, the message “OK” will be displayed after the
working phase.
– Turn off the Electribe and eject the card.

2. Insert the newly formatted SD card into your computer.

3. Copy the file “SYSTEM.VSB” (from the “e2-e2s” folder, download link:
http://piscue.com/korg-electribe-2-hack/ (free registration required) or
http://www.mediafire.com/file/xcch54rcp8sp8p3/e2-e2s.zip/file) into the
“KORG/electribe/System” subfolder of the SD card.

Figure 11.13. The file tree of a newly formatted SD card,

showing the “System” subfolder

4. Insert the SD card into your Electribe 2 (gray or blue).

5. Start up the Electribe.
6. Press MENU/ENTER.
7. Select DATA UTILITY using the < and > buttons.
8. Press MENU/ENTER.
276 Electronic Music Machines

9. Select SOFTWARE UPDATE from the DATA UTILITY menu using the
< and > buttons.
10. At this point, if the “SYSTEM.VSB” file has been correctly recognized by
the Electribe, the screen will display a message indicating the current version of the
OS (Now Version) and the version being installed (Next Version).
11. Press MENU/ENTER. The Electribe will ask you to confirm (Are You
Sure?).
12. Press MENU/ENTER.
13. After a working phase, the Electribe will prompt you to restart (OK. Please
Reboot).
14. Turn off the Electribe, wait for a few seconds, then turn it back on.
15. When you turn the Electribe back on, the Electribe Sampler logo should be
displayed on the screen.
16. Your Electribe 2 has now been patched and is ready to use!

NOTE.– Migrating the Electribe 2 to the E2S as described in the procedure does
not produce a perfect clone of the latter; some of the features are different. The
PCM oscillators are incorrectly assigned and some oscillators are missing.
However, the filter types are all present and everything else seems to work
properly.

11.4.2. Reverting to the Electribe 2

To revert to the original Electribe 2, the procedure is essentially identical.

The steps are as follows:

1. Format your SD card using the patched Electribe 2 (DATA UTILITY menu
then CARD FORMAT – see the first step of the procedure in section 11.4.1).
2. Copy the file “SYSTEM.VSB” (from the “e2s-e2” folder, download link:
http://www.mediafire.com/file/00xsy4qxmv6v566/e2s-e2.zip/file) into the subfolder
“KORG/electribe sampler/System” of the SD card.
3. Follow Steps 4 to 14 of the procedure in section 11.4.1.
4. When you turn the Electribe back on, the Electribe logo should be displayed
on the screen.
5. Your Electribe 2 has now been reverted and is ready to use!
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 277

11.4.3. Downgrading the Electribe

Versions 1.17, 1.18, and higher of the Electribe 2 OS are not “downgradable” –
the machine prevents you from installing an older version of the OS.

This can be circumvented by following the procedure described below:

– To downgrade from version 2.02, download the “SYSTEM.VSB” file from the
following link5:

http://www.mediafire.com/file/cccrr1f5xt7brl2/e2_downgrade_from_202.zip/file
– To downgrade from version 1.18, download the “SYSTEM.VSB” file from the
following link:

http://www.mediafire.com/file/qy4lnudrqk94m69/el2_downgrade_from_1.18.zip/file
– Format an SD card that is compatible with your Electribe (see section 11.4.1).
– Insert the newly formatted SD card into your computer.
– Copy the correct “SYSTEM.VSB” file into the “KORG/electribe/System”
subfolder on the SD card.
– Follow Steps 4 to 14 of the procedures in section 11.4.1.
– Start up the Electribe. There may be a working phase followed by an update
phase, in which case the device will ask you to restart (OK. Please Reboot).
– To check the version of the OS that is currently installed, go to DATA
UTILITY and SOFTWARE UPDATE. You should see a message indicating the
current version of the system (Now Version).
– Exit the menu by pressing the EXIT button twice.
– Your Electribe 2 has now been downgraded and is ready to use!

11.4.4. Editing the operating system files

To migrate the Electribe 2 to the Electribe Sampler (and vice versa), you need
two files.

5 Please be careful with any download links. These links were correct at the time of writing,
but Internet resources are by their very nature extremely volatile, and some links may no
longer work. It should be possible to use a search engine to find alternatives to any expired
links.
278 Electronic Music Machines

You can create these files yourself as described below.

To create the patch that allows you to migrate to the Electribe Sampler, proceed
as follows:
– Download the Electribe Sampler OS from Korg’s website (www.korg.com) in
the “Support” section. Version 1.16 is recommended (this procedure has not been
tested with some of the other versions, e.g. 1.14, 1.18...).
– Open “SYSTEM.VSB” in the hexadecimal editor of your choice (see
section 11.4).
– The first few lines of the code are shown in Figure 11.14.

Figure 11.14. The first few lines of the hexadecimal code in the
“SYSTEM.VSB” file of the Electribe Sampler

– We need to edit byte 12, which has value 53; byte 2B, which has value 10;
and byte 2E, which has value 24 (in hexadecimal), replacing their contents with the
values shown in Figure 11.15 (namely, 00, 0A, and 23).

Figure 11.15. The 3 bytes to be edited and their new values (00, 0A, and 23)

– Save the edited file with the same filename as before. This file can now be
used to migrate your Electribe 2 to the Electribe Sampler.
 Korg Electribe: Maintenance and Hardware Tips 279

To create a patch for reverting the Electribe Sampler (patched Electribe 2) to the
standard Electribe 2, perform the following steps:
– Download the OS of the Electribe 2 from Korg’s website (www.korg.com) in
the “Support” section. Version 1.10 is recommended (this procedure has not been
tested with some of the other versions, e.g. 1.19, 1.18, 1.17…).
– Open the “SYSTEM.VSB” file in the hexadecimal editor of your choice (see
section 11.4 for examples if you do not have one).
– The first few lines of code are shown in Figure 11.16.

Figure 11.16. The first few lines of code in the “SYSTEM.VSB” file of the Electribe 2

– We need to edit byte 12, which has value 00; byte 2B, which has value 0A;
and byte 2E, which has value 23 (in hexadecimal), replacing their contents with the
values shown in Figure 11.15 (namely, 53, 06, and 24).

Figure 11.17. The 3 bytes to be edited and their new values (53, 06, and 24)

– Save the edited file with the same filename like before. This file can now be
used to revert your patched Electribe 2 into the standard Electribe 2.
280 Electronic Music Machines

11.4.5. Major operating system versions of the Electribe 2

Older versions of the OS for the Electribe 2 can be difficult to find on the
Internet. You can download versions 1.18, 1.17, and 1.10 from the following link:

http://www.mediafire.com/file/cz05j5fxm11q37o/OS_E2.zip/file6

11.5. Conclusion

You can do much more than just the operations described earlier. Plenty of other
ideas can be found by searching the Internet. There is a rich and highly active
community of Electribe users from all around the world. New developments often
appear overnight, so stay tuned.

6 Please be careful with any download links. These links were correct at the time of writing,
but Internet resources are by their very nature extremely volatile, and some links may no
longer work. It should be possible to use a search engine to find alternatives to any expired
links.
 12

Korg Electribe: Software Tips

This chapter presents a few resources and less well-documented operations that
can be performed with the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler.

12.1. Menu tree of the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler

Users frequently need to navigate through the menus of the Electribe to modify
the parameters or to activate the features. It may not always be easy to find what you
are looking for, especially for beginners.

Table 12.1 shows the full menu tree for version 2.02 of the Electribe 2.

The menus are numbered from 1 to 28, divided into seven families: Pattern, Part,
Step, Part Util, Global, Data Util, and Event.

No. Family Function No. S/function

1 Pattern BPM
- 20–300
2 Pattern SWING
˗50% to 50%
3 Pattern BEAT
- 16
- 32
- 8 Tri
- 16 Tri

4 Pattern LENGTH
- 1–4

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
282 Electronic Music Machines

5 Pattern PATTERN LEVEL

- 0–127
6 Pattern MFX TYPE
1. Mod Delay
2. Tape Delay
3. High Pass Delay
4. Hall Reverb
5. Room Reverb
6. Wet Reverb
7. Looper
8. Pitch Looper
9. Step Shifter
10. Slicer
11. Jag Filter
12. Grain Shifter
13. Vinyl Break
14. Seq Reverse
15. Seq Doubler
16. Old Stepper
17. Event Stepper
18. Low Pass Filter
19. High Pass Filter
20. Band Plus Filter
21. Touch Wah
22. Tube EQ
23. Decimator
24. Distortion
25. Compressor
26. Limiter
27. Chorus
28. XY Flanger
29. LFO Flanger
30. XY Phaser
31. LFO Phaser
32. Auto Pan
7 Pattern CLEAR MFX MOTION
8 Pattern KEY
- C–B
9 Pattern - SCALE
- Chromatic
- Ionian
- Dorian
- Phrygian
- Lydian
- Mixolydian
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 283

- Aeolian
- Locrian
- Harm minor
- Melo minor
- Major Blues
- minor Blues
- Diminished
- Com. Dim
- Major Penta
- minor Penta
- Raga 1
- Raga 2
- Raga 3
- Arabic
- Spanish
- Gypsy
- Egyptian
- Hawaiian
- Pelog
- Japanese
- Ryukyu
- Chinese
- Bass Line
- Whole Tone
- minor 3rd
- Major 3rd
- 4th Interval
- 5th Interval
- Octave
10 Pattern CHORD SET
- 1–5
11 Pattern GATE ARP
- 0–50
12 Pattern ALTERNATE 13–14
- On / Off
13 Pattern ALTERNATE 15–16
- On / Off
14 Pattern CHAIN TO
- Off
- 0–250

15 Pattern CHAIN REPEAT

- 1–64
284 Electronic Music Machines

16 Part LAST STEP

- 1–16
17 Part GROOVE TYPE
1. Conga 1
2. Conga 2
3. Conga 3
4. Bongo 1
5. Bongo 2
6. Bongo 3
7. Cabasa 1
8. Cabasa 2
9. Claves 1
10. Claves 2
11. Cowbell
12. Agogo 1
13. Agogo 2
14. Tambourine
15. Off Beat
16. On Beat
17. Push 5&13
18. Pull 5&13
19. Oval Groove
20. Laidback
21. Rushback
22. The One
23. Syncopation
24. Crescendo
25. Decrescendo
18 Part GROOVE DEPTH
- 0–127
19 Part VOICE ASSIGN
- Mono1
- Mono2
- Poly1
- Poly2
20 Part PART PRIORITY
- Normal
- High
21 Part MOTION SEQ
- Off
- Smooth
- Trigger Hold
22 Part TRG. PAD VELOCITY
- Off / On
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 285

23 Part SCALE MODE

- Off / On
24 Step STEP EDIT
1 STEP NUMBER
- Step: 1:01–4:16
2 NOTE
- C1–G09
3 GATE TIME
- 0–96
- Tie
4 VELOCITY
- 0–127
25 Part Util PART UTILITY
1 COPY PART
2 COPY PART SOUND
3 CLEAR SEQUENCE
4 CLEAR MOTION
26 Global GLOBAL PARAMETER
1 TRIGGER MODE
- Normal
- Seq 1st
- Seq Play
2 VELOCITY CURVE
- Heavy
- Normal
- Light
- Const 96
3 CLOCK MODE
- Internal
- Auto
- External USB
- External MIDI
- External Sync
4 GLOBAL MIDI CH.
- 01–16
286 Electronic Music Machines

5 MIDI RECEIVE FILTER

- Off
- Short
- Short + Program
6 MIDI SEND FILTER
- Off
- Short
- Short + Program
7 SYNC POLARITY
- Hi
- Lo
8 SYNC UNIT
- 1 Step
- 2 Steps
9 METRONOME
- Off
- Rec 0
- Rec 1
- Rec 2
- On
10 TEMPO LOCK
- Off / On
11 KNOB MODE
- Jump
- Catch
- Value Scale
12 TOUCH SLAVE RANGE
- 1 Oct
- 2 Oct
- 3 Oct
- 4 Oct
13 LCD CONTRAST
- 1–25
14 AUDIO IN THRU
- Off / On
15 BATTERY TYPE
- Ni-Mh
- Alkali
16 AUTO POWER OFF
- Disable / 4 h
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 287

17 POWER SAVE MODE

- Disable
- Auto
- Enable
18 PTN. CHANGE LOCK
- Off / On
19 CHAIN MODE
- Off / On
20 XY CALIBRATION
1. Touch Bottom Left
2. Touch Upper Right
27 Data DATA UTILITY
Util
1 EXPORT PATTERN
2 EXPORT ALL PATTERN
3 IMPORT PATTERN
4 IMPORT ALL PATTERN
5 INITIALIZE PATTERN
6 EXPORT AUDIO
- Ableton Live Set
- Wav File Only
7 EXPORT P.SET AUDIO
- Select Start: 1–64
- Select End: 1–64
- Select Type: Ableton Live
Set / Wav File Only
8 EXPORT CHAIN AUDIO
- Select Type: Ableton Live
Set / Wav File Only
9 CARD FORMAT
10 FACTORY RESET
11 SOFTWARE UPDATE
- Now Version
- Next Version
288 Electronic Music Machines

28 Event EVENT REC/PLAY

- No Card
1 EVENT RECORDER
2 EVENT PLAYER

Table 12.1. Menu tree of the Electribe 2 – OS version 2.02

Table 12.2 shows the full menu tree for version 2.02 of the Electribe Sampler.

The menus are numbered from 1 to 29, divided into 8 families: Pattern, Part,
Step, Part Util, Spl Edit, Global, Data Util, and Event.

No. Family Function No. S/function

1 Pattern BPM
- 20–300
2 Pattern SWING
−50% to 50%

3 Pattern BEAT
- 16
- 32
- 8 Tri
- 16 Tri
4 Pattern LENGTH
- 1–4
5 Pattern PATTERN LEVEL
- 0–127
6 Pattern MFX TYPE
1. Mod Delay
2. Tape Delay
3. High Pass Delay
4. Hall Reverb
5. Room Reverb
6. Wet Reverb
7. Looper
8. Pitch Looper
9. Step Shifter
10. Slicer
11. Jag Filter
12. Grain Shifter
13. Vinyl Break
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 289

14. Seq Reverse

15. Seq Doubler
16. Old Stepper
17. Event Stepper
18. Low Pass Filter
19. High Pass Filter
20. Band Plus Filter
21. Touch Wah
22. Tube EQ
23. Decimator
24. Distortion
25. Compressor
26. Limiter
27. Chorus
28. XY Flanger
29. LFO Flanger
30. XY Phaser
31. LFO Phaser
32. Auto Pan
7 Pattern CLEAR MFX MOTION
8 Pattern KEY
- C–B
9 Pattern - SCALE
- Chromatic
- Ionian
- Dorian
- Phrygian
- Lydian
- Mixolydian
- Aeolian
- Locrian
- Harm minor
- Melo minor
- Major Blues
- minor Blues
- Diminished
- Com. Dim
- Major Penta
- minor Penta
- Raga 1
- Raga 2
- Raga 3
- Arabic
- Spanish
- Gypsy
- Egyptian
- Hawaiian
290 Electronic Music Machines

- Pelog
- Japanese
- Ryukyu
- Chinese
- Bass Line
- Whole Tone
- minor 3rd
- Major 3rd
- 4th Interval
- 5th Interval
- Octave
10 Pattern CHORD SET
- 1–5
11 Pattern GATE ARP
- 0–50
12 Pattern ALTERNATE 13–14
- On/Off
13 Pattern ALTERNATE 15–16
- On/Off
14 Pattern CHAIN TO
- Off
- 0–250
15 Pattern CHAIN REPEAT
- 1–64
16 Part LAST STEP
- 1–16
17 Part GROOVE TYPE
1. Conga 1
2. Conga 2
3. Conga 3
4. Bongo 1
5. Bongo 2
6. Bongo 3
7. Cabasa 1
8. Cabasa 2
9. Claves 1
10. Claves 2
11. Cowbell
12. Agogo 1
13. Agogo 2
14. Tambourine
15. Off Beat
16. On Beat
17. Push 5&13
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 291

18. Pull 5&13

19. Oval Groove
20. Laidback
21. Rushback
22. The One
23. Syncopation
24. Crescendo
25. Decrescendo
18 Part GROOVE DEPTH
- 0–127
19 Part VOICE ASSIGN
- Mono1
- Mono2
- Poly1
- Poly2
20 Part PART PRIORITY
- Normal
- High
21 Part MOTION SEQ
- Off
- Smooth
- Trigger Hold
22 Part TRG. PAD VELOCITY
- Off/On
23 Part SCALE MODE
- Off/On
24 Step STEP EDIT
1 STEP NUMBER
- Step: 1:01–4:16
2 NOTE
- C1–G09
3 GATE TIME
- 0–96
- Tie
4 VELOCITY
- 0–127
25 Part Util PART UTILITY
1 COPY PART
2 COPY PART SOUND
292 Electronic Music Machines

3 CLEAR SEQUENCE
4 CLEAR MOTION
26 SAMPLE EDIT
1 SELECT SAMPLE
2 RENAME
3 START POINT
4 END POINT
5 LOOP START POINT
6 SAMPLE TUNE
- −63 to 63
7 TIME SLICE
8 CLEAR SLICE
9 PLAY LEVEL
- Normal
- +12dB
27 Global GLOBAL PARAMETER
1 TRIGGER MODE
- Normal
- Seq 1st
- Seq Play
2 VELOCITY CURVE
- Heavy
- Normal
- Light
- Const 96
3 CLOCK MODE
- Internal
- Auto
- External USB
- External MIDI
- External Sync
4 GLOBAL MIDI CH.
- 01–16
5 MIDI RECEIVE FILTER
- Off
- Short
- Short + Program
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 293

6 MIDI SEND FILTER

- Off
- Short
- Short + Program
7 SYNC POLARITY
- Hi
- Lo
8 SYNC UNIT
- 1 Step
- 2 Steps
9 METRONOME
- Off
- Rec 0
- Rec 1
- Rec 2
- On
10 TEMPO LOCK
- Off / On
11 KNOB MODE
- Jump
- Catch
- Value Scale
12 TOUCH SLAVE RANGE
- 1 Oct
- 2 Oct
- 3 Oct
- 4 Oct
13 LCD CONTRAST
- 1–25
14 AUDIO IN THRU
- Off/On
15 BATTERY TYPE
- Ni-Mh
- Alkali
16 AUTO POWER OFF
- Disable/4 hours
17 POWER SAVE MODE
- Disable
- Auto
- Enable
294 Electronic Music Machines

18 PTN. CHANGE LOCK

- Off/On
19 CHAIN MODE
- Off/On
20 XY CALIBRATION
3. Touch Bottom Left
4. Touch Upper Right
28 Data DATA UTILITY
Util
1 EXPORT PATTERN
2 EXPORT ALL PATTERN
3 IMPORT PATTERN
4 IMPORT ALL PATTERN
5 INITIALIZE PATTERN
6 EXPORT AUDIO
- Ableton Live Set
- Wav File Only
7 EXPORT P.SET AUDIO
- Select Start: 1–64
- Select End: 1–64
- Select Type: Ableton Live Set/Wav
File Only
8 EXPORT CHAIN AUDIO
- Select Type: Ableton Live Set/Wav
File Only
9 IMPORT SAMPLE
10 EXPORT SAMPLE
11 EXPORT ALL SAMPLE
12 CARD FORMAT
13 FACTORY RESET
14 SOFTWARE UPDATE
- Now Version
- Next Version
29 Event EVENT REC/PLAY
- No Card
1 EVENT RECORDER
2 EVENT PLAYER

Table 12.2. Menu tree of the Electribe Sampler – OS version 2.02

 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 295

12.2. Shortcuts

The Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler both have shortcuts that can be
accessed by pressing the SHIFT button to activate certain features more quickly.

Figure 12.1 lists these shortcuts for both devices. Text descriptions can be found
in the settings guide of both machines.

Figure 12.1. The shortcuts (in bold) of the Electribe 2 and the Electribe Sampler

12.3. Using the audio input

The operations described in this section enable you to apply the filters and
effects of the Electribe to the audio input signal. For example, we shall consider a
296 Electronic Music Machines

signal sent from a synthesizer, but we could also use any other instrument (e.g. a
drum machine).

Figure 12.2 shows the hardware setup for this example.

Figure 12.2. Hardware setup of the Electribe

When an external device is connected to Electribe’s audio input, its filters,

effects, modulation, envelope, sound management features, and amplification can be
applied to this input.

To do this, follow the simple procedures described below.

12.3.1. Through the Electribe

This first procedure configures the audio signal sent by the synthesizer to pass
through the Electribe:
– Select an unused pattern (e.g. pattern 210).
– To tell the Electribe to accept a signal from the external source plugged into its
input (AUDIO IN), go to the GLOBAL PARAMETER menu, navigate to the
AUDIO IN THRU submenu, and select ON (Figure 12.3).

Figure 12.3. The AUDIO IN THRU submenu after selecting the option ON
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 297

– You should now hear an audio signal if you play a few notes on the
synthesizer. Check that the volume level of the synth output and the INPUT LEVEL
of the Electribe are configured correctly. An indicator at the top right of the display
shows the level being received by the Electribe in real time (Figure 12.4).

NOTE.– If a pattern is also being played by the Electribe, the incoming signal is
mixed with the internal audio produced by the device.

Figure 12.4. The level indicator (top, to the right of the tempo, 120)
on the display of the Electribe

– If the audio signal saturates, the word CLIP is displayed (Figure 12.5).

Figure 12.5. The clipping indicator (CLIP) on the display of the Electribe

12.3.2. Saving a carrier pattern

NOTE.– To provide a baseline, the operations presented below were performed

immediately after conducting a FACTORY RESET (DATA UTILITY menu).
– Check that the AUDIO IN THRU parameter is set to OFF (GLOBAL
PARAMETER menu).
298 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 12.6. GLOBAL PARAMETER, AUDIO IN THRU set to OFF

– Check that you are still on pattern 210.

– Press TRIGGER.
– Press Pad 1; “Part 01” should be displayed in the bottom left of the screen.
– The currently selected oscillator (OSC) is displayed at the bottom of the
screen; its value should be SAW (326).

Figure 12.7. Pattern 210, SAW oscillator

– Press the PART MUTE button and select Pad 1 (purple).

Figure 12.8. Pad 1 is selected (purple)

 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 299

– Press the TRIGGER button.

– Press RECORD () and record 16 steps while holding pad 1 pressed down.

Figure 12.9. TRIGGER + recording

– Press STOP () to stop the recording.

– Press the SEQUENCER button. All 16 pads should light up.

Figure 12.10. All 16 pads are active

– Press the SHIFT button and scroll to the AUDIO IN oscillator (409) using the
OSCILLATOR button.
300 Electronic Music Machines

Figure 12.11. AUDIO IN oscillator (409) selected with the current pattern (210)

– Press the PART MUTE button.

– Press the PLAY button (/⏐⏐). If you play a few notes on the synthesizer, you
should now be able to hear them.
– Check and adjust the volume by pressing the EDIT button of the
OSCILLATOR to manage the level of the input signal.

Figure 12.12. Volume of the input signal (here, 77) selected with the EDIT button

12.3.3. Filtering and applying effects

This procedure allows you to apply filters and effects to the signal supplied by
the synthesizer.
– Press the IFX ON button.
– Set the FILTER dial to 127 to define the CUTOFF value (you can change this
value later to reduce the effect on the processed signal).

Figure 12.13. FILTER: CUTOFF set to 127

 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 301

– Check that the MODULATION button is set to MOD. TYPE 01 EG+ FILTER.

Figure 12.14. MODULATION: MOD. TYPE 01 EG+ FILTER

– Set the LEVEL dial of AMP/EG to a moderate value, e.g. 64 (you can change
this value later to adjust the level of the processed signal).

Figure 12.15. AMP/EG: LEVEL 64

– Check that the AMP/EG PAN button is in the CENTER position.

– Select an effect using INSERT FX (e.g. IFX TYPE – 30 FLANGER).
– If you play a few notes on the synthesizer or use the synthesizer as a sequencer,
this effect will now be applied to the transmitted signal. You can play around with
the effect using the EDIT buttons of the filter under INSERT FX and
RESONANCE.

By experimenting with the effects (INSERT FX), effect levels (EDIT under
INSERT FX), and filter settings (FILTER, RESONANCE, EG INT), you can access
a vast range of different sounds, which will now be directly applied to the signal sent
by the synthesizer via the audio input (AUDIO IN) of the Electribe.

There are far too many possibilities to list here, so feel free to explore.

We can also use the touchpad to apply MFX effects.

302 Electronic Music Machines

– Press the MASTER FX button.

– Press the MFX Hold button.
– Press MENU/ENTER, scroll to the menu MFX TYPE (6), and select an effect,
e.g. 08 PITCH LOOPER, using the shared dial (above the < and > buttons);
– Play a few notes on the synthesizer and finetune the effect using the touchpad.

Like the internal effects (IFX), there are far too many MFX effects to list
exhaustively here. You can explore some of the possibilities by experimenting with
the touchpad.

12.3.4. Sending commands to the synthesizer using triggers

This procedure allows you to configure your Electribe as a control keyboard for
the synthesizer in order to apply filters and effects to the input signal.

Figure 12.16 shows the hardware setup of this section.

Figure 12.16. Hardware setup of the Electribe

Proceed as follows:
– Select an unused pattern, e.g. pattern 211.
– To tell the Electribe to accept a signal from the external source plugged into its
input (AUDIO IN), go to the GLOBAL PARAMETER menu, navigate to the
AUDIO IN THRU submenu, and select ON (Figure 12.17).
 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 303

Figure 12.17. The AUDIO IN THRU submenu. This parameter is currently set to ON

– You should now hear an audio signal if you play a few notes on the
synthesizer. Check that the volume level of the synth output and the INPUT LEVEL
of the Electribe are configured correctly.
– Press the SHIFT button and scroll to the AUDIO IN oscillator (409) using the
OSCILLATOR button.

Figure 12.18. AUDIO IN oscillator (409)

– Press the KEYBOARD button. If you press one of the triggers, you should
hear sound from the synthesizer. If not, check the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface) configuration of both the synthesizer and the Electribe. They both need to
be set to the same channel. On the Electribe, the MIDI channel is configured in the
GLOBAL PARAMETER menu, under GLOBAL MIDI CH.
– Select a low-pass filter, e.g. MG LPF, by pressing the LPF button until the
correct option is shown.

Figure 12.19. Selecting the MG LPF filter

304 Electronic Music Machines

– Press one of the triggers and adjust the filter cutoff frequency and resonance
using the FILTER and RESONANCE dials. You should be able to hear any changes
in the audio signal passing through the Electribe from the synthesizer.

As always, feel free to experiment with the various filters and settings. In this
case, a little extra caution is a good idea because some actions can modify the
configuration of the synthesizer over the MIDI connection.

12.3.5. Sequencer, synthesizer, filters, and effects

The next example shows how to use the sequencer feature of the Electribe to
send commands to the synthesizer while simultaneously applying filters and effects
to the audio signal generated by the latter.

The hardware setup is the same as in the previous section, see Figure 12.6.
– Select an unused pattern, e.g. pattern 212.
– Check that the AUDIO IN THRU parameter is set to OFF (GLOBAL
PARAMETER menu).
– Select the AUDIO IN oscillator (409) using the OSCILLATOR button of
PART: 01.
– Press the TRIGGER button. If you press trigger 1, you should now be able to
hear sound from the synthesizer. If not, check that the Electribe and the synthesizer
are set to the same MIDI channel.
– Press the SEQUENCER button and enter a trigger sequence, e.g. 1-2-4-6-7-11-
13-15 (Figure 12.20).

Figure 12.20. The trigger sequence 1-2-4-6-7-11-13-15 in SEQUENCER mode

 Korg Electribe: Software Tips 305

– Press PLAY (/⏐⏐).

– By configuring IFX and MFX effects, varying the LPF, MPF, BPF filter types
and their FILTER, RESONANCE, or even AMP/EG settings, you can drastically
change how this sequence sounds. The touchpad is very effective for controlling the
master effects (MASTER FX – MFX HOLD).

12.4. Extra tips

This section presents a few unlisted features and shortcuts, tested with version
2.02 of the operating system.

Other versions may have other unlisted features.

12.4.1. Octave switching

You may have already noticed that pressing the buttons 1, 2, 3, and 4 in
KEYBOARD MODE allows you to switch octaves, but have you figured out that
you can access an even larger range?

By using the 1 and 4 buttons to move down and up one octave at a time, you can in
fact access a total of eight octaves (octaves 0–7). If you press 1 several times, you will
keep moving down octaves. Similarly, press 4 to keep moving up octaves. The buttons
2 and 3 will light up when you reach the mid-range octaves (octaves 3 and 4).

12.4.2. Viewing the current settings of a PART

There is an easy way to review the current settings of each part (PART).

Simply select the part (from 0 to 16) using the < PART and PART > buttons,
then scroll through the parameters and settings of this part using the < and > buttons.

NOTE.– This feature even works in playback mode (/⏐⏐).

12.4.3. Controlling two different synthesizers from the MIDI out

By connecting a stereo headphone splitter to the MIDI OUT of the Electribe, you
can control two different synthesizers at the same time.

NOTE.– Some splitters have even more outputs. I have not tried this out yet.
306 Electronic Music Machines

12.5. Final remarks

The objective of this chapter was to present some of the more obscure features of
the Electribe. There are many other creative ways to use this fabulous device, and
there is no shortage of tutorials and videos on the Internet. This is why the Electribe
is such an attractive, endearing, and infinitely open-ended groovebox – anyone who
spends some time playing with its features will fall in love with them, and perhaps
even discover new and unexpected ways to use them.
 Conclusion

Although this book is drawing to a close, there is much left that could still be
said. Many other ideas would have deserved their place within these pages, but my
knowledge is far from perfect. I can only write about the devices and effects with
which I am personally familiar – the ones that I have encountered and used myself
throughout my professional career.

Technology is progressing rapidly. Over the 9 months spent writing this book,
new instruments have seen the light and others have been put to rest. New releases,
updates, and patches are constantly being unveiled. There is no way around it; we
cannot always predict when new hardware or software will arrive on the market.

My hope is simply that this book will have introduced each reader to a few new
ideas. The goal was a journey into the world of electronic music and the instruments
and machines that have become my passion; the world that surrounds me every day
while working in my studio.

It brings me great pleasure to trade stories with sound designers, composers,

musicians, and anyone else who, like myself, is delightfully attracted to
experimenting with sounds and creating new ones.

In recent decades, analog technology and its digital successors have given us
increasingly powerful tools to invent new sounds and copy existing sounds with
unparalleled fidelity. The arrival of the Internet and the web 2.0 accelerated this
trend by promoting discussions and experience-sharing, facilitating the proliferation
of new musical styles, inspiring producers and distributors alike, and disseminating
new trends across all types of media via mass marketing.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
308 Electronic Music Machines

Today, there is software for almost everything. Even the oldest synthesizers,
drum machines, and vintage sequencers from the 1960s to the 1990s have been
republished in software form, and in some cases, even improved or reinvented.

This brings me to a firmly held belief of mine (perhaps mine alone). Digital and
software-based simulators, although undoubtedly practical, easy to use, economical
with space, and unrivaled in availability, are not always the final word in music.

Even if their size and interfaces sometimes make them seem prehistoric,
hardware-based equipment is an unrivaled source of intense pleasure, perhaps even
operating at an emotional and symbiotic level. The feeling of becoming one with an
instrument by physically operating its various controls has a concrete dimension that
brings a creative thrill to composers and musicians alike. The user must seize and
master the expressive potential buried within the electronics of the machine in the
same way that one would play a classical instrument.

On the other hand, physical hardware can be prohibitively expensive and

difficult to find, but perhaps this is just the price of excellence.

What does the future have in store?

There are obvious answers, like more powerful equipment and software, new
approaches to audio creation, new musical genres; there is no need for a crystal ball
to predict this much. But, as always, the details are more elusive. Nonetheless, a
slight vintage breeze seems to have started blowing throughout the musical universe,
gently nudging the machines of the past back into the spotlight. Is this just a passing
trend? Time will tell…
 Appendices

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Appendix 1

CV/Gate

A1.1. Introduction

CV/gate is an analog control mode used by synthesizers and some other devices,
such as sequencers and drum machines.

The pitch of the notes is encoded into a control voltage (CV). In parallel, a gate
control signal is used to activate or deactivate each note.

A1.2. History

CV/gate was introduced in 1977 and is occasionally still used today, despite the
introduction of the more accurate and versatile MIDI standard in 1983.

Many devices support CV/gate as well as MIDI in order to remain compatible

with both newer and older hardware.

The CV/gate protocol was especially convenient for the analog and monophonic
synthesizers of the 1970s and 1980s because these systems also used voltage-
controlled oscillators (VCOs) and voltage-control filters (VCFs).

A1.3. Theoretical principle

The control voltage defines the note being played – each voltage corresponds to
a different note. The information provided by this voltage can also be used to store
other parameter values such as time intervals.
312 Electronic Music Machines

The gate (also known as the trigger) activates the note. The gate can also be used
to trigger certain events associated with ADSR-type envelopes (Attack Decay
Sustain Release).

Unfortunately, not every manufacturer uses the same voltage partitioning scheme
in their instruments. As a result, there are multiple different types of CV/gate:
– for Moog, ARP, Roland, Oberheim, and Sequential Circuits, each octave spans
a range of 1 V. This “volts-per-octave” standard was defined by Robert Moog in the
1960s. The voltage ranges between a minimum of 0 V and maximum of +5 V;
– other manufacturers use different ranges for the control voltage, e.g. −5 to +5
V or 0 to +10 V;
– Korg and Yamaha use the concept of “Hertz per volt” instead. With this
approach, doubling the voltage increases the pitch by one octave.
A few other caveats need to be kept in mind:
– different manufacturers use different cables. For example, the positive voltage
can be assigned to either the tip or the ring of a 6.35 mm stereo jack, also known as
a TRS (Tip Ring Sleeve) connector;
– some manufacturers use a 6.35 mm mono jack or a TS (Tip Sleeve) connector;
– not every device by Korg and Yamaha uses the Hertz per volt approach;
– volts-per-octave curves with different slopes are sometimes used. For example,
some instruments have 1.2 V per octave, so that each semitone is equivalent to
0.1 V.

A1.4. Calculating the voltages and frequencies of notes

This section provides a few examples to illustrate how each of the two CV/gate
partitioning schemes, volts per octave and Hertz per volt, calculates the voltage of a
note.

A1.4.1. Volts per octave

Table A1.1 shows the partitioning table of a volts-per-octave scheme with a

slope of 1 V per octave and a voltage of 1 V at a frequency of 55 Hz.
 Appendix 1 313

Voltage (V) Semitone Note Octave Frequency (Hz)

0.250 1 C 0 32.703
0.333 2 C# 0 34.648
0.417 3 D 0 36.708
0.500 4 D# 0 38.891
0.583 5 E 0 41.203
0.667 6 F 0 43.654
0.750 7 F# 0 46.249
0.833 8 G 0 48.999
0.917 9 G# 0 51.913
1.000 10 A 0 55.000
1.083 11 A# 0 58.270
1.167 12 B 0 61.735
1.250 1 C 1 65.406
1.333 2 C# 1 69.296
1.417 3 D 1 73.416
1.500 4 D# 1 77.782
1.583 5 E 1 82.407
1.667 6 F 1 87.307
1.750 7 F# 1 92.499
1.833 8 G 1 97.999
1.917 9 G# 1 103.826
2.000 10 A 1 110.000
2.083 11 A# 1 116.541
2.167 12 B 1 123.471
2.250 1 C 2 130.813
2.333 2 C# 2 138.591
2.417 3 D 2 146.832
2.500 4 D# 2 155.563
2.583 5 E 2 164.814
2.667 6 F 2 174.614
2.750 7 F# 2 184.997
2.833 8 G 2 195.998
2.917 9 G# 2 207.652
3.000 10 A 2 220.000
3.083 11 A# 2 233.082
3.167 12 B 2 246.942
3.250 1 C 3 261.626
3.333 2 C# 3 277.183
3.417 3 D 3 293.665
314 Electronic Music Machines

3.500 4 D# 3 311.127
3.583 5 E 3 329.628
3.667 6 F 3 349.228
3.750 7 F# 3 369.994
3.833 8 G 3 391.995
3.917 9 G# 3 415.305
4.000 10 A 3 440.000
4.083 11 A# 3 466.164
4.167 12 B 3 493.883

Table A1.1. Definition of each note in octaves 0 to 3 according to a

volts-per-octave partitioning scheme

NOTE.– The frequency of a note may be calculated from the following formula:

semitone −10
( octave −3) + .
f note = f ref × 2 12

where

– fref is the reference frequency of 440 Hz, which corresponds to either A3 or

A4 depending on the convention being used (see below);
– octave is the octave of the note, which is an integer between 1 and 9. The
note with a frequency of 440 Hz is assigned to either the third octave (A3) or the
fourth octave (A4). For conventions that assign this frequency to the fourth
octave (A4), the formula needs to be adjusted slightly by replacing the term
(octave – 3) with the term (octave – 4);
– semitone is the semitone of the note in its octave, which is an integer
between 1 and 12. The note at 440 Hz (A3 or A4) is the tenth semitone in its
octave.

Example:

Suppose that the reference frequency of 440 Hz is assigned to A3 (octave 3).

Then the note D#1 has frequency:

4 −10
(1−3) +
440 × 2 12 = 77.782 Hz calculating the voltage:

One octave is equal to 12 semitones and 1 V, so 1/12 V is one semitone. To

deduce the voltage of a target note from a reference note, we can therefore simply
 Appendix 1 315

multiply 1/12 V (which is around 0.0833 V) by the number of semitones from a

reference note, then add or subtract the voltage of this reference note.

Example:

If A1 = 2 V, what is the voltage of E2?

The distance from A1 to E2 is 7 semitones, so the voltage of E2 is

1
7 × + 2 = 2.583 .
12

A1.4.2. Hertz per volt

Table A1.2 shows the partitioning table of a Hertz per volt scheme with a slope
of 55 Hz/V and a frequency of 55 Hz at a control voltage of 1 V.

Voltage (V) Semitone Note Octave Frequency (Hz)

0.595 1 C 0 32.703
0.630 2 C# 0 34.648
0.667 3 D 0 36.708
0.707 4 D# 0 38.891
0.749 5 E 0 41.203
0.794 6 F 0 43.654
0.841 7 F# 0 46.249
0.891 8 G 0 48.999
0.944 9 G# 0 51.913
1.000 10 A 0 55.000
1.059 11 A# 0 58.270
1.122 12 B 0 61.735
1.189 1 C 1 65.406
1.260 2 C# 1 69.296
1.335 3 D 1 73.416
1.414 4 D# 1 77.782
1.498 5 E 1 82.407
1.587 6 F 1 87.307
1.682 7 F# 1 92.499
1.782 8 G 1 97.999
1.888 9 G# 1 103.826
2.000 10 A 1 110.000
2.119 11 A# 1 116.541
316 Electronic Music Machines

2.245 12 B 1 123.471
2.378 1 C 2 130.813
2.520 2 C# 2 138.591
2.670 3 D 2 146.832
2.828 4 D# 2 155.563
2.997 5 E 2 164.814
3.175 6 F 2 174.614
3.364 7 F# 2 184.997
3.564 8 G 2 195.998
3.775 9 G# 2 207.652
4.000 10 A 2 220.000
4.238 11 A# 2 233.082
4.490 12 B 2 246.942
4.757 1 C 3 261.626
5.040 2 C# 3 277.183
5.339 3 D 3 293.665
5.657 4 D# 3 311.127
5.993 5 E 3 329.628
6.350 6 F 3 349.228
6.727 7 F# 3 369.994
7.127 8 G 3 391.995
7.551 9 G# 3 415.305
8.000 10 A 3 440.000
8.476 11 A# 3 466.164
8.980 12 B 3 493.883

Table A1.2. Definition of each note in octaves 0 to 3 according to a

Hertz per volt partitioning scheme

Calculating the voltage:

To calculate the voltage from the frequency, simply divide the latter by 55.

For example:

The note D2# has a frequency of 155.563 Hz. Therefore, the voltage of this note
is simply 155.563 / 55 = 2.828.
 Appendix 1 317

A.1.5. Theoretical principle of the gate (or trigger)

The gate sends an all-or-nothing logical signal. The active values can differ:
– S-Trigger (Short-circuit Trigger): the command is transmitted by closing a
contact. At rest, the control input has a positive voltage. This voltage becomes zero
when the gate is activated.
– V-Trigger (Voltage Trigger): the command is transmitted by applying a
positive voltage, which may be between +2 V and +15 V (very often +5 V) relative
to the ground. At rest, the voltage on the input is almost zero. When the gate is
activated, the voltage becomes positive.
 Appendix 2

Digital Inputs/Outputs

A2.1. Introduction

As technology improved, digital input/output ports were added to more recent

generations of musical devices. Analog signals have not completely disappeared –
but now they have competition.

S/PDIF, AES/EBU, MADI, ADAT, TDIF, SMPTE, SCSI, IDE, and USB are
some of the terms that you might encounter in the technical specifications of popular
samplers. This appendix presents and explains this terminology to serve as a
rudimentary guide.

A2.2. S/PDIF

S/PDIF stands for Sony/Philips Digital Interface. It was created in 1989 and is
also known as IEC 958. S/PDIF is a specialized standard for digital audio data
transfer.

There is a range of different S/PDIF cables:

– RCA (copper coaxial cable with an impedance of 75 ohms);
– TOSLINK (optical fiber cable);
– Mini-Toslink (optical fiber cable).

S/PDIF carries 24-bit data at one of three sampling frequencies: 96 kHz

(samplers, synthesizers, etc.), 48 kHz (DAT – Digital Audio Tape), and 44.1 kHz
(CD – Compact Disc).

The S/PDIF interface is stereo or multichannel.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
320 Electronic Music Machines

Figure A2.1. S/PDIF connectors, from left to right: RCA, Toslink, and Mini-Toslink

A2.3. AES/EBU

Also known as AES3, AES/EBU (Audio Engineering Society/European

Broadcasting Union) is a professional digital audio interface defined and published
by the AES in 1985 and adopted by the EBU with a few minor modifications. It was
improved and revised in 1992, 2003, and 2009.

AES/EBU and S/PDIF are mutually compatible, but S/PDIF is designed for a
more mainstream audience.

The connectors are either a 3-pin XLR (IEC 60268-12) with a three-conductor
balanced 110-ohm twisted pair cable or an unbalanced 75-ohm BNC.

The data are processed at a resolution of 24 bits.

The AES/EBU standard transmits data as a sequence of audio blocks. Each block
contains 192 frames with two 32-bit words. Each pair of words holds information
for two separate channels, A and B, which can, for example, be used to encode a
stereo signal (channel A on the left and channel B on the right).

Figure A2.2. Different types of AES/PDIF connectors,

3-pin XLR (left) and BNC (right)
 Appendix 2 321

Note that a 56-channel version of the AES/EBU standard also exists, known as
MADI (Multichannel Audio Digital Interface). MADI uses either BNC connectors
or an optical link.

A2.4. ADAT

ADAT stands for Alesis DAT; its digital audio transfer interface is more
specifically known as ADAT Lightpipe. This interface was developed by Alesis in
the early 1990s.

ADAT connectors are similar to the Toslink optical fiber connectors used by
S/PDIF. However, S/PDIF and ADAT data are not compatible.

ADAT supports eight channels at 48 kHz with a resolution of 24 bits or four

channels at 96 kHz.

ADAT Lightpipe devices are often connected via Firewire (IEEE 1394; Firewire
is a real-time isochronous serial bus interface developed by Apple in the late 1980s,
also called i.Link by Sony and Lynx by Texas Instruments).

Figure A2.3. An example of an ADAT interface board made by Yamaha.

The two visible IN and OUT ports are TosLink connectors.

A2.5. TDIF

TDIF (TASCAM Digital Interface) is an unbalanced proprietary interface

developed by TASCAM that uses a 25-pin D-sub cable. This is a bidirectional
connection, unlike ADAT Lightpipe or S/PDIF, so only one single cable is needed
to connect eight inputs and outputs together.
322 Electronic Music Machines

TDIF supports eight digital audio channels between compatible devices.

Version 2.0 supports 96 kHz at a resolution of 24 bits. Alternatively, it can carry

a 192-kHz signal by reducing the number of channels.

Figure A2.4. A 16-channel TDIF board made by Yamaha. The two 25-pin connectors
(channels 1–8 and 9–16) can be seen in the center.

A2.6. SMPTE

SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) combines several

other standards for managing video (or music) with timecodes.

This makes it possible to edit, synchronize, and identify elements against a

reference time axis. SMPTE was standardized in 1969 and extended in 1972. A
more recent version was released in 2009.

Figure A2.5. The two SMPTE connectors on the rear panel

of the MPC 2000XL by AKAI
 Appendix 2 323

There are five types of SMPTE timecode:

– Audio: LTC (Longitudinal Timecode). This form of timecode works at both
normal and accelerated playback speeds.
– Video: VITC (Vertical Interval Timecode). This is an improved version of
LTC with better support for slowed down or paused playback.
– MIDI: MIDI Time Code. A simplified timecode introduced for musical
applications in 1987 in order to synchronize devices, such as sequencers, serving as
a bridge between timecodes and the MIDI format;
– Optical: optical timecode track for a movie film (DTS system for
synchronizing audio CD players).
– Barcode: Keykode, a visual inscription system that overlays time markers onto
a magnetic tape or a 35-mm film.

A2.7. SCSI

This standard defines a digital bus for connecting devices to a computer (or
sampler).

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is based on the X3.131 standard, which
was published in 1986.

In 1994, a new and improved version was released: SCSI-2. The third
generation, SCSI-3, soon followed in 1996.

Figure A2.6. The two 50-pin SCSI ports on the rear panel of
the S6000 sampler by AKAI
324 Electronic Music Machines

The specifications of versions 1–3 of this standard are as follows:

– SCSI 1:

- 8 bits, optional parity bit, 1.5 Mb/s in asynchronous mode and 5 Mb/s in
synchronous mode;

– SCSI 2:

- NARROW: 8 bits + parity bit, 3 Mb/s in asynchronous mode and 5 Mb/s in

synchronous mode;
- FAST SCSI: 8 bits + parity bit, 5 Mb/s in asynchronous mode and 10 Mb/s in
synchronous mode;
- WIDE: 16 bits + parity bit, 10 Mb/s in asynchronous mode and 20 Mb/s or
40 Mb/s in synchronous mode;
- EXTRA-WIDE: 32 bits + parity bit, 10 Mb/s in asynchronous mode and
40 Mb/s in synchronous mode. Requires two 68-pin cables.

– SCSI 3:

- ULTRA SCSI or FAST 20: 8 bits + parity bit, 20 Mb/s in synchronous mode.
Unbalanced bus;
- ULTRA WIDE: 16 bits + parity bit, bitrate of 40 Mb/s in synchronous mode.
Unbalanced or HVD differential bus;
- ULTRA 2 or FAST 40: 16 bits compatible with 8 bits + parity bit, 20 Mb/s in
synchronous mode at 8 bits and 10 Mb/s at 16 bits. LVD differential bus;
- ULTRA 2 WIDE: 16 bits + parity bit, 80 Mb/s in synchronous mode. LVD
differential bus;
- ULTRA160 or ULTRA 3 (SPI-3): 16 bits + parity bit, 160 Mb/s. LVD
differential bus. FAST 80 protocol;
- ULTRA320 (SPI-4): 16 bits + parity bit, 320 Mb/s. LVD differential bus.
FAST 160 protocol;
- ULTRA640 (SPI-5): 16 bits + parity bit, 640 Mb/s.

SCSI chains end with an active or passive terminating resistor or plug.

 Appendix 2 325

Figure A2.7. Examples of SCSI terminator plugs

There are various different types of SCSI connectors. The type needed for a
given application depends on the standard and the type of peripheral being used.

Figure A2.8. A few examples of SCSI connectors

A2.8. IDE

Integrated Drive Electronics or Enhanced IDE (EIDE or E-IDE) is an interface

created by Western Digital in 1994. IDE is the commercial name of the standard. On
a technical level, IDE is based on the ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment)
standard, which was published by ANSI in the document X3.221-1994.

IDE is designed as a connection between a storage medium and a computer.

Floppy drives and hard drives follow the ATA protocol, whereas CD-ROMs,
DVD-ROMs, and ZIP drives follow the ATAPI protocol (ATA Packet Interface).

In 2003, ATA was replaced by SATA (Serial ATA) to support higher bitrates.
326 Electronic Music Machines

Bitrates have improved over time, from 16 Mb/s in early systems to 33, 66, 100,
133, 150, 300, and even 600 Mb/s.

Figure A2.9. IDE/ATA cables and connectors (left to right: hard drive,
floppy disk, SATA hard drive)

A2.9. USB

USB is a port designed for computer peripherals. Version 1.0 was released
in 1996.

USB has gone through several iterations: 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, and 3.1. The primary
improvement offered by each new generation is the bitrate.
– USB 1.0: theoretical version that defined the specifications;
– USB 1.1 (1998): 1.5 Mbit/s or 12 Mbit/s;
– USB 2.0 (2000): 480 Mbit/s;
– USB 3.0 (2008): 5 Gbit/s;
– USB 3.1 (2013): 10 Gbit/s.

USB ports and connectors have also evolved over time: type A, type B, mini A,
mini B, mini AB, micro A, micro B, micro AB, type C.

Figure A2.10. Different types of USB connectors

 Appendix 2 327

A2.10. Conclusion

This appendix deliberately says as little as possible about these interfaces; we

would need hundreds of pages to describe each of them in full detail. For more
information, see the bibliography at the end of this book.
 Appendix 3

The General MIDI (GM) Standard

A3.1. Introduction

The General MIDI (GM) standard introduces compatibility rules for some of the
most important features of MIDI, making it easier for users to control their devices.
This standard defines 128 default sounds, divided into 16 families or groups. Each
sound is assigned to a certain MIDI control change number.

To be compatible with the GM standard, a musical device or instrument must

meet the following conditions:
– The device must support 16 MIDI channels, with percussion sounds assigned
to channel 10. Each channel must support multiple voices.
– The device must support at least 24 voices being played simultaneously (16
standard instruments and 8 percussion sounds).
– The velocity parameter must be implemented for each voice.
– Certain MIDI controls and messages must be supported, including volume,
pitch-bending, panning, and so on (see the bibliography for more details).

There are also two other variants or extensions of the GM standard: GS by

Roland and XG by Yamaha.

A3.2. Instrument groups

Table A3.1 lists the instrument groups defined by the GM standard.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
330 Electronic Music Machines

Assignment Assignment
Group Group
number number
1–8 Piano 65–72 Reed
9–16 Chromatic 73–80 Pipe
Percussion
17–24 Organ 81–88 Synth Lead
25–32 Guitar 89–96 Synth Pad
33–40 Bass 97–104 Synth Effects
41–48 Strings 105–112 Ethnic
49–56 Ensemble 113–120 Percussive
57–64 Brass 121–128 Sound effects

Table A3.1. Assignment numbers of the instrument groups of the GM standard

A3.3. Instruments

Table A3.2 presents the 128 instruments of the GM standard.

No. Instrument No. Instrument No. Instrument No. Instrument

1 Ac Gd Piano 33 Ac Bass 65 Soprano Sax 97 FX 1 (rain)
2 Bght Ac Piano 34 El Bass (finger) 66 Alto Sax 98 FX 2
(soundtrack)
3 El Gd Piano 35 El Bass (pick) 67 Tenor Sax 99 FX 3
(crystal)
4 Honky-tonk 36 Fretless Bass 68 Baritone Sax 100 FX 4
Piano (atmosphere)
5 Electric Piano 1 37 Slap Bass 1 69 Oboe 101 FX 5
(brightness)
6 Electric Piano 2 38 Slap Bass 2 70 English Horn 102 FX 6
(goblins)
7 Harpsichord 39 Synth Bass 1 71 Bassoon 103 FX 7 (echo)
8 Clavi 40 Synth Bass 2 72 Clarinet 104 FX 8 (sci-fi)
9 Celesta 41 Violin 73 Piccolo 105 Sitar
10 Glockenspiel 42 Viola 74 Flute 106 Banjo
11 Music Box 43 Cello 75 Recorder 107 Shamisen
12 Vibraphone 44 Contrabass 76 Pan Flute 108 Koto
 Appendix 3 331

13 Marimba 45 Tremolo Strings 77 Blown Bottle 109 Kalimba

14 Xylophone 46 Pizzicato Strings 78 Shakuhachi 110 Bag pipe
15 Tubular Bells 47 Orchestral Harp 79 Whistle 111 Fiddle
16 Dulcimer 48 Timpani 80 Ocarina 112 Shanai
17 Drawbar Organ 49 String Ensemble 1 81 Lead 1 113 Tinkle Bell
(square)
18 Percussive 50 String Ensemble 2 82 Lead 2 114 Agogo
Organ (sawtooth)
19 Rock Organ 51 SynthStrings 1 83 Lead 3 115 Steel Drums
(calliope)
20 Church Organ 52 SynthStrings 2 84 Lead 4 (chiff) 116 Woodblock
21 Reed Organ 53 Choir Aahs 85 Lead 5 117 Taiko Drum
22 Accordion 54 Voice Oohs 86 Lead 6 118 Melodic Tom
(voice)
23 Harmonica 55 Synth Voice 87 Lead 7 119 Synth Drum
(fifths)
24 Tango 56 Orchestra Hit 88 Lead 8 (bass 120 Reverse
Accordion + lead) Cymbal
25 Ac Guitar 57 Trumpet 89 Pad 1 (new 121 Guitar Fret
(nylon) age) Noise
26 Ac Guitar (steel) 58 Trombone 90 Pad 2 (warm) 122 Breath Noise
27 El Guitar (jazz) 59 Tuba 91 Pad 3 123 Seashore
(polysynth)
28 El Guitar (clean) 60 Muted Trumpet 92 Pad 4 (choir) 124 Bird Tweet
29 El Guitar 61 French Horn 93 Pad 5 125 Telephone
(muted) (bowed) Ring
30 Overdrive 62 Brass Section 94 Pad 6 126 Helicopter
Guitar (metallic)
31 Distortion 63 SynthBrass 1 95 Pad 7 (halo) 127 Applause
Guitar
32 Guitar Harmonic 64 SynthBrass 2 96 Pad 8 (sweep) 128 Gunshot

Table A3.2. The 128 instruments defined by the GM standard

332 Electronic Music Machines

A3.4. Percussion sounds

The GM standard assigns percussion sounds to notes 35 to 81 of the keyboard

(B0 to A4). This “drum kit” is assigned to channel 10.

Table A3.3 lists the 35 percussion sounds defined by GM and their note
assignments.

Note Key number Instrument Note Key number Instrument

B0 35 Ac Bass Drum B2 59 Ride Cymbal 2
C1 36 Bass Drum 1 C3 60 Hi Bongo
C#1 37 Rim Shot C#3 61 Low Bongo
D1 38 Acoustic Snare D3 62 Mute Hi Conga
D#1 39 Hand Clap D#3 63 Open Hi Conga
E1 40 Electric Snare E3 64 Low Conga
F1 41 Low Floor Tom F3 65 High Timbale
F#1 42 Closed Hi-Hat F#3 66 Low Timbale
G1 43 High Floor Tom G3 67 High Agogo
G#1 44 Pedal Hi-Hat G#3 68 Low Agogo
A1 45 Low Tom A3 69 Cabasa
A#1 46 Open Hi-Hat A#3 70 Maracas
B1 47 Low-Mid Tom B3 71 Short Whistle
C2 48 Hi-Mid Tom C4 72 Long Whistle
C#2 49 Crash Cymbal 1 C#4 73 Short Guiro
D2 50 High Tom D4 74 Long Guiro
D#2 51 Ride Cymbal 1 D#4 75 Claves
E2 42 Chinese Cymbal E4 76 Hi Wood Block
F2 53 Ride Bell F4 77 Low Wood Block
F#2 54 Tambourine F#4 78 Mute Cuica
G2 55 Splash Cymbal G4 79 Open Cuica
G#2 56 Cowbell G#4 80 Mute Triangle
A2 57 Crash Cymbal 2 A4 81 Open Triangle
A#2 58 Vibraslap

Table A3.3. The percussion sounds of the GM “drum kit”

 Appendix 4

Plugins

A4.1. Software plugins

Plugins are software components that can be loaded into a DAW (Digital Audio
Workstation), such as Avid Pro Tools, Magix Samplitude X Pro, Cakewalk Sonar,
Presonus Studio One, Apple Logic Pro, and Ableton Live, among others, or can be
loaded into an audio processing suite, for example Adobe Audition, Magix Sound
Forge, Steinberg Wavelab, and Audacity. This list is far from exhaustive.

The file extension of a plugin is determined by the operating system and the
software environment for which it is designed.

Table A4.1 lists the characteristics and file extensions of a selection of example
plugins. The file extension can be used to identify the type of plugin.

File extension Publisher Software–hardware compatibility

VST Steinberg DAW – Audio Processing Software –
(Virtual Studio Technology) 1996 PC/Mac
VST2 Steinberg DAW – Audio Processing Software –
Improved version of VST – PC/Mac
VST3 Steinberg DAW – Audio Processing Software –
Improved version of VST2 – PC/Mac
AU Apple DAW – Audio Processing Software –
(AudioUnits) Mac – OSX and MacOS
AAX Avid Pro Tools 64 bits – PC/Mac
(Avid Audio eXtension)

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
334 Electronic Music Machines

MAS MOTU Digital Performer – Mac

[Mark of the Unicorn
(MOTU) Audio System]
AS Digidesign Pro Tools – PC/Mac
(Audiosuite)
EASI Apple Logic Audio – Mac
(Enhanced Audio Streaming
Interface)
RTAS Digidesign Pro Tools 10 minimum – PC/Mac
(Real-Time Audio Suite)
TDM Digidesign HD Core or HD Accel Digidesign
(Time Division Multiplexing) boards – PC/Mac
DX Microsoft PC
(Direct X)

Table A4.1. The characteristics of certain plugins according to their file extension

Some plugins have multiple versions for compatibility with different software or
hardware environments.
 Appendix 5

Control and MIDI Dump Software

A5.1. Introduction

What could be more frustrating than a MIDI connection that does not work, a
note that fails to arrive at its destination, an unsuccessful MIDI dump, and a
command that does not execute properly?

Sometimes, we need to know what is really happening, analyze the data directly
to understand or anticipate problems, download the current configuration to record,
dissect, perhaps modify it – and much more.

This appendix provides a brief introduction to a few simple software applications

that might help you out in a tricky situation. These programs provide a way to
thoroughly analyze the flow of MIDI data passing through a connection.

NOTE.– The software download links stated below may have changed or expired.
You can use a search engine to find alternative links if one of them no longer
works.

A5.2. Software for Mac OS

This section presents two MIDI monitoring software programs and one exclusive
message management program for Mac OS.

A.5.2.1. MIDI Loupe

This program is free and can be downloaded from the AppStore.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
336 Electronic Music Machines

It monitors MIDI messages from one or multiple devices. Each MIDI source is
color-coded to allow the messages to be interpreted more easily. A recording feature
allows the messages to be saved to a MIDI log for future reference and analysis.

The data can be configured to display as either decimal or hexadecimal values.

Figure A5.1. The main screen of MIDI Loupe

A.5.2.2. MIDI Monitor

This software is free (BSD license). You can download it from:

http://www.snoize.com/MIDIMonitor/

MIDI Monitor displays any incoming or outgoing MIDI data. It also has data
filtering functions and can be set to listen on all channels or only a certain channel.

The recording function allows you to save MIDI data to file for future analysis.

The data can be configured to display as either decimal or hexadecimal values

(preferences).
 Appendix 5 337

Figure A5.2. The main screen of the MIDI Monitor

A.5.2.3. SysEx Librarian

This software is free (BSD license). You can download it from:

http://www.snoize.com/SysExLibrarian/

SysEx Librarian allows you to save and download SysEx files for MIDI devices.

Figure A5.3. The main screen of SysEx Librarian

338 Electronic Music Machines

A5.3. Software for Microsoft Windows

This section presents two MIDI control and monitoring programs for Microsoft
Windows.

A5.3.1. MIDI OX

MIDI OX is a free, versatile tool for diagnosing issues relating to MIDI data and
system exclusive calls. It has a range of features, including:
– filtering and displaying incoming and outgoing MIDI data flow;
– generating MIDI data from the computer keyboard or built-in application
control panel;
– recording MIDI data flow for future reference;
– scripting language to program custom features;
– MIDI routing.

Download link: http://www.midiox.com/

Figure A5.4. MIDI-OX with several windows open

 Appendix 5 339

A5.3.2. MIDI Monitor

MIDI Monitor is a free application. You can download it from:

http://obds.free.fr/midimon/

It monitors MIDI data in real time in any of the following formats: binary,
hexadecimal, decimal, and explicit. The MIDI Monitor can be used to download the
SysEx files from MIDI devices. It also has a MIDI thru feature for routing data from
a MIDI input to a MIDI output.

Figure A5.5. The main screen of MIDI Monitor with a prompt to save the SysEx file

A5.4. Final remarks

This appendix presents five MIDI control and monitoring software applications.
Plenty of other alternatives can also be found, such as MIDI Test (Sonelec-
Musique), Pocket MIDI (Morson Japan), and many others.

Another approach is to look for a free VST plugin. There are several options: e.g.
midiMonitor and midiKeyboard (both by Insert Piz Here) for MacOS and Microsoft
Windows; VST-MIDI monitor (by Cescato Musiktechnologie), and Noisebud
MidiVU (for Microsoft Windows only) among others.

Finally, there are a few similar apps designed for tablets: MIDI Wrench (iOS –
AppStore), USB MIDI Monitor (Android – Google Play Store), and so on.
 Bibliography

[AND 86] ANDERTON C., MIDI for Musicians, AMSCO, 1986.

[BER 13] BERTOT S., Trente années en 150 albums, de Kurtis Blow à Odd Future, Le mot et
le reste, 2013.
[BIZ 07] BIZOT J.F., PRIMOIS M., ROUZAUD J., Jean-François Bizot présente la New Wave,
Editions du Panama, 2007.
[BRA 94] BRAUT C., Norme MIDI Tome 1, Sybex, 1994.
[BRA 95] BRAUT C., Norme MIDI Tome 2, Sybex, 1995.
[CAI 13] CAIPIRINHA PRODUCTIONS, Modulations, Editions Allia, 2013.
[CHI 98] CHION M., MARCHETTI L., ZANESI C., La musique concrète de Michel Chion,
Metamkine, 1998.
[COL 13] COLLINS N., Electronic Music, Cambridge University Press, 2013.
[COW 96] COWELL H., New Musical Resources, Cambridge University Press 1996.
[DEW 16] DE WILDE L., Les fous du son, Grasset, 2016.
[ERN 15] ERNOULD F., Le grand livre du home studio – Tout pour enregistrer et mixer de la
musique chez soi, Dunod, 2015.
[FLE 95] FLEURY P., MATHIEU J.P, Vibrations mécaniques acoustiques, Eyrolles, 1995.
[FOR 86] FORTIER D., Le mini studio, théorie et pratique, Editions Fréquences, 1986.
[FRI 85] FRIEDMAN D., Complete Guide to Synthesizers, Sequencers, and Drum Machines,
Music Sales Corp, 1985.
[GIB 97] GIBSON D., The Art of Mixing, Mix Books, 1997.
[GOU 09] GOUBAULT C., Histoire de l'instrumentation et de l'orchestration: Du baroque à
l'électronique, Minerve, 2009.
[HUN 14] HUNTER D., Guitar Amps and Effect for Dummies, For Dummies, 2014.

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
342 Electronic Music Machines

[KEY 85] KEYBOARD MAGAZINE (eds), Synthesizers and Computers, Keyboard Magazine,
1985.
[KOS 16] KOSMICKI G., Musiques électroniques, Le mot et le reste, 2016.
[LEH 17] LEHMANN H., La Révolution digitale dans la musique, Editions Allia, 2017.
[LEL 16] LELOUP J.-Y. (ed.), Electrosound : Machines, musiques et cultures, Le mot et le
reste, 2016.
[LEM 15] LEMMINGS R., Drum Machines, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform,
2015.
[MAN 13] MANNING P., Electronic and Computer Music, Oxford University Press, 2013.
[MER 02] MERCIER D., BOURCET P., CALMET M. et al. (eds), Le livre des techniques du son,
Dunod, 2002.
[MEY 86] MEYER C., BROOKS E., MIDI Time Code, Detailed Specification, Technical
document, 1994.
[NIM 05] NIMAN M., GENTILI N., Experimental Music: Cage et au-delà, Editions Allia, 2005.
[PER 14] PERRINE J., Sound Design, Mixing, and Mastering with Ableton 9, Hal Leonard
Corporation, 2014.
[PIE 84] PIERCE J.R., Le son musical, Belin, 1984.
[PIN 02] PINCH T., TROCCO F., Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog
Synthesizer, Harvard University Press, 2002.
[QUI 87] QUINET J.J., Les cahiers de l’ACME, Le système MIDI, Jean Jacques Quinet Editeur,
1987.
[ROA 15] ROADS C., Composing Electronic Music: A New Aesthetic, Oxford University
Press, 2015.
[ROA 16] ROADS C., L’audionumérique – Musique et informatique, Dunod, 2016.
[ROB 14] ROBISON K., Ableton Live 9: Create, Produce, Perform, Focal Press, 2014.
[ROT 95] ROTHSTEIN J., MIDI: A Comprehensive Introduction, Vol. 7, A-R Editions, 1995.
[SCH 73] SCHAEFFER P., La musique concrète, Presses universitaires de France, 1973.
[SCH 77] SCHAEFFER P., Traité des objets musicaux, Editions du Seuil, 1977.
[TOM 10] TOMPKINS D., How to Wreck a Nice Beach: The Vocoder from World War II to
Hip-Hop, The Machine Speaks, 2010.
[VAI 14] VAIL M., The Synthesizer: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding,
Programming, Playing, and Recording the Ultimate Electronic Music Instrument, Oxford
University Press, 2014.
 Bibliography 343

Internet links

Internet links are, by their very nature, volatile. The address of resources hosted
on the web may change or even disappear over time. All links were correct at the
time of writing of this book. If some of them no longer work, you may be able to
find alternatives by searching with Google or any other search engine.

Manufacturers and software publishers

Ableton: http://www.ableton.com
Akai: http://www.akaipro.com
Alesis: http://www.alesis.com
Audacity: http://audacity.fr/ or https://www.audacityteam.org/
Auto-Tune by Antares: http://www.antarestech.com/
Avid: http://www.avid.com
Boss: http://www.boss.info
Cycling ’74: http://www.cycling74.com
Dave Smith: http://www.davesmithinstruments.com
Digidesign: http://www.avid.com
Electro-Harmonix: http://www.ehx.com
Elektron: http://www.elektron.se
E-mu: http://www.emu.com
Eventide: http://www.eventideaudio.com
Fender: http://www.fender.com
Hammond: http://hammondorganco.com
Izotope: http://www.izotope.com
Korg: http://www.korg.com
Lexicon: http://www.lexicon.com
Magix: http://www.magix.com
Moog: http://www.moogmusic.com
MOTU: http://www.motu.com
Novation: http://novationmusic.com
344 Electronic Music Machines

Roland: http://www.roland.com
Sonic Timeworks: http://www.sonictimeworks.com
Steinberg: http://www.steinberg.net
TC Electronic: http://www.tcelectronic.com
Universal Audio: http://www.uaudio.com
Waves: http://www.waves.com
Yamaha: http://www.yamaha.com

Vintage electronic instruments

Vintage synthesizers: http://www.vintagesynth.com

The 14 most important synthesizers of electronic music: http://www.factmag.com/2016/09/
15/14-most-important-synths/
Synthmuseum, a website dedicated to old synthesizers: http://www.synthmuseum.com/
Synthtopia, a museum of old synthesizers: http://www.synthtopia.com/

Music boxes, barrel organs, Limonaire & fairground organs

Ma boîte à musique (French): http://www.ma-boite-a-musique.com/

Records on automata and music boxes (French): http://www.automates-boites-musique.com/
dossiers-lutece-creation-automate-boite-musique.html
History of barrel organs (French): http://pauliphonic.be/fr-histoire-de-l-orgue-de-barbarie.html
Barrel organs (French): http://www.jean-christian-michel.com/orgue-barbarie.html
A brief history of mechanical music (French): http://club.quomodo.com/musique_mecanique/
histoire.html
Odin barrel organs (French): http://www.orgues-de-barbarie.com/
Poirot Limonaire organs (French): http://bertrand.poirot.chez.com/Orgues-Poirot/accueil_031.htm

Vocoders

Master Class – Vocoders: http://www.emusician.com/how-to/master-class-vocoders

A Brief History of the Vocoder: http://theproaudiofiles.com/history-of-the-vocoder/
The vocoder according to Wendy Carlos: http://www.wendycarlos.com/vocoders.html
 Bibliography 345

Digital vocoders with Reason (French): http://openclassrooms.com/fr/courses/1497006-une-

musique-professionnelle-avec-reason/1497930-vocoder-numerique

Samplers

15 samplers for modern music: http://www.factmag.com/2016/09/15/15-samplers-that-

shaped-modern-music/
How samplers work: http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/music-sampling.htm
5 of the best samplers: http://mixmag.net/feature/5-of-the-best-samplers

Electronic music, musique concrète, electroacoustic music

The origins of electro music (French): http://www.cadenceinfo.com/la-musique-electro-ses-

origines-et-influences.htm
Electronic music, from its pioneers to the dancefloors (French): http://lemotetlereste.com/pdf/
feuille_3014.pdf
Styles of electronic music (French): http://www.mediatheque-noisylesec.org/images/selection/
fichiers/electroniques.pdf
Electronic music, from its roots to its development (French):
http://ethnomusique.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/la-musique-ecc81lectronique-de-ses-
origines-acc80-son-decc81veloppement.pdf
How the history of electronic music might have happened, by GRAMI (French):
http://www.pedagogie.ac-aix-marseille.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2017-11/dossier_
pedagogique_grami.pdf
Electronic music... A history of sound (French): http://eljibi.free.fr/IMG/pdf/La_musique_
electronique.pdf

Drum machines and groove machines

14 drum machines for modern music: http://www.factmag.com/2016/09/22/the-14-drum-

machines-that-shaped-modern-music/
The 12 best drum machines: http://www.pmtonline.co.uk/blog/2018/05/15/beat-it-the-12-best-
drum-machines-for-musicians/
The best drum machines and grooveboxes in 2018: http://www.musicradar.com/news/the-best-
hardware-drum-machines-2018-our-pick-of-the-best-grooveboxes-for-beginners-and-pros
Online drum machine: http://html5drummachine.com
Website for Elektron hardware owners: http://www.elektronauts.com
346 Electronic Music Machines

General-purpose websites

Activstudio (French): http://www.activstudio.fr/mixage-audio/

Attack Magazine, a magazine dedicated to music and digital topics:
http://www.attackmagazine.com/
Audiofanzine, a website dedicated to musical audio hardware: http://www.audiofanzine.com
Canford, retailer for audio and video products: http://www.canford.fr/ or
https://www.canford.co.uk/
Recording and mixing: http://mixmag.net
Training and resources for amateurs of sound (French): http://deveniringeson.com/
Harmony Central, one of the best websites for musical audio: http://www.harmonycentral.com
Keyboard magazine: http://www.keyboardmag.com/
KR Home Studio, the magazine for musical creativity (French): http://www.kr-homestudio.fr/
Musical hardware and more: http://www.pmtonline.co.uk
Musical hardware: http://www.musicradar.com
Music Store Professional, hardware retailer: http://www.musicstore.de/en_OE/EUR
MusicTech, a website dedicated to sound engineers and musical producers:
http://www.musictech.net/
Musiker Board, a website for musical audio (German): http://www.musiker-board.de
Music, musicians, and instruments: http://factmag.com
Pro Audio Review magazine: http://www.prosoundnetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=39995
ProSound: http://www.prosoundnetwork.com/
Audio recording forum: http://homerecording.com
SoundClick, a website dedicated to musical audio: http://www.soundclick.com
Tape Op magazine: http://tapeop.com/
Thomann, online retailer for musical products: http://www.thomann.de/fr/index.html
Website dedicated to vintage synthesizers: http://www.vintagesynth.com/
VST4free, a website dedicated to free VST plugins: http://www.vst4free.com/index.php?plug-
ins=Synthesizers
Woodbrass, an online retailer for musical products: http://www.woodbrass.com/
Zikinf, a general-purpose website for musical and audio hardware: http://www.zikinf.com/
 Bibliography 347

Interfaces and communication

Digital interfaces: http://www.soundonsound.com/techniques/digital-interfacing

Digital audio connections (French): http://www.mamosa.org/jenfi.home/debuter/
connexionsnumeriques.php

MIDI

An introduction to the MIDI standard (French): http://www.cri.ensmp.fr/~pj/music_slides.pdf

The MIDI standard and its files (French): http://www.jchr.be/linux/midi-format.htm
The MIDI standard (French): http://ogloton.free.fr/midi/presentation.html
The MIDI standard (French): http://www.sonelec-musique.com/electronique_theorie_midi_
norme.html
The MIDI standard (French): http://ntemusique.free.fr/musique/MIDI/MIDI.pdf
An introduction to the MIDI standard (French): http://www.midi.org/articles-old/an-intro-to-
midi
The MIDI forum: http://www.midi.org/forum/830-midi-octave-and-note-numbering-standard
The GM standard: http://www.midi.org/specifications-old/item/gm-level-1-sound-set
Exploring the GM standard: http://www.harfesoft.de/aixphysik/sound/midi/pages/genmidi.html
The General MIDI standard: http://daffyduke.lautre.net/zik/midi_10.html
The XG MIDI standard: http://ppretot.free.fr/whatxgf.htm
Differences between GM, GS, and XG: http://www.cybermidi.com/helpdesk/knowledgebase
.php?article=47

Miscellaneous video tutorials

Elephorm (French): http://www.elephorm.com/audio-mao.html

Mj tutorials (French): http://www.mjtutoriels.com/18-techniques-audio
Tutorom (French): http://www.tutorom.fr/categories-de-tutoriels/fr/audio
Virtual Production School (VPS) (French): http://www.tutoriels-mao.com/les-tutoriels/mix-
et-master-de-a-%C3%A0-z-avec-des-plugins-gratuits-detail
Learning to mix with Ableton (French): http://le-son-ableton.fr/apprendre-le-mixage-avec-
ableton/
Tutorials by Anto (French): http://www.tutodanto.com/c/voir-tous-les-tutos-mao
348 Electronic Music Machines

Tuto.com (French): http://fr.tuto.com/tuto/audio-mao/

Home studio for beginners (French): http://www.home-studio-debutant.com/
Tutorial 1 by Cuckoo: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NrhPOGzn7LI
Tutorial 2 by Cuckoo – Loopbox: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnbQ8ichm54
A session with the Octatrack: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPhYIr3inzA
Octatrack, sampling and time stretching: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=aLG86xedyNE&t=186s
Octatrack, how to structure a song: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnE4rUa46SE
Electribe 2, transferring files to Ableton (French): http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=c4pAkO6LMsM
Electribe 2 tutorial (French): http://the-venom-synth.over-blog.com/2016/07/korg-electribe-2-
tutoriel-s.html
Electribe 2 tutorial: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5dgLJvz6xfs
Electribe 2 tutorial: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VM-vtRldnEo
Pianotech, tutorials for the Electribe 2 (French): http://blog.pianotech.fr/korg-electribe-2/
Index of tutorials for the Octatrack: http://www.mindmeister.com/fr/310663045/elektron-
octatrack-video-tutorial-index
Tutorial for the Electribe Sampler: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmFKF220_bw
Tutorial for the Electribe Sampler: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0LHNKvdzyU
 Index

# analog sequencers, 83
architecture, 141
5-pin DIN, 106 Arpanet, 20
arpeggiator, 240
A, B, C ATA, 325
A-155, 85 ATAPI, 325
Ableton, 158, 161, 169, 264 Audion piano, 9
Ace Tone, 102 automata, 82
acid automatic piano, 77
house, 30 automatophone, 75
jazz, 32 Auto-Tune, 196, 198
ADAT, 321 Bandito the Bongo Artist, 99
ADSR, 312 bank select, 54
AES/EBU, 18, 320 battery, 220
AES3, 320 Bayle, François, 10
aftertouch, 53, 54 Berg, Alban, 6
Akai, 111, 126 Berliner, Emile, 83
MPC 2000XL, 152 Birotron, 123
MPC-60, 150 Boulez, Pierre, 7
S1000, 127, 128 Bradley (brothers), 119
S612, 126 Cakewalk, 162
S700, 126 Carlos, Wendy, 33, 181
S7000, 126 carrier
S900, 127 pattern, 297
ambient, 33 signal, 183
house, 34 Chamberlin, Harry, 95, 118

Electronic Music Machines: The New Musical Instruments,

First Edition. Jean-Michel Réveillac.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
350 Electronic Music Machines

channel drum
messages, 46 kit, 332
voice messages, 54 machine (DM), 93
chromatic mode, 247 Drummer Boy, 106
chunks, 56 Drumtraks, 108
cold wave, 26 Drumulator, 108
common messages, 48 DTS, 323
Compact Disc (CD), 17 Dudley, Homer, 179
ComputeRhythm, 103 Duo-Art, 79
computer, 16 DX7, 42
control EBM, 29
change, 53, 54 effects, 300
surface, 147, 161, 172 EIDE, 325
controller, 142, 172 Eko, 103
convergence, 15 Electrix Warp Factory, 189
CR-78, 104 Electro Harmonix V256, 194
Creative Commons License, 13 electro, 36
CSQ- hip-hop, 35
100, 87 body, 26
600, 87 live, 6
Cubase, 162, 164 Elektron Octatrack, 155
CV/Gate, 107 email, 20
cyberculture, 13 E-mu, 108
SP12, 149
D, E, F Systems, 125
Emulator
Das Model, 235 I, 125
dematerialization, 13 II, 125
digital III, 126
audio editor, 138 IV, 126
audio workstation (DAW), 89, emulators, 115
111, 135, 148, 333 Eno, Brian, 33
sequencers, 86 Enosniq, 129
Digital Performer, 162, 164 Ethernet, 70
Digitech Talker, 193 exclusive messages, 48
disassembly, 212 Fairlight CMI, 19, 123
disco, 6, 28 Ferrari, 10
Doncamatic filter, 103
DA-20, 100 Firewire, 70, 321
DC-11, 101 FR-1 Rhythm Ace, 102
Downgrade, 277 Free Art License, 13
 Index 351

Fritz Pleumer, 83 MS2000, 189

Fruity Loops, 162, 164 VC-10, 187
Kraftwerk, 26, 182, 235
G, H krautrock, 6, 26
Kurzweil, 129
GarageBand, 164
gate, 2
L, M, N
Gaveau, 79
General MIDI, 2, 52, 54, 329 Linn
gramophone, 80, 83 9000, 108
GRM, 8 Electronics, 107
groove machine, 18, 112 LM-1, 107
groovebox, 147 LinnDrum, 108
GS, 54, 329 Logic, 164
Gulbransen, 99 loop sequencers, 89
Hammond, 10, 102 loops, 117
hardware controller, 161 LTC, 323
header block, 56 Lynx, 321
Henry, Pierre, 3 Mellotron, 119, 139
Hertz per volt, 312 M300, 120
hip-hop, 35 M400, 121
HTML, 20 M4000, 122
M5000, 122
I, J, K Mark VII, 122
Maderna, Bruno, 3
i.Link, 321 MADI, 321
IDE, 325 MARRS, 28
IEEE 1394, 321 mashups, 24
iGroove machine, 176 Max for Live, 171
Image Line Groove Machine, 162 MC-303, 147
implementation chart, 51 mechanical piano, 75, 77
incremental encoder, 225 Melodico, 79
JMSC, 42 Menu tree, 281
jukebox, 80 merger, 67
Jupiter 6, 42 Microkorg, 190
Kakehashi, 102 Microtonic, 159
Kaoss, 157 MIDI, 106, 142, 323
Keio-Giken, 100 box, 67
Keykode, 323 cables, 267
Korg, 101, 129 Loupe, 335
Electribe, 2, 156, 263, 264, 281 Monitor, 336, 339
Sampler, 156, 266, 272, 81 USB, 339
352 Electronic Music Machines

OX, 338 note-off, 49

patchbay, 68 note-on, 49
patcher, 68 Novation
pocket, 339 Circuit, 158
standard, 17 Mininova, 192
Test, 339 Novatron, 121
Wrench, 339
midiMonitor, 339 O, P, Q, R
Mini Pops MP-2, 101
minimalistic, 6 octave, 305
mode messages, 46 omni, 46
modular sequencers, 89 omnifunctional sequencers, 89
Moog, Robert, 181 Ondes Martenot, 10
Mosaic, 20 Operating System, 201
motown, 28 Optigan, 123
MP3, 11 orchestrions, 82
MPC Orchestron, 123
2000, 128 organ,
60, 111, 127 barrel, 75, 80
Studio Black, 174 Limonaire (fairground), 75, 82
music Warbo Formant, 83
acousmatic, 4 OS (operating system), 269
ambient, 6 oscillator, 9, 95
box, 75, 76 parallel, 71
computer, 6 Parmegiani, Bernard, 10
download websites, 11 patcher, 67
electroacoustic, 3 patterns, 57
electronic, 3 phonograph, 83
house, 11, 24, 26 photoelectric sensors, 95
subaquatic, 6 Pianista, 78
tape, 6 Pianola, 78
tonal, 6 Pink Floyd, 33
Music And More VF11, 192 pitch bend, 53, 54
musical plagiarism, 139
loops, 88 Pleyela, 79
sampler, 19 plug, 324
musique concréte, 1 plugins, 333
Native Instruments Maschine, 172 pneumatic piano, 78
NBIC, 22 poly-rhythms, 95
NED, 124 portamento, 54
new beat, 29 pressure, 142
new wave, 24, 25 Pro Tools, 164
 Index 353

program S
change, 52
name, 61 S/PDIF, 18, 319, 320, 321
programmable drum machine, 18 S-Trigger, 2
Propellerhead Reason, 163 sampler, 19, 117, 266
Prophet 600, 42 SATA, 325
quantization, 266 SC-55 MKII, 255
rap, 35 Schaeffer, Pierre, 1, 117
RCA, 319 Schönberg, Arnold, 6
real-time messages, 48 Schulze, Klaus, 33
Reason, 161 Scott, Raymond, 99
Reflex Tune, 194 SCSI, 323
remix, 11 SD card, 264, 269
Rewire, 164 Seeburg, 99
Rhythm Select-A-Rhythm, 99
Prince, 99 Sennheiser VSM, 201, 194
Synthesizer, 99 sequence
Rhythmate, 95 (track) name, 58
rhythmic harmony, 95 number, 61
Rhythmicon, 93 sequencer, 18, 75, 147
Roland,102, 129, 147, 153 -arrangers, 89
MC-303, 151 Sequential Circuits, 41, 108
MC-909, 153 serialism, 7
SVC-350, 188 twelve-tone (dodecaphony), 6
TB-303, 30, 161 set tempo, 57
TR-08, 105 shortcuts, 294
TR-505, 251 SIGGSALY, 180
TR-8, 105 sliding phonogène, 118
TR-808, 104, 161 Smith, Dave, 41
TR-8S, 105 SMPTE, 18, 57, 322
TR-909, 104, 107 software
TR-909, 161 sampler, 133, 137
VP-330, 186 sequencers, 88
VP-550, 191 Sonar, 164
rompler, 131 Sonovox, 196
RS232, 71 sostenuto, 55
RS422, 71 soul, 28
RX-11, 108 Sound Canvas, 255
RX-15, 108 sound cards, 134
spectral, 6
SQ-1, 85
status bytes, 45
354 Electronic Music Machines

Steinway, 79 video clips, 20

step recording, 107 virtual drum machine, 112
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 3 VITC, 323
Streetly Electronics, 119 Vocaltune, 192
Synclavier, 124 vocoders, 10, 180
Synton Syntovox 221, 194 EMS
sysex event, 59 2000, 184
SysEx, 337, 339 3000, 185
Librarian, 337 5000, 185
Moog, 188
T, U, V software, 195
Voder, 179
talkbox, 196 voice messages, 46
Tangerine Dream, 26 Voltage Trigger, 2
tape recorder, 10 volts per octave, 312
TDIF, 321 V-Trigger, 2
techno, 11, 28
hardcore, 30
W, X
Tempo map, 57
testing, 206 warping, 169, 266
Theremin, 9, 93 workstations, 89, 125, 148,
Thunderbolt, 73 152, 153
ticks, 57 Wurlitzer, 97
time signature, 57 Side Man, 97
TOSLINK, 319, 321 x-fader, 222
touch scale, 156 XG, 55, 329
touchpads, 108 XLR, 320
track chunk, 57
trance, 35
transistors, 99
Trautonium, 10
trigger, 2, 302, 312
triode, 83
Turntable Emulation, 153
update, 203
USB, 326
3.0, 72
vacuum tubes, 98
Varèse, Edgard, 3
VCF, 312
VCO, 312
velocity, 142
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