BME- PART(B)--NOTES

1. TURNING

2. DRILLING

1. Introduction
Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the
job by cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting
lip and usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid.
A drilling machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the
most important and versatile machine tools in a workshop. Besides drilling round holes,
many other operations can also be performed on the drilling machine such as counter- boring,
Countersinking, Honing, Reaming etc.
1.2 TYPES OF DRILLS
A drill is a multi point cutting tool used to produce or enlarge a hole in the workpiece. It
usually consists of two cutting edges set an angle with the axis. Broadly there are three types
of drills:
1. Flat drill,
2. Straight-fluted drill, and
3. Twist drill
Flat drill is usually made from a piece of round steel which is forged to shape and ground to
size, then hardened and tempered. The cutting angle is usually 90 deg. and the relief or
clearance at the cutting edge is 3 to 8 deg. The disadvantage of this type of drill is that each
time the drill is ground the diameter is reduced. Twist drill is the most common type of drill
in use today. The various types of twist drills (parallel shank type and Morse taper shank
type) are shown in Fig. 22.3
1.3 Operations Performed On Drilling Machine
A drill machine is versatile machine tool. A number of operations can be performed on it.
Some of the operations that can be performed on drilling machines are:
1. Drilling 2. Reaming 3. Boring 4. Counter boring 5. Countersinking 6Tapping
The operations that are commonly performed on drilling machines are drilling, reaming,
lapping, boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking, and tapping. These operations are discussed
as under.

1. Drilling
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job
by a rotating cutting tool called drill as shown in Fig. 22.6. Drilling removes solid metal from
the job to produce a circular hole. Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at
right angle and a center punch is used to make an indentation for the drill point at the center
to help the drill in getting started.

2. Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is
performed by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in Fig. 22.7. Reaming operation
serves to make the hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter. Reaming operation is
performed by means of a multi-tooth tool called reamer.
Reamer possesses several cutting edges on outer periphery and may be classified as solid
reamer and adjustable reamer.

3. Boring
Fig. 22.8 shows the boring operation where enlarging a hole by means of adjustable cutting
tools with only one cutting edge is accomplished. A boring tool is employed for this purpose.

4. Counter-Boring
Counter boring operation is shown in Fig. 22.9. It is the operation of enlarging the end of a
hole cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as
counter-bore.

5. Counter-Sinking
Counter-sinking operation is shown in Fig. 22.10. This is the operation of making a cone
shaped enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw. This is done
for providing a seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with the
main surface of the work.
6. Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap. A tap is similar to a
bolt with accurate threads cut on it. To perform the tapping operation, a tap is screwed into
the hole by hand or by machine. The tap removes metal and cuts internal threads, which will
fit into external threads of the same size. Tapping operation is shown in Fig. 22.11

3. MILLING

1. Milling Introduction

Milling machine is one of the most versatile conventional machine tools with a wide range of
metal cutting capability. Many complicated operations such as indexing, gang milling, and
straddle milling etc. can be carried out on a milling machine.

1.2 Milling Processes

Milling is a metal removal process by means of using a rotating cutter having one or more
cutting teeth as illustrated in figure 1. Cutting action is carried out by feeding the workpiece
against the rotating cutter. Thus, the spindle speed, the table feed, the depth of cut, and the
rotating direction of the cutter become the main parameters of the process. Good results can
only be achieved with a well balanced settings of these parameters.

Figure 1. Milling Process

1.3 Types of Milling Machine

Most of the milling machines are constructed of column and knee structure and they are
classified into two main types namely Horizontal Milling Machine and Vertical Milling
Machine. The name Horizontal or Vertical is given to the machine by virtue of its spindle
axis. Horizontal machines can be further classified into Plain Horizontal and Universal
Milling Machine. The main difference between the two is that the table of a Universal
Milling Machine can be set at an angle for helical milling while the table of a Plain
Horizontal Milling Machine is not.

1.4. Direction of Cutter Rotation

(a). Up Cut Milling

In up cut milling, the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to the table feed as illustrated in
figure 2. It is conventionally used in most milling operations because the backlash between
the lead-screw and the nut of the machine table can be eliminated.

Figure 2. Up Cut Milling

(b). Down Cut Milling
In down cut milling, the cutter rotates in the same direction as the table feed as illustrated in
figure 3. This method is also known as Climb Milling and can only be used on machines
equipped with a backlash eliminator or on a CNC milling machine. This method, when
properly treated, will require less power in feeding the table and give a better surface finish
on the workpiece

Figure 3. Down Cut Milling

1.5 Typical Milling Operations

1. Plain Milling

Plain milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter parallel to the
machining surface. It can be carried out either on a horizontal machine or a vertical machine
as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. Plain Milling

2. End Milling
End Milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter perpendicular to the
machining surface as shown in figure 5.
 Figure 5. End Milling

3. Gang Milling
Gang milling is a horizontal milling operation that utilises three or more milling cutters
grouped together for the milling of a complex surface in one pass. As illustrated in figure 6,
different type and size of cutters should be selected for achieving the desire profile on the
workpiece.

Figure 6. Gang Milling

4. Straddle Milling
In straddle milling, a group of spacers is mounted in between two side and face milling
cutters on the spindle arbor as shown in figure 7. For the milling of two surfaces parallel to
each other at a given distance.

Figure 7. Straddle Milling

4. WELDING
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either
from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. During
some type of welding processes, pressure may also be employed, but this is not an essential
requirement for all welding processes. Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally
affects the metallurgy of the components. Figure 1 shows the welding representation.

Figure 1 Basics of arc welding: (1) before the weld; (2) during the weld (the base metal is melted and
filler metal is added to the molten pool); and (3) the completed weldment.

Advantages

1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to other processes
(riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.

Disadvantages

1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.

2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
4. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding.

4.1 Types of Welding Processes

We can divide the welding processes into two major groups: (1) fusion welding and (2) solid-
state welding. 1-Fusion Welding
Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding
operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk
and strength to the welded joint. A fusion-welding operation in which no filler metal is added
is referred to as an autogenous weld. The fusion category includes the most widely used
welding processes.

(a)Arc welding - The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a workpiece
or between two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process.
The basic principle of arc welding is shown in Fig 17.9(a). Most of these processes use some
shielding gas while others employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the
surrounding atmosphere.

(b) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a commonly used arc welding process manually
carried by welder. It is an arc welding process in which heat for welding is produced through
an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the workpiece. The flux coating of
electrode decomposes due to arc heat and serves many functions, like weld metal protection,
arc stability etc. Inner core of the electrode supply the filler material for making a weld. The
basic setup of MMAW is depicted in Fig. 17.18, If the parent metal is thick it may be
necessary to make two or three passes for completing the weld.
1.3 Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is
set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into following
types-
(1) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without
any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as
an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of
joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.

(b)Oxyfuel gas welding

A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air
and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas
welding’. The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the
parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is
shown in Fig. 17.5. The fuel gas generally employed is acetylene; however gases other than
acetylene can also be used though with lower flame temperature. Oxy-acetylene flame is the
most versatile and hottest of all the flames produced by the combination of oxygen and other
fuel gases. Other gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, Natural gas etc., may be used
for some welding and brazing applications.

(c)Resistance welding
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to the flow of
an electrical current. Usually this is the only source of heat, but a few of the welding
operations combine resistance heating with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of
metal in the arc. The process applies to practically all metals and most combinations of pure
metals and those alloys, which have only a limited plastic range, are welded by heating the
parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may welded without fusion; instead, the
parts are heated to a plastic state at which the applied pressure causes their crystalline
structures to grow together. In resistance welding processes no fluxes are employed, the filler
metal is rarely used and the joints are usually of the lap type. The amount of heat generated in
the workpiece depend on the following factors:
(1) Magnitude of the current,
(2) Resistance of the current conducting path, and
Mathematically, H = IVt
= I(IR)t
= I2Rt.
Where, H = heat generated in joules
I = current in Amp.
R = resistance in ohms
t = time of current flow in seconds.

1.4 Types of Resistance welding

(a) Spot Welding

In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more spots, by the
concentration of current flowing between two electrodes. This is the most widely used
resistance welding process. A typical resistance spot welding machine is shown in Fig. 17.23.
It essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed
to a rocker arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical force from
a pneumatic cylinder. For welding large assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot welding
machines are used. Here the electrode holders and the pneumatic pressurizing system are
present in the form of a portable assembly which is taken to the place, where the spot is to be
made. In spot welding, a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is
maintained. The current density depends on the contact area between the electrode and the
work-piece.

(b) Seam Welding

It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other to the desired
extent. In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by the heat obtained
from the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces held together under
pressure by circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-spots
welds made progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes. The principle of
seam welding is shown in Fig. 17.24(a) and resistance seam welding process set up is shown
in Fig. 17.24(b). The seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling
electrodes are used to produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds. Overlapping
continuous spot welds seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly
interrupted current.

(c)Projection Welding
Fig.17.25 shows the projection welding. This process is a resistance welding process in which
two or more than two spot welds are made simultaneously by making raised portions or
projections on predetermined locations on one of the workpiece. These projections act to
localize the heat of the welding circuit. The pieces to be welded are held in position under
pressure being maintained by electrodes. The projected contact spot for welding should be
approximately equal to the weld metal thickness. The welding of a nut on the automotive
chasis is an example of projection welding.
1. Advantages of Resistance Welding
Some common advantages of resistance welding include:
(a) It is well suited for mass production.
(b) It is economical in operation, since nothing is consumed except electrical power.
(c) Skilled welders are not required.
(d) Welds are quickly made.
(e) It is possible to weld dissimilar metals.

2. Disadvantages of resistance welding include:

(a) High initial cost of the resistance welding equipment
(b) Certain resistance welding processes are limited to lap joints.
(c) A lap joint has an inherent service between the two metal pieces, which causes
stress concentrations in applications where fatigue is present. This service may also
cause trouble when corrosion is present

5. Inspection Gauges
Inspection gauges are commonly employed to avoid costly and lengthy process of testing
the component dimensions. Fig. 19.27 represented the principle of limit gauging. These
gauges are basically used for checking the size, shape and relative positions of various parts.
These are of fixed type measuring devices and are classified as standard and limit. Standard
gauges are made to the nominal size of the part to be tested and have the measuring member
equal in size to the mean permissible dimension of the part to be checked. Limit gauges or
“go” and “no go” gauges are made to the limit sizes of the job to be measured. Sides or ends
of the gauge are made corresponding to maximum and minimum permissible size of the job
for its acceptance or rejection. The objective of limit gauges is to identify whether the actual
dimensions of the work are within or outside the specified limits of acceptance. The double
end kind of limit gauge has the GO portion at one end and the NO GO portion at the other
end. GO portion must pass into or over an acceptable piece but the NO GO portion should
not pass. Inspection gauges may be classified as working, inspection, and reference or master
gauges. The working and inspection gauges are generally employed for inspection of
components from stage to stage.
The gauges commonly used in production work are
1. Progressive or step plug gauge (Fig. 19.28(a))
2. Thread plug gauge (Fig. 19.28(b))
3. A combination of internal and external non adjustable gauges (Fig. 19.28(c))

Limit Gauge
1. Plug Gauges
These gauges are used for checking holes of many different shapes and sizes. There are plug
gauges for straight cylindrical holes, tapered, threaded square holes. Figure 4.1 shows a
standard plug gauge used to test the nominal size of a cylindrical hole.

2. Ring Gauges
Ring gauges are used to test external diameters. They allow shafts to be checked more
accurately since they embrace the whole of their surface. Ring gauges, however, are
expressive manufacture and, therefore, find limited use. Moreover, ring gauges are not
suitable for measuring journals in the middle sections of shafts. A common type of standard
ring gauge is shown in Figure 4.1.