ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

Assignment No. 1

NAME: - KHADIJA HAMEED

REG NO: - 20PVI02157

Tutor Name: - MUHAMMAD IRSHAD

Course Code: - General Methods of Teaching

(8601)

Semester:- Autumn, 2023

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

Q.1 Answer the following questions

(a) Differentiate and compare active learning and cooperative learning?

ANSWER

ACTIVE LEARNING

Active learning methods ask students to engage in their learning by thinking, discussing,
investigating, and creating. In class, students practice skills, solve problems, struggle with
complex questions, make decisions, propose solutions, and explain ideas in their own words
through writing and discussion. Timely feedback, from either the instructor or fellow students, is
critical to this learning process. Active learning refers to a broad range of teaching strategies
which engage students as active participants in their learning during class time with their
instructor. Typically, these strategies involve some amount of students working together during
class, but may also involve individual work and reflection. These teaching approaches range
from short, simple activities like journal writing, problem solving and paired discussions, to
longer, involved activities or pedagogical frameworks like case studies, role plays, and structured
team-based learning.

Making Time for Active Learning

Using active learning strategies does not require abandoning the lecture format. Rather, adding
small active learning strategies can make lecturing more effective for student learning. These
activities give students just a minute or two to check their understanding of recent material,
practice a skill or highlight gaps in their knowledge before giving an explanation.

Considerations

 Build-in accountability for individual and group work offering participation points is one
way to show your students that you value the activities and their participation for
example, ask students to answer polling questions, upload a photo of their worksheet to
Canvas, or turn in an index card with a response to a short writing prompt at the end of
class
  When students are working on an activity in class, it is helpful for you and your TAs to
move around the classroom to answer questions and interact with students to learn more
about how they are thinking; these interactions can inform ways to follow up after an
activity with clarification or to highlight student ideas

Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities

into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to cooperative learning than
merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring positive
interdependence. Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic
goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning
cooperatively can capitalize on one another's resources and skills. Furthermore, the teacher's role
changes from giving information to facilitating students’ learning. Everyone succeed when the
group succeeds. Cooperative Learning involves structuring classes around small groups that
work together in such a way that each group member’s success is dependent on the group's
success.

There are different kinds of groups for different situations, but they all balance some key
elements that distinguish cooperative learning from competitive or individualistic learning.
Cooperative learning can also be contrasted with what it is not. Cooperation is not having
students sit side-by-side at the same table to talk with each other as they do their individual
assignments. Cooperation is not assigning a report to a group of students where one student does
all the work and the others put their names on the product as well. Cooperation involves much
more than being physically near other students, discussing material, helping, or sharing material
with other students. There is a crucial difference between simply putting students into groups to
learn and in structuring cooperative interdependence among students.

USE

Cooperative learning exercises can be as simple as a five minute in class exercise or as complex
as a project which crosses class periods. These can be described more generally in terms of low,
medium, and high faculty/student time investment.
DIFFERENCE

Cooperative Learning and Collaborative Learning are commonly used in group activities aimed
to attain a common objective. In collaborative learning, it is the students who organize their
efforts among themselves. In short, it is group structured. On the other side, in cooperative
learning, students are divided into groups and the teacher assigns specific roles and tasks to each
student, and so it is a teacher-structured activity. While collaborative learning is a voluntary
activity, wherein those students who are genuinely interested can participate, cooperative
learning is a compulsory activity for all the students who are present in the classroom and so they
have to participate to reach the goal.

(b) Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the teachers?

A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done
effectively during the class time. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and
develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A lesson plan provides you with a
general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to accomplish them, and is
by no means exhaustive. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as
planned, but one in which both students and instructor learn from each other. You may refer to
an example of a 3 hour lesson plan. A school curriculum is inclusive of different types of topics
belonging to several subjects. Now, educators must adhere to a proper lesson plan in order to
make the process of learning more convenient for students. A lesson plan acts as an informal
guideline for teachers helping them decide on how they must explain certain chapters or conduct
exams. When you are delivering your lectures in your next classroom session, make sure you
have a detailed plan that would guide you in the class.

Five merits of lesson planning

Inspiration

A well prepared plan allows the teacher to improvise and change it as per the need of the class or
group. It permits the teacher to teach in an organized manner. It also facilitates the teacher to
utilize their creativity in the teaching process.
Information

It ensures the accuracy of all tasks and duties assigned to different students. It also provides a
teacher with an overview of the student’s performance regarding their learning outcome, skills,
knowledge, and other factors.

Helps evaluate lessons

Just like teachers conduct exams to assess the understanding levels of students, educators also
require a system that would help them evaluate their own performance as a teacher. If you
compare your teaching technique with your lesson plan, you would immediately be more aware
of how helpful your explanations are to your pupils. It would make education more student-
friendly and really interesting.
Adds confidence
A lesson plan makes you more confident as you impart lessons to your students. Therefore, you
start sounding smarter, thanks to your increased self-esteem. This happens since you know
exactly what you are about to teach and how you would go about it. For instance, you can refer
to your lesson plan to check what kind of assignments you would allot to learners to assess their
knowledge on a particular topic.
Stimulate student interest
Most students seem to dislike the idea of sitting through a boring lecture irrespective of the
subject! But your lesson plan can be an excellent value-add to your lectures that has the potential
to make your students eagerly await your next learning session. A good lesson plan might
contain a few attractive illustrations that can make a topic seem easier for most students.

Increasing Interest

The lesson plan plays a vital role in increasing or motivating students’ interest during the
learning process. The purpose of planning a lesson is to encourage students to learn more by
exploring new ideas with them. It also helps direct their attention towards specific topics that
they may not be interested in, which will help them explore the subject more.
Makes the objectives clear to the teachers
Lessons become more engaging in the presence of a comprehensive lesson guideline. For
instance, you would realize how well you can understand the objectives of every chapter once
you have a lesson plan ready! That is because a lesson plan is enriched with important
suggestions that act as a short summary of the chapter you are about to teach your students.

(c) Define the term motivation?

The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind
human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented
behaviors. For instance, motivation is what helps you lose extra weight, or pushes you to get that
promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in a way that gets you closer to your
goals. Motivation includes the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate
human behavior. Theories of motivation are conceptual frameworks that seek to explain
motivational phenomena.

Content theories aim to describe which internal factors motivate people and which goals they
commonly follow. Examples are the hierarchy of needs, the two-factor theory, and the learned
needs theory. They contrast with process theories, which discuss the cognitive, emotional, and
decision-making processes that underlie human motivation, like expectancy theory, equity
theory, goal-setting theory, self-determination theory, and reinforcement theory. Motivation is
relevant to many fields. It affects educational success, work performance, athletic success,
and economic behavior. It is further pertinent in the fields of personal development, health,
and criminal law.

Biological and cognitive

Biological motivation concerns motives that arise due to physiological needs. Examples are
hunger, thirst, sex, and the need for sleep. They are also referred to as primary, physiological, or
organic motives. Biological motivation is associated with states of arousal
and emotional changes. Its source lies in innate mechanisms that govern stimulus-response
patterns.

Short term and long term

Short term and long term motivation differs in regard to the temporal horizon and the duration of
the underlying motivational mechanism. Short-term motivation is focused on achieving rewards
immediately or in the near future. It is associated with impulsive behavior. It is a transient and
fluctuating phenomenon that may arise and subside spontaneously.

Egoistic and altruistic

The difference between egoistic and altruistic motivation concerns who is intended to benefit
from the anticipated course of action. Egoistic motivation is driven by self-interest: the person is
acting for their own benefit or to fulfill their own needs and desires. This self-interest can take
various forms, including immediate pleasure, career advancement, financial rewards, and gaining
respect from others. Hunger and thirst are physiological needs associated with biological
motivation while the artistic pursuit of beauty belongs to cognitive motivation. A person’s how
much motivated, and cannot be observed directly but only from the shown behavior.

It is also influenced by a worker’s perception, learning, ability, and personality

traits. Management gets work done by working with and through people to
achieve organizational goals. Motivation is a crucial tool for the manager or leader to achieve
effective work performance from workers. Employees get motivated when they get what they
expected from the management. Their expectations like increased salary, bonuses, incentives,
overtime, and other similar benefits. Motivational states are characterized by their
direction, intensity, and persistence. The direction of a motivational state is shaped by the goal it
aims to achieve. Intensity is the strength of the state and affects whether the state is translated
into action and how much effort is employed. Persistence refers to how long an individual is
willing to engage in an activity. Motivation is often divided into two phases: in the first phase,
the individual establishes a goal, while in the second phase; they attempt to reach this goal.

(d) Enlist the methods that come under the inquiry approach?

Inquiry is a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge seeking information by questioning.

Individuals carry on the process of inquiry from the time they are born until they die. This is true
even though they might not reflect upon the process. Infants begin to make sense of the world by
inquiring. From birth, babies observe faces that come near, they grasp objects, they put things in
their mouths, and they turn toward voices. The process of inquiring begins with gathering
 information and data through applying the human senses seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and
smelling. Some of the discouragement of our natural inquiry process may come from a lack of
understanding about the deeper nature of inquiry-based learning. Effective inquiry is more than
just asking questions. A complex process is involved when individuals attempt to convert
information and data into useful knowledge. The inquiry approach is more focused on using and
learning content as a means to develop information-processing and problem solving skills.

The inquiry approach in education is a method that encourages students to actively explore and
understand concepts. Here are some methods that fall under the inquiry approach:

1. Questioning: Encouraging students to ask questions about a topic, guiding their own learning
process.
2. Problem-based learning: Presenting students with real-world problems to solve, encouraging
critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
3. Project-based learning: Having students work on long-term projects that require them to
investigate a topic in-depth and present their findings.
4. Experiments and investigations: Providing opportunities for students to conduct experiments
or investigations to explore concepts hands-on.
5. Research-based learning: Encouraging students to research a topic independently or in groups,
fostering a deeper understanding of the subject.
6. Case studies: Presenting students with real or hypothetical cases to analyze and solve,
promoting analytical thinking and application of knowledge.
7. Simulations and role-playing: Creating scenarios where students can simulate real-life
situations, encouraging them to apply their knowledge and skills.
8. Debates and discussions: Encouraging students to engage in debates or discussions about a
topic, promoting critical thinking and communication skills.
9. Fieldwork: Taking students outside the classroom to observe and gather information first-hand,
connecting theory to real-world experiences.
(e) What are the steps to plan discussion?

The discussion section can be written in three parts an introductory paragraph, intermediate
paragraphs and a conclusion paragraph. For intermediate paragraphs, a divide and conquer
approach, meaning a full paragraph describing each of the study endpoints, can be used.
Discussions follow a structure that offers a lively discourse while encouraging audience
participation. Depending on the topic, you may choose a formal or relaxed format. A formal
discussion may consist of a brief presentation and a moderated question-and answer session.
Planning a discussion involves careful consideration of various elements to ensure that the
conversation is purposeful, engaging, and conducive to learning.

Identify your intentions

Your intentions for the panel align with the goals for holding the discussion. For example, the
event might focus on the benefits of a new technology service or discuss industry updates. Once
you know your intentions, this information directs the next steps

Know your audience

Consider who's likely to attend the discussion. Plan topics of discussion about matters they care
about or challenges they may encounter. For example, suppose you're planning a panel for first-
year students at university. Choosing a topic that they're interested in increases the likelihood
that they're more engaged in the discussion. Understanding the audience's concerns also helps
guide your curated questions.

Extend your invitations

Once you identified your moderator and speakers, extend your invitations with enough time to
secure alternate guests if necessary. Consider preparing a list of one or two speakers who can
participate if someone cannot attend. Invite your panelists by presenting your discussion topic
and explaining why their opinion or expertise is important to your audience. Participants may
appreciate it if you provide a timeline for any meetings before the discussion, the date of the
event, and questions for them to review. Ensure you confirm your panelists at least a week before
the event date.
Inform your audience

Next excite the audience by creating and distributing a brochure or flyer that promotes the
discussion. Include information on the topics the panel plans to cover, a brief biography of the
speakers, and the potential benefits of attending. If you plan to have the audience submit
questions for the panelists, consider adding a contact method where the audience can submit
questions in advance. You can provide an email address for submitting questions or create a
simple website where the audience can submit their questions anonymously.

Establish Discussion Guidelines

Set clear guidelines for participation, respect, and communication. Discuss expectations for
active listening, constructive feedback, and the importance of diverse perspectives. Ensure a
supportive and inclusive environment.

Determine Discussion Format

Decide on the format of the discussion. It could be a whole class discussion, small group
discussions, fishbowl discussions, or a combination of formats. The choice depends on the size
of the class and the learning objectives.

Prepare Discussion Questions

Develop a set of thought provoking and open ended questions to guide the discussion. Questions
should encourage critical thinking, analysis, and the exploration of different viewpoints.
Consider a mix of comprehension, application, and synthesis questions.

Consider the layout

To maintain your audience's attention, involve them in the event when possible. If your event
contains a question and answer session, direct the audience to where they can submit questions
digitally before the event occurs. You can also consider providing a way to vote on questions to
ensure that the panelists can answer the most popular ones. If questions come directly from the
audience during the discussion, provide a microphone and determine if it's best to designate a
specific place to stand so the panelists can hear audience questions more clearly.
Q.2 Discuss the elements of conducive classroom environment?

The best classroom environment is one that results in efficient learning. The classroom
atmosphere becomes conducive to learning when teacher before planning teaching analyzes the
behavior of each student of the class. In such environment students become self-directive when
encouraged through proper guidance and teaching techniques of the teacher. The teachers must
establish and maintain it through following teaching principles and managing practices. They
must utilize time in a productive manner in order to reduce the disruptive behavior. The students
should remain involved in learning oriented actions and activities. Keep students motivated by
keeping the students motivated in learning. The teachers set the stage for creating positive class
environment. Motivating students is the first step toward preventing discipline problems in
classrooms because a student involved in learning has no time to be involved in clash with other.
Teachers must try to meet students’ basic as well as age related needs. Exercise moderate degree
of control. The degree of class control must be moderate. Student learning is great in classroom
where teachers exercise neither too much nor too less control. Too much control may be
effective on memory tasks but it is harmful for learning involving critical and creative thinking.
Make them responsible for their own learning through group and individual learning activities so
that they ultimately become independent learners. This is one of the purposes of good classroom
management. Keep instruction at the student level. Keep instruction at the students’ development
level so that they neither experience discouragement nor boredom. Otherwise, they might behave
disruptively. Develop healthy and professionally sound relationship with all the students by
being friendly with them. Learn their names and some positive information about each to greet
them. Communicate interest in all the students and show concern for each of them. The interest
and concern is communicated through brief eye contact with all and through supporting gestures
and facial expressions while teaching. Teach role and routines to the younger students in
academic fashion with a lot of explanation, examples and practices during initial classes.
Develop a set of few general classroom rules applicable to variety of situations. These rules
should be displayed in the class. Be assertive, rather than passive or aggressive, in enforcing
discipline. Apply the rule forcefully fairly, consistently and calmly. Create business like climate
in the classroom, where students understand that they and the teacher have a commonly shared
goal of accomplishing such activities that promote learning.
Element

The most important elements of a classroom environment include a safe and inclusive space for
all students, effective classroom management, clear communication, engaging and relevant
learning materials, supportive and knowledgeable teachers, opportunities for student
collaboration and interaction, and a positive and respectful atmosphere. Additionally, a well-
designed physical space, access to technology, and resources that cater to diverse learning styles
are also crucial elements for an effective classroom environment. A classroom is a haven for
many students living with adversity. It is also a place that is conducive to learning because it
takes into consideration students’ needs and preferences. For instance, students should have
input in the arrangement and design of their classroom including desks and wall space to
facilitate collaboration, discussion, and individual work. This type of environment fosters a
sense of belonging and of feeling valued, competent, and safe. Classroom activities that use
routines and rituals are critical for alleviating the unpredictable nature of living with
adversity. They help students to reclaim normalcy and control by supporting a downshift from
a fearful state to a calmer and more positive one. An example is a routine opening meeting to
describe the day’s schedule and discuss how students will transition from one activity to
another. Classroom activities that use routines and rituals are critical for alleviating the
unpredictable nature of living with adversity. They help students to reclaim normalcy and
control by supporting a downshift from a fearful state to a calmer and more positive one. An
example is a routine opening meeting to describe the day’s schedule and discuss how students
will transition from one activity to another. The importance of our relationship with students
cannot be overstated. It begins with getting to know them and building trusting relationships.
An important goal from the very beginning of our work with students should be identifying
their strengths and qualities, in the form of values and assets, and reflecting them back to
students.
 Arrange the physical space to promote interaction and collaboration. Consider factors
such as seating arrangements, accessibility, and organization to create a comfortable and
conducive setting for learning.
  Ensure that the classroom is equipped with the necessary resources, materials, and tools
to support the curriculum. This includes textbooks, technology, teaching aids, and other
resources that enhance the learning experience.
 Foster an inclusive environment that values diversity. Recognize and celebrate different
backgrounds, cultures, and perspectives. Implement teaching strategies that accommodate
various learning styles and abilities.
 Establish effective classroom management strategies to maintain order and create a
positive learning atmosphere. Consistent and fair discipline, as well as prompt resolution
of conflicts, contributes to a safe and focused environment.
 Use a variety of engaging instructional strategies to cater to different learning
preferences. Incorporate active learning, hands-on activities, technology, and
collaborative projects to keep students motivated and interested in the content.
 Shift the focus from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach. Encourage student
involvement in decision-making, provide opportunities for self-directed learning, and
give students a voice in the classroom.
 Be flexible and adaptable to meet the evolving needs of students. Adjust lesson plans,
teaching methods, and assessments as necessary. A dynamic and responsive approach
enhances the learning experience.
 Use positive reinforcement to acknowledge and celebrate students' achievements and
efforts. This can include verbal praise, recognition, and other forms of positive feedback
to motivate students.
 Provide constructive and timely feedback to help students understand their progress and
areas for improvement. Implement a fair and transparent assessment system that supports
student learning.

Importance

Classroom environment is one of the most important factors that affect student learning. An ideal
learning classroom is when students view their classrooms as positive and supportive. It is a
space where they feel safe and secure. A positive nurturing environment is an indispensable part
of learning. It is in a positive environment that a student feels comfortable; a place where healthy
relationships with peers and teachers flourish.
In a positive environment, the process of learning becomes something that students easily adapt
to and look forward to. To achieve this environment, young students need to be nurtured with
love, care and support. Teachers should keep in mind that the classroom is a child’s second home
and therefore; they should make efforts to make students feel as comfortable as possible.
Teachers should strive to create an environment that is more conducive to engagement and
learning. A classroom environment that is not positive and full of restrictions and rigid rules
impairs learning by narrowing a student’s focus and inhibiting ability to explore multiple
viewpoints and solve problems. A positive classroom environment helps improve attention,
reduce anxiety, and supports emotional and behavioral regulation of students. When educators
foster a positive learning culture; learners are more likely to acquire higher motivation that leads
to wonderful learning outcomes. Schools can potentially lift student achievement by improving
their learning environments.

Q.3 Describe all the stages involved in lesson planning?

A lesson plan is a teacher’s guide for facilitating a lesson. It typically includes the goal how the
goal will be achieved and a way to measure how well the goal was reached. This plan is a
teacher’s objectives for what students should accomplish and how they will learn the material.
Here, a teacher must plan what they want to teach students, why a topic is being covered and
decide how to deliver a lecture. Learning objectives, learning activities and assessments are all
included in a lesson plan. No two lesson plans are the same. When planning learning activities
you should consider the types of activities students will need to engage in, in order to develop the
skills and knowledge required to demonstrate effective learning in the course. Learning activities
should be directly related to the learning objectives of the course, and provide experiences that
will enable students to engage in, practice, and gain feedback on specific progress towards those
objectives. As you plan your learning activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each.
Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to
different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. An
important part of curriculum implementation is to conduct planned teaching-learning activities.
Effective lesson plan is one of the tools to manage this teaching-learning activity. Lesson plan is
a deliberate, continuous process of smoothly executing classroom activities; classroom
management can be easier through a quality lesson plan.
If the lesson plan is maintained, the teachers become proficient through reflection about their
strengths and weaknesses in teaching it can help to improve their success rate in the future.
Teachers design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on
student learning. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher’s philosophy of education, which is
what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students. A lesson plan is a road map of the
instructions. It shows what will be taught and how it will be done effectively during the class
time. Teachers require a lesson plan to describe their course of instruction for one class. The
lesson plan is necessary to guide the instruction. A lesson plan is required to describe the
preferences of the, subject being covered, activities being held in the class, and to ensure the
progress of the students about the lesson being taught to them. A well-developed lesson plan
reflects the interests and needs of students. It contains the objectives of the lesson formulated in
behavioral terms. The best and appropriate practices of teaching methodology and techniques to
achieve the objectives are included in the lesson plan. The content to be covered in a class is
indicated in a lesson plan. The evaluation procedures are also included in the lesson plan.

Stages
PRE-PLANNING STAGE
Before teaching the teacher has to think about the lesson plan for a particular class. Objectives
are the statements of what the teacher wants students to learn. The objectives are most likely to
be the same, or close to, the goals outlined during course planning. These are specific for a
particular class. Objectives are the specific goal statements written in behavioral terms. They
state exactly what the students should be able to do in a class/ on a paper/ in an exam, etc.
Objectives also specify the conditions under which the students should learn the material. The
teacher thinks about the importance of the skills or knowledge being taught to the students.
THE POST-PLANNING STAGE
The teacher’s lesson planning process should take into consideration the need to assess. This
assessment is not a complicated or difficult task. It is very simple and informal. For instance,
using part of the class to let students work on problems you have given them, or discuss issues
and apply concepts, can give you a good sense of what and how much they have learned. The
one-minute writing about the lesson or homework problems can be similarly helpful.
STAGE (INTRODUCTION)
This stage provides interest and motivation to the students. Before starting the class, this stage
focuses on the greetings, warm up or lead-in, review, class arrangement and presentation of
objectives. Regardless of the amount of time available for the lesson, this part should only last 5-
10 minutes.
STAGE (DEVELOPMENT)

This stage is the most student centered part of the process. The activities for this stage present
the subject matter in coherent way and provide students opportunities to participate and practice.

STAGE (CONSOLIDATION)

This stage is called Independent practice. It gives students the opportunities to use their newly
learned knowledge and skills. It focuses on a field application and provides time for students to
get their doubts clarified.

STAGE (CONCLUSION)

By systematically following these stages, teachers can create well-structured and purposeful
lesson plans that facilitate meaningful learning experiences for students. The planning process is
iterative, allowing educators to continuously refine their approach based on student needs and

feedback. This stage has three parts: summary, evaluation of objectives and closing. A brief

summary or overview is often appropriate for checking understanding. Also, the students should
be able to demonstrate that they have reached the objectives. The closure step is also a chance to
give students feedback on their performance.

IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF LESSON PLAN

 Lesson plan gives the teacher greater assurance and greater freedom in teaching.
  Lesson plan provides for adequate lesson summaries, ensures a definite assignment for
class, and availability of materials for lesson when needed.
 Lesson plan helps a teacher in sequencing of activities and tasks in teaching.
 Lesson plan helps to determine appropriate instruction aids, methods and references.
 Lesson plan stimulates the teacher to introduce pivotal questions and illustrations.
 Lesson plan establishes proper connections between different lessons or units of study
 Lesson plan provides and encourages continuity in the teaching and teaching process.
 Lesson plan enables the teacher to know the most desirable type of teaching procedures
and to prepare tests of progress and checks for judging the outcomes of instruction.
 Lesson plan prevents waste because it helps the teacher to be systematic and orderly.
 Lesson plan saves a teacher from haphazard teaching.
 Lesson plan helps a teacher to determining evaluation or assessment process i.e. how the
learner shall be deemed to have acquired the desired chance of behavior or mastery of
content and skills.

Q.4 what is student motivation? How is it developed among students?

Motivation is a crucial element to the learning process. Many researches clearly show a positive
correlation between motivation and achievement. Some students are highly motivated to learn,
and this interest continues throughout their years at school. Some other students, particularly
adolescents, see what happened at school as having no functional relevance to their lives. They
become increasingly bored, particularly with academic task and are generally uninterested in
anything that happens in the classroom. Teachers should recognize that there is tremendous
variation in the level of energy and interest students bring to the classroom activities. One
difficult aspect of becoming a teacher is learning how to motivate your students. It is also one of
the most important. Students who lack motivation often have difficulty retaining information and
struggle to learn effectively. Such students typically refrain from participating in class
discussions and activities, with some possibly displaying disruptive behavior. Various factors
can contribute to a student losing motivation.
Motivation Theory
There are three general indices of motivation: choice, effort, and persistence. Recognize
students' needs for self-determination and autonomy, and provide opportunities for choice
and control. Understand that students may be intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to
learn. While it may be ideal to have a room full of intrinsically motivated students, it is
understandable that students are also driven by the desire for grades, approval and other
rewards. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation exist not a single continuum, but on two
separate ones, and students may often have multiple goals for the same course.
Capitalize on students' existing needs
Use student's interest and natural curiosity appeal aid in motivation. Students will be
motivated to learn when the course is structured in a way that students learn best when
incentives for learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives for enrolling in the
course. Some of the needs your students may bring to the classroom are the need to learn
something in order to complete a particular task or activity, the need to seek new
experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the need to
become competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel involved and to
interact with other people.
Make students active participants in learning
Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, and solving. Passivity
dampens students' motivation and curiosity. Pose questions. Encourage students to
suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the results of an experiment. Ask students to
analyze what makes their classes more or less motivating. One way to measure what
motivates students is to ask them.
Relationships
First and foremost, it is critical to develop relationships with your students. When
students begin formal schooling, they need to develop quality relationships, as
interpersonal relationships in the school setting influence children’s development and
positively impact student outcomes, which include their motivation to learn, behavior,
and cognitive skills.
Physical learning environment
Modify the physical learning environment. Flexible seating is something you may want
to try. Students who are comfortable in a learning space are better engaged, which leads
to more meaningful, impactful learning experiences. You may try to implement pillows,
couches, stools, rocking chairs, rolling chairs, bouncing chairs, or even no chairs at all.
Include parents
Involve parents and solicit their aid to help encourage students. Parents are a key factor in
student’s motivation. It is important to develop your relationship with these crucial
allies. Try making positive phone calls home prior to the negative phone calls to help
build an effective relationship. Involve parents by sending home a weekly newsletter or
by inviting them into your classroom for special events. Inform them that you are a team
and have the same goals for their child.
Relevance
The relevance of the material is critical for instilling motivation. Demonstrating why the
material is useful or tying the material directly to students’ lives is necessary for
obtaining student interest. It would come as no surprise that if a foreign language learner
is not using relevant material, it will take longer for that student to acquire the language
and achieve their goals. If students do not understand the importance or real world
application for what they are learning, they may not be motivated to learn.
Student centered learning
Student centered learning approaches have been proven to be more effective than teacher
centered teaching approaches. A student centered approach engages students in the
learning process, whereas a teacher centered approach involves the teacher delivering the
majority of the information. This type of teaching requires students to construct meaning
from new information and prior experience.
Get creative
Avoid monotony by changing the structure of your class. Teach through games and
discussions instead of lectures or encourage students to debate. Enrich the subject matter
with visual aids, like colorful charts, diagrams, and videos. You can even show a movie
that effectively illustrates a topic or theme. Your physical classroom should never be
boring: use posters, models, student projects, and seasonal themes to create a warm,
stimulating environment.
Q.5 Differentiate in detail between Q.5 Differentiate in detail between inductive and
deductive reasoning.

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines observations with experiential
information to reach a conclusion. When you use a specific set of data or existing knowledge
from past experiences to make decisions, you're using inductive reasoning. In other words, there
seems to be no general algorithm or rule for doing inductive reasoning. So, whereas most
everyday induction is very gradual, trivial, and uncreative, the more substantial instances of
inductive reasoning are probably not reasoning at all, but creativity in action. However, that
since the size of the gap that separates the conventional from the creative is to some degree
arbitrary even everyday induction may exhibit bona fide elements of creativity that never
achieve celebrity. In inductive reasoning, thought processes move from specific observations to
more general ones, applying the theories suggested by observation of specific circumstances to
broader situations.
A key feature of induction is that generally it relies on accumulation of positive instances in
order to verify a theory as correct. A prime example of inductive reasoning involves the tale of
the coelacanth. For many years, scientists thought that a particular ancient species of fish, the
coelacanth, had been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous period, some 80 million years
ago. Inductive reasoning is an extremely valuable tool for young children. As we discussed in the
previous section, the influence of world knowledge on children’s ability to evaluate deductive
arguments is dramatic. Acquiring world knowledge requires regular use of induction, as children
use examples in order to develop rules and make sense of the regularities that they observe in
their environments. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning does not guarantee a valid
conclusion, but inducing rules is perhaps more important to developing a working knowledge of
the world than using the process of deduction. There are numerous forms of inductive reasoning.
In this section we will focus on category based induction. An important form of inductive
reasoning occurs when we consider a variety of instances, form a category of information based
on those instances, and then proceed to fit other new information into that category. For example,
a child may see several rabbits hopping around inside a pen and then conclude that all rabbits
hop. A more sophisticated inductive inference is possible based on more diverse instances.

USES

We use inductive reasoning in everyday life to build our understanding of the world. Inductive
reasoning also underpins the scientific method. Scientists gather data through observation and
experiment make hypotheses based on that data, and then test those theories further. That middle
step making hypotheses is an inductive inference, and they wouldn’t get very far without
it. Finally, despite the potential for weak conclusions, an inductive argument is also the main
type of reasoning in academic life.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific
conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive reasoning, where you start with specific
observations and form general conclusions. In deductive reasoning we argue from the general to
a specific instance. The basic idea is that if something is true of a sample of things/objects in
general, this truth applies to all things/objects of that group. The important point to be
considered, then, is to be able to properly identify things/objects of the sample. Improper
selection may result in invalid conclusions.

Application of deductive reasoning may help the teachers in the classroom and saves time also.
For example, we often say that “Be careful of that wasp: it might sting.” is based on the logic
that wasps have stings; therefore each individual wasp will have a sting. So, it can be concluded
that, we should not examine each and every wasp. Because of the validity of deductive
reasoning, we may make an assumption that is both useful and efficient. Let’s have another
example of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more
specific. Sometimes this is informally called a top down approach. We might begin with thinking
up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses
that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the
hypotheses.
Difference

Deductive and inductive reasoning have been considered to be core constructs in the study of
reasoning. These forms date back to ancient times with clear roots in classical Greek philosophy.
Aristotle emphasized the value of deductive reasoning as a source of powerful inferences in his
writings. Deductive reasoning can reliably yield a valid conclusion based on the premises
provided and the premises must also be valid for the approach to be successful. Inductive
reasoning by contrast may yield a valid inference and is likely to move us beyond the current
known information. Inductive and deductive are commonly used in the context of logic,
reasoning, and science. Scientists use both inductive and deductive reasoning as part of the
scientific method. Fictional detectives like Sherlock Holmes are famously associated with
methods of deduction. Some writing courses involve inductive and deductive essays. Broadly
speaking, the difference involves whether the reasoning moves from the general to the specific or
from the specific to the general. In this article, we’ll define each word in simple terms, provide
several examples, and even quiz you on whether you can spot the difference. Inductive reasoning
involves starting from specific premises and forming a general conclusion
while deductive reasoning involves using general premises to form a specific conclusion.
Conclusions reached via deductive reasoning cannot be incorrect if the premises are true. That’s
because the conclusion doesn’t contain information that’s not in the premises. Deductive
reasoning is a top down approach, while inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach. In
deductive reasoning, you start with general ideas and work toward specific conclusions through
inferences. Based on theories, you form a hypothesis. Using empirical observations, you test that
hypothesis using inferential statistics and form a conclusion. Inductive reasoning is also called a
hypothesis-generating approach, because you start with specific observations and build toward a
theory. It’s an exploratory method that’s often applied before deductive research. In practice,
most research projects involve both inductive and deductive methods.