Biology 6

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CIE IGCSE Biology Your notes
6.1 Photosynthesis & Leaf Structure

Contents
6.1.1 Photosynthesis
6.1.2 Chlorophyll
6.1.3 Use & Storage of Carbohydrates
6.1.4 Minerals in Plants
6.1.5 Investigating the Need for Chlorophyll, Light & Carbon Dioxide
6.1.6 Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis
6.1.7 Investigating Gas Exchange
6.1.8 Photosynthesis Chemical Equation: Extended
6.1.9 Limiting Factors: Extended
6.1.10 Leaf Structure
6.1.11 Identifying Leaf Structures in a Dicotyledonous Plant
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6.1.1 Photosynthesis
Your notes
Photosynthesis
Green plants make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials carbon dioxide and water
At the same time oxygen is made and released as a waste product
The reaction requires energy which is obtained by the pigment chlorophyll trapping light from the Sun
So photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from
raw materials using energy from light
It can be summed up in the following equation:
Exam Tip
If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is carbon dioxide and water.
Although required for the reaction to take place, light energy is not a substance and therefore cannot
be a raw material.
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Photosynthesis Word Equation

Your notes
Photosynthesis word equation
How plants get the materials they need
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6.1.2 Chlorophyll
Your notes
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found in chloroplasts within plant cells
It reflects green light, giving plants their characteristic green colour
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy; its role is to transfer energy from light into energy in chemicals, for
the synthesis of carbohydrates, such as glucose
Photosynthesis will not occur in the absence of chlorophyll
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6.1.3 Use & Storage of Carbohydrates

Your notes
Use & Storage of Carbohydrates
How are the products of photosynthesis used?
The carbohydrates produced by plants during photosynthesis can be used in the following ways:
Converted into starch molecules which act as an effective energy store
Converted into cellulose to build cell walls
Glucose can be used in respiration to provide energy
Converted to sucrose for transport in the phloem
As nectar to attract insects for pollination
Plants can also convert the carbohydrates made into lipids for an energy source in seeds and into
amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen and other mineral ions absorbed by
roots
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Your notes
The fate of glucose
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6.1.4 Minerals in Plants

Your notes
Minerals in Plants
Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, but plants contain many other types of biological molecule;
such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acid (DNA)
As plants do not eat, they need to make these substances themselves
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but proteins, for example, contain
nitrogen as well (and certain amino acids contain other elements too)
Other chemicals in plants contain different elements as well, for example chlorophyll contains
magnesium and nitrogen
This means that without a source of these elements, plants cannot photosynthesise or grow properly
Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil by root hair
cells
‘Mineral’ is a term used to describe any naturally occurring inorganic substance
Mineral deficiencies in plants

Mineral Deficiencies Table
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Your notes
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6.1.5 Investigating the Need for Chlorophyll, Light & Carbon Dioxide
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Investigating the Need for Chlorophyll
Although plants make glucose in photosynthesis, leaves cannot be tested for its presence as the
glucose is quickly used, converted into other substances and transported or stored as starch.
Starch is stored in chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a reliable
indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising.
Leaves can be tested for starch using the following procedure:
A leaf is dropped in boiling water to kill the cells and break down the cell membranes
The leaf is left for 5-10 minutes in hot ethanol in a boiling tube. This removes the chlorophyll so
colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
The leaf is dipped in boiling water to soften it
The leaf is spread out on a white tile and covered with iodine solution
In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the
leaf
This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by using a
variegated leaf (one that is partially green and partially white)
The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas that
contain chlorophyll stain blue-black
The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is occurring here
and so no starch is stored
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Your notes
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Your notes
Testing a variegated leaf for starch

Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that
stage of the experiment the Bunsen burner should be turned off.
The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a Bunsen
burner with an open flame
Investigating the Need for Light

The same procedure as above can be used to investigate if light is needed for photosynthesis
Before starting the experiment the plant needs to be destarched by placing in a dark cupboard for 24
hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect the results
of the experiment
Following destarching, a leaf of the plant can be partially covered with aluminium foil and the plant
placed in sunlight for a day
The leaf can then be removed and tested for starch using iodine
The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as it did not receive
any sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to sunlight will turn blue-black
This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch
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Investigating the Need for Carbon Dioxide

Destarch two plants by placing in the dark for a prolonged period of time Your notes
Place one plant in a bell jar which contains a beaker of sodium hydroxide (which will absorb carbon
dioxide from the surrounding air)
Place the other plant in a bell jar which contains a beaker of water (control experiment), which will not
absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air
Place both plants in bright light for several hours
Test both plants for starch using iodine
The leaf from the plant placed near sodium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it could not
photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide
The leaf from the plant placed near water should turn blue-black as it had all necessary requirements
for photosynthesis
An example setup for an experiment to test whether carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis in
plants.
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6.1.6 Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis

Your notes
Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis
The plants usually used are Elodea or Cabomba - types of pondweed
As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released
As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of the
pondweed
The number of bubbles produced over a minute can be counted to record the rate
The more bubbles produced per minute, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
A more accurate version of this experiment is to collect the oxygen released in a test tube inverted over
the top of the pondweed over a longer period of time and then measure the volume of oxygen
collected
This practical can be used in the following ways:
Investigating the effect of changing light intensity
This can be done by moving a lamp different distances away from the beaker containing the
pondweed
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Your notes
Investigating the effect of changing light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
Investigating the effect of changing temperature

This can be done by changing the temperature of the water in the beaker
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Your notes
Investigating the effect of changing temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Investigating the effect of changing carbon dioxide concentration
This can be done by dissolving different amounts of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the water in the
beaker
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Your notes
Investigating the effect of changing carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis
Care must be taken when investigating a condition to keep all other variables constant in order to
ensure a fair test
For example, when investigating changing light intensity, a glass tank should be placed in between the
lamp and the beaker to absorb heat from the lamp and so avoid changing the temperature of the water
as well as the light intensity
Exam Tip
Alternative ways of measuring the gas (oxygen) given off in these experiments would be to:
measure the volume of gas produced using an inverted measuring cylinder with graduations filled
with water that readings can be taken from as the water is displaced by the gas
or by using a syringe attached by a delivery tube to the funnel
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6.1.7 Investigating Gas Exchange

Your notes
Investigating Gas Exchange
Plants are respiring all the time and so plant cells are taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide as
a result of aerobic respiration
Plants also photosynthesise during daylight hours, for which they need to take in carbon dioxide and
release the oxygen made in photosynthesis
At night, plants do not photosynthesise but they continue to respire, meaning they take in oxygen and
give out carbon dioxide
Photosynthesis and respiration in plants
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During the day, especially when the sun is bright, plants are photosynthesising at a faster rate than
they are respiring, so there is a net intake of carbon dioxide and a net output of oxygen
We can investigate the effect of light on the net gas exchange in an aquatic plant using a pH indicator Your notes
such as hydrogencarbonate indicator
This is possible because carbon dioxide is an acidic gas when dissolved in water
Hydrogencarbonate indicator shows the carbon dioxide concentration in solution
The table below shows the colour that the indicator turns at different levels of carbon dioxide
concentration
Several leaves from the same plant are placed in stoppered boiling tubes containing some
hydrogencarbonate indicator
The effect of light can then be investigated over a period of a few hours
Results from a typical experiment are shown in the table below:
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Your notes
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6.1.8 Photosynthesis Chemical Equation: Extended

Your notes
Balanced Photosynthesis Chemical Equation: Extended
The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis is:
Balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

The light energy is converted into chemical energy in the bonds holding the atoms in the glucose
molecules together
Exam Tip
The photosynthesis equation is the exact reverse of the aerobic respiration equation so if you have
learned one you also know the other one! You will usually get more marks for providing the balanced
chemical equation than the word equation.
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6.1.9 Limiting Factors: Extended

Your notes
Limiting Factors: Extended
If a plant is given unlimited sunlight, carbon dioxide and water and is at a warm temperature, the limit on
the rate (speed) at which it can photosynthesise is its own ability to absorb these materials and make
them react
However, most often plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their rate of
photosynthesis is limited by whatever factor is the lowest at that time
So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such short supply that
it restricts life processes
There are three main factors which limit the rate of photosynthesis:
Temperature
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor as the amount
needed is relatively small compared to the amount of water transpired from a plant so there is hardly
ever a situation where there is not enough water for photosynthesis
Temperature
As temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis increases as the reaction is controlled by
enzymes
However, as the reaction is controlled by enzymes, this trend only continues up to a certain
temperature beyond which the enzymes begin to denature and the rate of reaction decreases
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Your notes
The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate from
increasing further because it is now in short supply
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Your notes
The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

At low light intensities, increasing the intensity will initially increase the rate of photosynthesis. At a
certain point, increasing the light intensity stops increasing the rate. The rate becomes constant
regardless of how much light intensity increases as something else is limiting the rate
The factors which could be limiting the rate when the line on the graph is horizontal include
temperature not being high enough or not enough carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide concentration
Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate from
increasing further because it is now in short supply
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Your notes
The effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis

The factors which could be limiting the rate when the line on the graph is horizontal include
temperature not being high enough or not enough light
Exam Tip
Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s quite simple. In the
section of the graph where the rate is increasing (the line is going up), the limiting factor is whatever the
label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the graph is. In the section of the graph where the rate is not
increasing (the line is horizontal), the limiting factor will be something other than what is on the x axis –
choose from temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.
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6.1.10 Leaf Structure

Your notes
Leaf Structure & Adaptations for Photosynthesis
Leaf structure
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Your notes
Page 26 of 34
Your notes
Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf
How photosynthesising cells obtain carbon dioxide
Pathway of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to chloroplasts by diffusion:

atmosphere → air spaces around spongy mesophyll tissue → leaf mesophyll cells → chloroplast
Leaf Structure Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
Adaptations of Leaf Structure for Photosynthesis Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
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6.1.11 Identifying Leaf Structures in a Dicotyledonous Plant

Your notes
Identifying Leaf Structures in a Dicotyledonous Plant
You will be expected to identify the following structures in the leaf of a dicotyledonous plant:
Chloroplasts
Cuticle
Guard cells
Stomata
Upper and lower epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Spongy mesophyll
Air spaces
Vascular bundles (xylem and phloem)
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Your notes
Page 33 of 34
Your notes
Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf
An electron micrograph of a leaf
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CIE IGCSE Biology Your notes

6.1 Photosynthesis & Leaf Structure

Photosynthesis Word Equation

Photosynthesis word equation

How plants get the materials they need

6.1.3 Use & Storage of Carbohydrates

The fate of glucose

6.1.4 Minerals in Plants

Mineral deficiencies in plants

Testing a variegated leaf for starch

Investigating the Need for Light

Investigating the Need for Carbon Dioxide

6.1.6 Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis

Investigating the effect of changing light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

Investigating the effect of changing temperature

Investigating the effect of changing temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

6.1.7 Investigating Gas Exchange

Photosynthesis and respiration in plants

6.1.8 Photosynthesis Chemical Equation: Extended

Balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

6.1.9 Limiting Factors: Extended

The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

The effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis

6.1.10 Leaf Structure

Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

How photosynthesising cells obtain carbon dioxide

Pathway of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to chloroplasts by diffusion:

Adaptations of Leaf Structure for Photosynthesis Table

6.1.11 Identifying Leaf Structures in a Dicotyledonous Plant

Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

An electron micrograph of a leaf

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