Class 12 Maths
Class 12 Maths
Class 12 Maths
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
A.1.1 Introduction
In Classes IX, X and XI, we have learnt about the concepts of a statement, compound
statement, negation, converse and contrapositive of a statement; axioms, conjectures,
theorems and deductive reasoning.
Here, we will discuss various methods of proving mathematical propositions.
A.1.2 What is a Proof?
Proof of a mathematical statement consists of sequence of statements, each statement
being justified with a definition or an axiom or a proposition that is previously established
by the method of deduction using only the allowed logical rules.
Thus, each proof is a chain of deductive arguments each of which has its premises
and conclusions. Many a times, we prove a proposition directly from what is given in
the proposition. But some times it is easier to prove an equivalent proposition rather
than proving the proposition itself. This leads to, two ways of proving a proposition
directly or indirectly and the proofs obtained are called direct proof and indirect proof
and further each has three different ways of proving which is discussed below.
Direct Proof It is the proof of a proposition in which we directly start the proof with
what is given in the proposition.
(i) Straight forward approach It is a chain of arguments which leads directly from
what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions or already proved
theorems, to what is to be proved using rules of logic.
Consider the following example:
Example 1 Show that if x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, then x = 3 or x = 2.
Solution x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 (given)
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188 MATHEMATICS
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 189
⇒ 2x1+ 0 = 2x2 + 0
⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 (using additive identity of real number)
2 2
⇒ x1 = x2 (dividing by the same non zero quantity)
2 2
⇒ x1 = x 2
Hence, the given function is one-one.
(ii) Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a strategy, of proving a proposition which is deductive in
nature. The whole basis of proof of this method depends on the following axiom:
For a given subset S of N, if
(i) the natural number 1 ∈ S and
(ii) the natural number k + 1 ∈ S whenever k ∈ S, then S = N.
According to the principle of mathematical induction, if a statement “S(n) is true
for n = 1” (or for some starting point j), and if “S(n) is true for n = k” implies that “S(n)
is true for n = k + 1” (whatever integer k ≥ j may be), then the statement is true for any
positive integer n, for all n ≥ j.
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that if
cos θ sin θ cos n θ sin n θ
A= , then An =
− sin θ cos θ − sin n θ cos n θ
Solution We have
cos n θ sin n θ
P(n) : An =
− sin n θ cos n θ
cos θ sin θ
We note that P(1) : A1 =
− sin θ cos θ
Therefore, P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true, i.e.,
cos k θ sin k θ
P(k) : Ak =
− sin k θ cos k θ
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190 MATHEMATICS
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 191
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192 MATHEMATICS
Now a = BC = BD – CD
i.e. a = c cos B – ( – b cos C)
a = c cos B + b cos C ... (2)
Case (iii) When ∠ C is a right angle (Fig A1.3).
From the right angled triangle ACB,
BC
= cos B
AB
i.e. BC = AB cos B
a = c cos B,
and b cos C = b cos 900 = 0. Fig A1.3
Thus, we may write a = 0 + c cos B
= b cos C + c cos B ... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3). We assert that for any triangle ABC,
a = b cos C + c cos B
By case (i), r ⇒ q is proved.
By case (ii), s ⇒ q is proved.
By case (iii), t ⇒ q is proved.
Hence, from the proof by cases, (r ∨ s ∨ t) ⇒ q is proved, i.e., p ⇒ q is proved.
Indirect Proof Instead of proving the given proposition directly, we establish the proof
of the proposition through proving a proposition which is equivalent to the given
proposition.
(i) Proof by contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) : Here, we start with the
assumption that the given statement is false. By rules of logic, we arrive at a
conclusion contradicting the assumption and hence it is inferred that the assumption
is wrong and hence the given statement is true.
Let us illustrate this method by an example.
Example 5 Show that the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
Solution Let P be the set of all prime numbers. We take the negation of the statement
“the set of all prime numbers is infinite”, i.e., we assume the set of all prime numbers
to be finite. Hence, we can list all the prime numbers as P1, P2, P3,..., Pk (say). Note
that we have assumed that there is no prime number other than P1, P2, P3,..., Pk .
Now consider N = (P1 P2 P3…Pk) + 1 ... (1)
N is not in the list as N is larger than any of the numbers in the list.
N is either prime or composite.
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 193
If N is a prime, then by (1), there exists a prime number which is not listed.
On the other hand, if N is composite, it should have a prime divisor. But none of the
numbers in the list can divide N, because they all leave the remainder 1. Hence, the
prime divisor should be other than the one in the list.
Thus, in both the cases whether N is a prime or a composite, we ended up with
contradiction to the fact that we have listed all the prime numbers.
Hence, our assumption that set of all prime numbers is finite is false.
Thus, the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
ANote Observe that the above proof also uses the method of proof by cases.
(ii) Proof by using contrapositive statement of the given statement
Instead of proving the conditional p ⇒ q, we prove its equivalent, i.e.,
~ q ⇒ ~ p. (students can verify).
The contrapositive of a conditional can be formed by interchanging the conclusion
and the hypothesis and negating both.
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194 MATHEMATICS
If A is not a non singular matrix, then it means the matrix A is singular, i.e.,
|A| = 0
adj A
Then A–1 = does not exist as | A | = 0
|A|
Hence, A is not invertible.
Thus, we have proved that if A is not a non singular matrix, then A is not invertible.
i.e., ~ q ⇒ ~ p.
Hence, if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.
(iii) Proof by a counter example
In the history of Mathematics, there are occasions when all attempts to find a
valid proof of a statement fail and the uncertainty of the truth value of the statement
remains unresolved.
In such a situation, it is beneficial, if we find an example to falsify the statement.
The example to disprove the statement is called a counter example. Since the disproof
of a proposition p ⇒ q is merely a proof of the proposition ~ (p ⇒ q). Hence, this is
also a method of proof.
n
Example 8 For each n, 2 2 + 1 is a prime (n ∈ N).
This was once thought to be true on the basis that
1
2 2 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 5 is a prime.
2
2 2 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17 is a prime.
3
22 + 1 = 28 + 1 = 257 is a prime.
However, at first sight the generalisation looks to be correct. But, eventually it was
5
shown that 2 2 + 1 = 232 + 1 = 4294967297
which is not a prime since 4294967297 = 641 × 6700417 (a product of two numbers).
n
So the generalisation “For each n, 22 + 1 is a prime (n ∈ N)” is false.
5
Just this one example 22 + 1 is sufficient to disprove the generalisation. This is the
counter example.
n
Thus, we have proved that the generalisation “For each n, 2 2 + 1 is a prime
(n ∈ N)” is not true in general.
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196 MATHEMATICS
Appendix 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
A.2.1 Introduction
In class XI, we have learnt about mathematical modelling as an attempt to study some
part (or form) of some real-life problems in mathematical terms, i.e., the conversion of
a physical situation into mathematics using some suitable conditions. Roughly speaking
mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make models to describe the behaviour
of various phenomenal activities of our interest in many ways using words, drawings or
sketches, computer programs, mathematical formulae etc.
In earlier classes, we have observed that solutions to many problems, involving
applications of various mathematical concepts, involve mathematical modelling in one
way or the other. Therefore, it is important to study mathematical modelling as a separate
topic.
In this chapter, we shall further study mathematical modelling of some real-life
problems using techniques/results from matrix, calculus and linear programming.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 197
(v) Why heart patients are not allowed to use lift? (without knowing the physiology
of a human being).
(vi) To find the mass of the Earth.
(vii) Estimate the yield of pulses in India from the standing crops (a person is not
allowed to cut all of it).
(viii) Find the volume of blood inside the body of a person (a person is not allowed to
bleed completely).
(ix) Estimate the population of India in the year 2020 (a person is not allowed to wait
till then).
All of these problems can be solved and infact have been solved with the help of
Mathematics using mathematical modelling. In fact, you might have studied the methods
for solving some of them in the present textbook itself. However, it will be instructive if
you first try to solve them yourself and that too without the help of Mathematics, if
possible, you will then appreciate the power of Mathematics and the need for
mathematical modelling.
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198 MATHEMATICS
The above principles of mathematical modelling lead to the following: steps for
mathematical modelling.
Step 1: Identify the physical situation.
Step 2: Convert the physical situation into a mathematical model by introducing
parameters / variables and using various known physical laws and symbols.
Step 3: Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
Step 4: Interpret the result in terms of the original problem and compare the result
with observations or experiments.
Step 5: If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify
the hypotheses / assumptions according to the physical situation and go to
Step 2.
The above steps can also be viewed through the following diagram:
Fig A.2.1
Example 1 Find the height of a given tower using mathematical modelling.
Solution Step 1 Given physical situation is “to find the height of a given tower”.
Step 2 Let AB be the given tower (Fig A.2.2). Let PQ be an observer measuring the
height of the tower with his eye at P. Let PQ = h and let height of tower be H. Let α
be the angle of elevation from the eye of the observer to the top of the tower.
Fig A.2.2
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 199
Let l = PC = QB
AC H − h
Now tan α = =
PC l
or H = h + l tan α ... (1)
Step 3 Note that the values of the parameters h, l and α (using sextant) are known to
the observer and so (1) gives the solution of the problem.
Step 4 In case, if the foot of the tower is not accessible, i.e., when l is not known to the
observer, let β be the angle of depression from P to the foot B of the tower. So from
∆PQB, we have
PQ h
tan β = = or l = h cot β
QB l
Step 5 is not required in this situation as exact values of the parameters h, l, α and β
are known.
Example 2 Let a business firm produces three types of products P1, P2 and P3 that
uses three types of raw materials R1, R2 and R3. Let the firm has purchase orders from
two clients F1 and F2. Considering the situation that the firm has a limited quantity of
R1, R2 and R3, respectively, prepare a model to determine the quantities of the raw
material R1, R2 and R3 required to meet the purchase orders.
Solution Step 1 The physical situation is well identified in the problem.
Step 2 Let A be a matrix that represents purchase orders from the two clients F1 and
F2. Then, A is of the form
P1 P2 P3
F1 • • •
A=
F2 • • •
Let B be the matrix that represents the amount of raw materials R1, R2 and R3,
required to manufacture each unit of the products P1, P2 and P3. Then, B is of the form
R1 R 2 R 3
P1 • • •
B = P2 • • •
P3 • • •
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200 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 Note that the product (which in this case is well defined) of matrices A and B
is given by the following matrix
R1 R 2 R3
F1 • • •
AB =
F2 • • •
which in fact gives the desired quantities of the raw materials R1, R2 and R3 to fulfill
the purchase orders of the two clients F1 and F2.
Example 3 Interpret the model in Example 2, in case
3 4 0
10 15 6
A= , B = 7 9 3
10 20 0 5 12 7
and the available raw materials are 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3.
Solution Note that
3 4 0
10 15 6 7 9 3
AB =
10 20 0 5 12 7
R1 R 2 R 3
F1 165 247 87
=
F2 170 220 60
This clearly shows that to meet the purchase order of F1 and F2, the raw material
required is 335 units of R1, 467 units of R2 and 147 units of R3 which is much more than
the available raw material. Since the amount of raw material required to manufacture
each unit of the three products is fixed, we can either ask for an increase in the
available raw material or we may ask the clients to reduce their orders.
Remark If we replace A in Example 3 by A1 given by
9 12 6
A1 =
10 20 0
i.e., if the clients agree to reduce their purchase orders, then
3 4 0
9 12 6 141 216 78
A1 B = 7 9 3 =
10 20 0 170 220 60
5 12 7
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 201
This requires 311 units of R1, 436 units of R2 and 138 units of R3 which are well
below the available raw materials, i.e., 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of
R3. Thus, if the revised purchase orders of the clients are given by A1, then the firm
can easily supply the purchase orders of the two clients.
A Note One may further modify A so as to make full use of the available
raw material.
Query Can we make a mathematical model with a given B and with fixed quantities of
the available raw material that can help the firm owner to ask the clients to modify their
orders in such a way that the firm makes the full use of its available raw material?
The answer to this query is given in the following example:
Example 4 Suppose P1, P2, P3 and R1, R2, R3 are as in Example 2. Let the firm has
330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3 available with it and let the amount
of raw materials R1, R2 and R3 required to manufacture each unit of the three products
is given by
R1 R 2 R3
P1 3 4 0
B = P2 7 9 3
P3 5 12 7
How many units of each product is to be made so as to utilise the full available raw
material?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Suppose the firm produces x units of P1, y units of P2 and z units of P3. Since
product P1 requires 3 units of R1, P2 requires 7 units of R1 and P3 requires 5 units of R1
(observe matrix B) and the total number of units, of R1, available is 330, we have
3x + 7y + 5z = 330 (for raw material R1)
Similarly, we have
4x + 9y + 12z = 455 (for raw material R2)
and 3y + 7z = 140 (for raw material R3)
This system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as
3 7 5 x 330
4 9 12 y = 455
0 3 7 z 140
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202 MATHEMATICS
1 0 0 x 20
0 1 0 y = 35
0 0 1 z 5
This gives x = 20, y = 35 and z = 5. Thus, the firm can produce 20 units of P1, 35
units of P2 and 5 units of P3 to make full use of its available raw material.
Remark One may observe that if the manufacturer decides to manufacture according
to the available raw material and not according to the purchase orders of the two
clients F1 and F2 (as in Example 3), he/she is unable to meet these purchase orders as
F1 demanded 6 units of P3 where as the manufacturer can make only 5 units of P3.
Example 5 A manufacturer of medicines is preparing a production plan of medicines
M1 and M2. There are sufficient raw materials available to make 20000 bottles of M1
and 40000 bottles of M2, but there are only 45000 bottles into which either of the
medicines can be put. Further, it takes 3 hours to prepare enough material to fill 1000
bottles of M1, it takes 1 hour to prepare enough material to fill 1000 bottles of M2 and
there are 66 hours available for this operation. The profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and
Rs 7 per bottle for M2. How should the manufacturer schedule his/her production in
order to maximise profit?
Solution Step 1 To find the number of bottles of M1 and M2 in order to maximise the
profit under the given hypotheses.
Step 2 Let x be the number of bottles of type M1 medicine and y be the number of
bottles of type M2 medicine. Since profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and Rs 7 per bottle
for M2, therefore the objective function (which is to be maximised) is given by
Z ≡ Z (x, y) = 8x + 7y
The objective function is to be maximised subject to the constraints (Refer Chapter
12 on Linear Programming)
x ≤ 20000
y ≤ 40000
x + y ≤ 45000
3x + y ≤ 66000
... (1)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Step 3 The shaded region OPQRST is the feasible region for the constraints (1)
(Fig A.2.3). The co-ordinates of vertices O, P, Q, R, S and T are (0, 0), (20000, 0),
(20000, 6000), (10500, 34500), (5000, 40000) and (0, 40000), respectively.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 203
Fig A.2.3
Note that
Z at P (0, 0) = 0
Z at P (20000, 0) = 8 × 20000 = 160000
Z at Q (20000, 6000) = 8 × 20000 + 7 × 6000 = 202000
Z at R (10500, 34500) = 8 × 10500 + 7 × 34500 = 325500
Z at S = (5000, 40000) = 8 × 5000 + 7 × 40000 = 320000
Z at T = (0, 40000) = 7 × 40000 = 280000
Now observe that the profit is maximum at x = 10500 and y = 34500 and the
maximum profit is ` 325500. Hence, the manufacturer should produce 10500 bottles of
M1 medicine and 34500 bottles of M2 medicine in order to get maximum profit of
` 325500.
Example 6 Suppose a company plans to produce a new product that incur some costs
(fixed and variable) and let the company plans to sell the product at a fixed price.
Prepare a mathematical model to examine the profitability.
Solution Step 1 Situation is clearly identifiable.
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204 MATHEMATICS
Step 2 Formulation: We are given that the costs are of two types: fixed and variable.
The fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced (e.g., rent and rates),
while the variable costs increase with the number of units produced (e.g., material).
Initially, we assume that the variable costs are directly proportional to the number of
units produced — this should simplify our model. The company earn a certain amount
of money by selling its products and wants to ensure that it is maximum. For convenience,
we assume that all units produced are sold immediately.
The mathematical model
Let x = number of units produced and sold
C = total cost of production (in rupees)
I = income from sales (in rupees)
P = profit (in rupees)
Our assumptions above state that C consists of two parts:
(i) fixed cost = a (in rupees),
(ii) variable cost = b (rupees/unit produced).
Then C = a + bx ... (1)
Also, income I depends on selling price s (rupees/unit)
Thus I = sx ... (2)
The profit P is then the difference between income and costs. So
P=I–C
= sx – (a + bx)
= (s – b) x – a ... (3)
We now have a mathematical model of the relationships (1) to (3) between
the variables x, C, I, P, a, b, s. These variables may be classified as:
independent x
dependent C, I, P
parameters a, b, s
The manufacturer, knowing x, a, b, s can determine P.
Step 3 From (3), we can observe that for the break even point (i.e., make neither profit
a
nor loss), he must have P = 0, i.e., x = units.
s −b
Steps 4 and 5 In view of the break even point, one may conclude that if the company
a
produces few units, i.e., less than x = units , then the company will suffer loss
s −b
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 205
a
and if it produces large number of units, i.e., much more than units , then it can
s −b
make huge profit. Further, if the break even point proves to be unrealistic, then another
model could be tried or the assumptions regarding cash flow may be modified.
Remark From (3), we also have
dP
= s −b
dx
This means that rate of change of P with respect to x depends on the quantity
s – b, which is the difference of selling price and the variable cost of each product.
Thus, in order to gain profit, this should be positive and to get large gains, we need to
produce large quantity of the product and at the same time try to reduce the variable
cost.
Example 7 Let a tank contains 1000 litres of brine which contains 250 g of salt per
litre. Brine containing 200 g of salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 25 litres per
minute and the mixture flows out at the same rate. Assume that the mixture is kept
uniform all the time by stirring. What would be the amount of salt in the tank at
any time t?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Let y = y (t) denote the amount of salt (in kg) in the tank at time t (in minutes)
after the inflow, outflow starts. Further assume that y is a differentiable function.
When t = 0, i.e., before the inflow–outflow of the brine starts,
y = 250 g × 1000 = 250 kg
Note that the change in y occurs due to the inflow, outflow of the mixture.
Now the inflow of brine brings salt into the tank at the rate of 5 kg per minute
(as 25 × 200 g = 5 kg) and the outflow of brine takes salt out of the tank at the rate of
y y y
25 = kg per minute (as at time t, the salt in the tank is kg).
1000 40 1000
Thus, the rate of change of salt with respect to t is given by
dy y
= 5− (Why?)
dt 40
dy 1
or + y =5 ... (1)
dt 40
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206 MATHEMATICS
50
Therefore t = 40 log e ... (4)
y − 200
Here, the equation (4) gives the time t at which the salt in tank is y kg.
t
−
Step 4 Since e 40 is always positive, from (3), we conclude that y > 200 at all times
Thus, the minimum amount of salt content in the tank is 200 kg.
Also, from (4), we conclude that t > 0 if and only if 0 < y – 200 < 50 i.e., if and only
if 200 < y < 250 i.e., the amount of salt content in the tank after the start of inflow and
outflow of the brine is between 200 kg and 250 kg.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 207
The development of the powerful computers and super computers has enabled us
to mathematically model a large number of situations (even complex situations). Due
to these fast and advanced computers, it has been possible to prepare more realistic
models which can obtain better agreements with observations.
However, we do not have good guidelines for choosing various parameters / variables
and also for estimating the values of these parameters / variables used in a mathematical
model. Infact, we can prepare reasonably accurate models to fit any data by choosing
five or six parameters / variables. We require a minimal number of parameters / variables
to be able to estimate them accurately.
Mathematical modelling of large or complex situations has its own special problems.
These type of situations usually occur in the study of world models of environment,
oceanography, pollution control etc. Mathematical modellers from all disciplines —
mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, social sciences, etc., are involved
in meeting these challenges with courage.
—v—
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208 MATHEMATICS
ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(ii) Neither reflexive nor symmetric but transitive.
(iii) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(iv) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(v) (a) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(b) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(c) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric but transitive.
(e) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
5. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
9. (i) {1, 5, 9}, (ii) {1} 12. T1 is related to T3.
13. The set of all triangles 14. The set of all lines y = 2x + c, c ∈ R
15. B 16. C
EXERCISE 1.2
1. No
2. (i) Injective but not surjective (ii) Neither injective nor surjective
(iii) Neither injective nor surjective (iv) Injective but not surjective
(v) Injective but not surjective
7. (i) One-one and onto (ii) Neither one-one nor onto.
9. No 10. Yes 11. D 12. A
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ANSWERS 209
EXERCISE 2.1
−π π π −π
1. 2. 3. 4.
6 6 6 3
2π π π π
5. 6. − 7. 8.
3 4 6 6
3π −π 3π 2π
9. 10. 11. 12.
4 4 4 3
13. B 14. B
EXERCISE 2.2
1 −1 x π
3. tan x 4. 5. −x
2 2 4
−1 x −1 x π
6. sin 7. 3tan 8.
a a 4
x+ y π
9. 1 − xy 10.
3
−π 17
11. 12. 13. B 14. D
4 6
15. B
EXERCISE 3.1
5
1. (i) 3 × 4 (ii) 12 (iii) 19, 35, – 5, 12,
2
2. 1 × 24, 2 × 12, 3 × 8, 4 × 6, 6 × 4, 8 × 3, 12 × 2, 24 × 1; 1 × 13, 13 × 1
3. 1 × 18, 2 × 9, 3 × 6, 6 × 3, 9 × 2, 18 × 1; 1 × 5, 5 × 1
9
1
2 9 25
2 1 2
4. (i) (ii) (iii) 2 2
9
8 2 1 8 18
2
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210 MATHEMATICS
1 1
1 2 0 2
1 0 −1 −2
1 (ii) 3 2 1 0
5 3
5. (i) 2
2 2
5 4 3 2
4 7 3 5
2 2
6. (i) x = 1, y = 4, z = 3
(ii) x = 4, y = 2, z = 0 or x = 2, y = 4, z = 0
(iii) x = 2, y = 4, z=3
7. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4
8. C 9. B 10. D
EXERCISE 3.2
3 7 1 1
1. (i) A + B = (ii) A − B =
1 7 5 −3
8 7 −6 26 11 10
(iii) 3A − C = (iv) A B = (v) BA =
6 2 −1 19 11 2
2a 2b ( a + b) 2 (b + c) 2
2. (i) 0 2a (ii)
(a − c) (a − b)2
2
11 11 0
16 5 21 1 1
(iii) (iv) 1 1
5 10 9
a 2 + b2 2 3 4
0 4 6 8 − 3 − 4 1
3.(i) 8 13 9
(ii) (iii)
0 a + b
2 2
6 9 12
14 0 42 1 2 3
18 −1 56 1 4 5 14 −6
(iv) (v) (vi) 4 5
22 −2 70 −2 2 0
4 1 −1 −1 −2 0
4. A + B = 9 2 7 , B − C = 4 −1 3
3 −1 4 1 2 0
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ANSWERS 211
0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
5. 6. 0 1
0 0 0
2 −12 2 13
5 5 , 5 5
5 0 2 0 X= Y=
7. (i) X = , Y = (ii) −11
1 4 1 1 3 14 −2
5 5
−1 −1
8. X = 9. x = 3, y = 3 10. x = 3, y = 6, z = 9, t = 6
−2 −1
11. x = 3, y = – 4 12. x = 2, y = 4, w = 3, z = 1
1 −1 −3
−1 −1 −10
15. 17. k = 1
−5 4 4
19. (a) ` 15000, ` 15000 (b) ` 5000, ` 25000
20. ` 20160 21. A 22. B
EXERCISE 3.3
−1 3 2
1 1 2
1. (i) 5 2 −1 (ii) −1 3 (iii) 5 5 3
6 6 −1
0 0 0 0 a b
− 4 5 0 0 0 , − a 0 c
4. 1 6 9.
0 0 0 −b −c 0
3 3 0 2
10. (i) A = +
3 −1 −2 0
6 −2 2 0 0 0
(ii) A = − 2 3 − 1 + 0
0 0
2 −1 3 0 0 0
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212 MATHEMATICS
1 −5 5 3
3 2 2 0 2 2
A=
1
−2 −2 + −5 0 3
2 2 1 2 0 3
(iii) (iv) A = +
−5 −3 2 2 −3 0
−2 2 −3 0
2 2
11. A 12. B
EXERCISE 3.4
1. D
1 1 1
3. x=± ,y=± ,z=±
2 6 3
4. x = – 1 6. x = ± 4 3
7. (a) Total revenue in the market - I = ` 46000
Total revenue in the market - II = ` 53000
(b) ` 15000, ` 17000
1 −2
8. X = 9. C 10. B 11. C
2 0
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) 18 2. (i) 1, (ii) x3 – x2 + 2
5. (i) – 12, (ii) 46, (iii) 0, (iv) 5 6. 0
EXERCISE 4.2
15 47
1. (i) , (ii) , (iii) 15
2 2
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ANSWERS 213
EXERCISE 4.3
1. (i) M11 = 3, M12 = 0, M21 = – 4, M22 = 2, A11 = 3, A12 = 0, A21 = 4, A22 = 2
(ii) M11 = d, M12 = b, M21 = c, M22 = a
A11 = d, A12= – b, A21 = – c, A22 = a
2. (i) M11= 1, M12= 0, M13 = 0, M21 = 0, M22 = 1, M23 = 0, M31 = 0, M32 = 0, M33 = 1,
A11= 1, A12= 0, A13= 0, A21= 0, A22= 1, A23= 0, A31= 0, A32= 0, A33= 1
(ii) M11= 11, M12= 6, M13= 3, M21= –4, M22= 2, M23= 1, M31= –20, M32= –13, M33= 5
A11=11, A12= – 6, A13= 3, A21= 4, A22= 2, A23= –1, A31= –20, A32= 13, A33= 5
3. 7 4. (x – y) (y – z) (z – x) 5. (D)
EXERCISE 4.4
3 1 −11
4 −2 1 3 2
−12 5 −1
14 − 4 2
1. 2. 5.
−3 1
6 2 5
10 −10 2 −3 0 0
1 2 −5 1 −1
6. 7. 0 5 − 4 8. 3 −1 0
13 3 −1 10 3
0 0 2 −9 −2 3
−1 5 3 −2 0 1 1 0 0
−1
9. − 4 23 12 10. 9 2 −3 11. 0 cos α sin α
3
1 −11 − 6 6 1 −2 0 sin α – cos α
−3 4 5
1 2 −1
= 9 −1 − 4
−1 1
13. 1 3 14. a = – 4, b = 1 15. A
7 11
5 −3 −1
3 1 −1
1
16. 1 3 1 17. B 18. B
4
−1 1 3
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214 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 4.5
1. Consistent 2. Consistent 3. Inconsistent
4. Consistent 5. Inconsistent 6. Consistent
−5 12 −6 −19
7. x = 2, y = – 3 8. x= , y= 9. x= , y=
11 11 11 11
1 −3
10. x = –1, y = 4 11. x = 1, y = , z =
2 2
12. x = 2, y = –1, z = 1 13. x = 1, y = 2, z = –1
14. x = 2, y = 1, z = 3
0 1 −2
15. −2 9 −23 , x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
−1 5 −13
9 −3 5
−2 1 0
2. 1 3.
1 0 2
5. – 2(x3 + y3) 6. xy 7. x = 2, y = 3, z = 5
8. A 9. D
EXERCISE 5.1
2. f is continuous at x = 3
3. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are all continuous functions
5. f is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2; Not continuous at x = 1
6. Discontinuous at x = 2 7. Discontinuous at x = 3
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ANSWERS 215
EXERCISE 5.2
2
1. 2x cos (x + 5) 2. – cos x sin (sin x) 3. a cos (ax + b)
sec (tan x).tan (tan x ).sec 2 x
4.
2 x
5. a cos (ax + b) sec (cx + d) + c sin (ax + b) tan (cx + d) sec (cx + d)
6. 10x4 sinx5 cosx5 cosx3 – 3x2 sinx3 sin2 x5
−2 2 x sin x
7. 2 2 8. −
sin x sin 2 x 2 x
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216 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.3
cosx − 2 2 a
1. 2. 3. −
3 cos y − 3 2by + sin y
sec2 x − y (2 x + y ) (3x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 )
4. 5. − 6. −
x + 2 y −1 ( x + 2 y) ( x 2 + 2 xy + 3 y 2 )
y sin xy sin 2 x 2 3
7. sin 2 y − x sin xy 8. 9. 10.
sin 2 y 1 + x2 1 + x2
2 −2 −2 2
11. 12. 13. 14.
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 − x2
2
15. −
1 − x2
EXERCISE 5.4
e − x cos (tan −1 e – x )
−
3
3. 3x 2 e x 4.
1+ e −2 x
π x2
, n ∈N 6. e x + 2 x e + 3 x 2 e x + 4 x 3e x + 5 x 4 e x
3 4 5
5. – ex tan ex, e x ≠ (2n + 1)
2
x
e 1
7. ,x>0 8. ,x>1
x x log x
4 xe
EXERCISE 5.5
1. – cos x cos 2x cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]
1 ( x − 1) ( x − 2) 1 1 1 1 1
+ − − −
2. 2 ( x − 3)( x − 4)( x − 5) x − 1 x − 2 x − 3 x − 4 x − 5
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ANSWERS 217
cos x cos x
3. (log x) x log x − sin x log (log x)
4. xx (1 + log x) – 2sin x cos x log 2
5. (x + 3) (x + 4)2 (x + 5)3 (9x2 + 70x + 133)
x
1 x 2 −1 1
1
1+ x + 1 − log x
6. x + 2 + log ( x + ) + x x
x x +1 x x2
7. (log x)x-1 [1 + log x . log (log x)] + 2x logx–1 . logx
1 1
8. (sin x)x (x cot x + log sin x) +
2 x − x2
sin x
9. x sinx + cos x log x + (sin x)cos x [cos x cot x – sin x log sin x]
x
4x
10. x x cosx [cos x . (1 + log x) – x sin x log x] – 2
( x − 1)2
yx y −1 + y x log y y y − x log y
12. − 13.
x y log x + xy x −1 x x − y log x
y tan x + log cos y y ( x −1)
14. 15.
x tan y + log cos x x ( y + 1)
1 2x 4 x3 8 x7
16. (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 +x4) (1 + x8) + + + ; f ′(1) = 120
1 + x 1 + x 2 1 + x 4 1 + x 8
17. 5x4 – 20x3 + 45x2 – 52x + 11
EXERCISE 5.6
b 1
1. t 2 2. 3. – 4 sin t 4. −
a t2
cos θ − 2cos 2θ θ
5. 6. − cot 7. – cot 3t 8. tan t
2sin 2θ − sin θ 2
b
9. cosec θ 10. tan θ
a
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218 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.7
1. 2 2. 380 x18 3. – x cos x – 2 sin x
1
4. − 5. x(5 + 6 log x) 6. 2ex (5 cos 5x – 12 sin 5x)
x2
2x
7. 9 e6x (3 cos 3x – 4 sin 3x) 8. −
(1 + x 2 ) 2
(1 + log x) sin (log x) + cos (log x)
9. − 10. −
( x log x) 2 x2
12. – cot y cosec2 y
3. (5 x) 3cos 2 x
3cos 2 x
x − 6sin 2 x log 5 x
x
3 x cos −1
1 2
4. 5. − +
2 1 − x3 3
4 − x 2 x + 7 (2 x + 7) 2
2
7. (log x) log x +
1 1 log (log x)
6.
2 x x , x > 1
8. (a sin x – b cos x) sin (a cos x + b sin x)
9. (sinx – cosx)sin x – cos x (cosx + sinx) (1 + log (sinx – cos x)), sinx > cosx
10. xx (1 + log x) + ax a–1 + ax log a
2
−3 x2 − 3 2 x2
11. xx + 2 x log x + ( x − 3) x + 2 x log( x − 3)
x x −3
6 t sec3 t π
12. cot 13. 0 17. ,0 < t <
5 2 at 2
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ANSWERS 219
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (a) 6π cm2/cm (b) 8π cm2/cm
8
2. cm2/s 3. 60π cm2/s 4. 900 cm3/s
3
5. 80π cm2/s 6. 1.4π cm/s
7. (a) –2 cm/min (b) 2 cm2/min
1 8
8. cm/s 9. 400π cm3/cm 10. cm/s
π 3
−31
11. (4, 11) and − 4, 12. 2π cm3/s
3
27 1
13. π (2 x + 1)2 14. cm/s 15. ` 20.967
8 48π
EXERCISE 6.2
3 3
4. (a) , ∞ (b) − ∞,
4 4
3 3
(b) decreasing for x > −
and increasing for x < −
2 2
(c) increasing for – 2 < x < – 1 and decreasing for x < – 2 and
x>–1
9 9
(d) increasing for x < − and decreasing for x > −
2 2
(e) increasing in (1, 3) and (3, ∞), decreasing in (– ∞, –1) and (– 1, 1).
8. 0 < x < 1 and x > 2 12. A, B
13. D 14. a > – 2 19. D
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220 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) Minimum Value = 3 (ii) Minimum Value = – 2
(iii) Maximum Value = 10 (iv) Neither minimum nor maximum value
2. (i) Minimum Value = – 1; No maximum value
(ii) Maximum Value = 3; No minimum value
(iii) Minimum Value = 4; Maximum Value = 6
(iv) Minimum Value = 2; Maximum Value = 4
(v) Neither minimum nor Maximum Value
3. (i) local minimum at x = 0, local minimum value = 0
(ii) local minimum at x = 1, local minimum value = – 2
local maximum at x = – 1, local maximum value = 2
π
(iii) local maximum at x = , local maximum value = 2
4
3π
(iv) local maximum at x = , local maximum value = 2
4
7π
local minimum at x = , local minimum value = – 2
4
(v) local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 19
local minimum at x = 3, local minimum value = 15
(vi) local minimum at x = 2, local minimum value = 2
1
(vii) local maximum at x = 0, local maximum value =
2
2 2 3
(viii) local maximum at x = , local maximum value =
3 9
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ANSWERS 221
π 5π
8. At x = and 9. Maximum value = 2
4 4
10. Maximum at x = 3, maximum value 89; maximum at x = – 2, maximum value = 139
11. a = 120
12. Maximum at x = 2π, maximum value = 2π; Minimum at x = 0, minimum value = 0
13. 12, 12 14. 45, 15 15. 25, 10 16. 8, 8
17. 3 cm 18. x = 5 cm
1 1
50 3 50 3
21. radius = cm and height = 2 cm
π π
112 28π
22. cm, cm 27. A 28. D 29. C
π+4 π+4
2. b 3 cm2/s
π 3π π 3π
3. (i) 0 £ x £ and < x < 2π (ii) <x<
2 2 2 2
4. (i) x < –1 and x > 1 (ii) – 1 < x < 1
—v—
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222 MATHEMATICS
3 3
5. ab 6. Rs 1000
4
20 10
8. length = m, breadth = m
π+4 π+4
2
10. (i) local maxima at x = (ii) local minima at x = 2
7
(iii) point of inflection at x = –1
5
11. Absolute maximum = , Absolute minimum = 1
4
4π R 3
14. 16. A
3 3
—v—
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ANSWERS 223
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
CHAPTER 5
∆x
lo g e 1 +
lim
1 x
= ∆x→ 0 x ∆x
x
1 lo g e (1 + h )
= [since li m = 1]
x h → 0 h
d 1
Thus, log e x = .
dx x
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224 MATHEMATICS
NOTES
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MATHEMATICS
Textbook for Class XII
PART I
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12079 – MATHEMATICS
ISBN 81-7450-629-2
Textbook for Class XII
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Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap
between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to
discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different
subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction
of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education
(1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative
activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom,
children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them
by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of
the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating
creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in
learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a
source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of
curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The
textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and
activities requiring hands-on experience.
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NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in
Science and Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor P.K. Jain for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed
to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this
possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes
given above.
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Preface
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) had constituted
21 Focus Groups on Teaching of various subjects related to School Education, to
review the National Curriculum Framework for School Education - 2000 (NCFSE -
2000) in face of new emerging challenges and transformations occurring in the fields
of content and pedagogy under the contexts of National and International spectrum of
school education. These Focus Groups made general and specific comments in their
respective areas. Consequently, based on these reports of Focus Groups, National
Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 was developed.
NCERT designed the new syllabi and constituted Textbook Development Teams
for Classes XI and XII to prepare textbooks in mathematics under the new guidelines
and new syllabi. The textbook for Class XI is already in use, which was brought in
2005.
The first draft of the present book (Class XII) was prepared by the team consisting
of NCERT faculty, experts and practicing teachers. The draft was refined by the
development team in different meetings. This draft of the book was exposed to a
group of practicing teachers teaching mathematics at higher secondary stage in different
parts of the country, in a review workshop organised by the NCERT at Delhi. The
teachers made useful comments and suggestions which were incorporated in the draft
textbook. The draft textbook was finalised by an editorial board constituted out of the
development team. Finally, the Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics and the
Monitoring Committee constituted by the HRD Ministry, Government of India have
approved the draft of the textbook.
In the fitness of things, let us cite some of the essential features dominating the
textbook. These characteristics have reflections in almost all the chapters. The existing
textbook contain 13 main chapters and two appendices. Each Chapter contain the
followings:
§ Introduction: Highlighting the importance of the topic; connection with earlier
studied topics; brief mention about the new concepts to be discussed in the
chapter.
§ Organisation of chapter into sections comprising one or more concepts/sub
concepts.
§ Motivating and introducing the concepts/sub concepts. Illustrations have been
provided wherever possible.
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viii
PAWAN K. JAIN
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
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Textbook Development Committee
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Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop: Jagdish Saran, Professor, Deptt. of
Statistics, University of Delhi; Quddus Khan, Lecturer, Shibli National P.G. College
Azamgarh (U.P.); P.K. Tewari, Assistant Commissioner (Retd.), Kendriya Vidyalaya
Sangathan; S.B. Tripathi, Lecturer, R.P.V.V. Surajmal Vihar, Delhi; O.N. Singh, Reader,
RIE, Bhubaneswar, Orissa; Miss Saroj, Lecturer, Govt. Girls Senior Secondary School
No.1, Roop Nagar, Delhi; P. Bhaskar Kumar, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya,
Lepakshi, Anantapur, (A.P.); Mrs. S. Kalpagam, PGT, K.V. NAL Campus, Bangalore;
Rahul Sofat, Lecturer, Air Force Golden Jubilee Institute, Subroto Park, New Delhi;
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Vikaspuri, District Centre,
New Delhi; Janardan Tripathi, Lecturer, Govt. R.H.S.S. Aizawl, Mizoram and
Ms. Sushma Jaireth, Reader, DWS, NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer
Station, Sajjad Haider Ansari, Rakesh Kumar and Nargis Islam, D.T.P. Operators,
Monika Saxena,Copy Editor and Abhimanu Mohanty, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM and Publication
Department is also duly acknowledged.
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Contents
PART I
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook v
Preface vii
1. Relations and Functions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Relations 2
1.3 Types of Functions 7
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12
2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Basic Concepts 18
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 27
3. Matrices 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Matrix 34
3.3 Types of Matrices 39
3.4 Operations on Matrices 43
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 61
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 63
3.7 Invertible Matrices 68
4. Determinants 76
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Determinant 76
4.3 Area of a Triangle 82
4.4 Minors and Cofactors 84
4.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 87
4.6 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 93
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5. Continuity and Differentiability 104
5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Continuity 104
5.3 Differentiability 118
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 125
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 130
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 134
5.7 Second Order Derivative 137
6. Application of Derivatives 147
6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 147
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 152
6.4 Maxima and Minima 159
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 187
A.1.1 Introduction 187
A.1.2 What is a Proof? 187
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 196
A.2.1 Introduction 196
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling? 196
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling 197
Answers 208
Supplementary Material 222
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ANSWERS 439
ANSWERS
EXERCISE 7.1
1 1 1 2x
1. − cos 2 x 2. sin 3x 3. e
2 3 2
1 1 4 4 3x
4. ( ax + b)3 5. − cos 2 x − e 3 x 6. e + x+C
3a 2 3 3
x3 ax 3 bx 2 2 3 x
7. − x+C 8. + + cx + C 9. x +e +C
3 3 2 3
x2 x2 4
10. + log x − 2 x + C 11. + 5x + + C
2 2 x
7 3
2 2 x3
12. x + 2 x2 + 8 x + C 13. + x+C
7 3
3 5 7 5 3
2 2 2 2 6 2 4 2
14. x − x +C 15. x + x + 2x 2 + C
3 5 7 5
3
2 3 10
16. x − 3sin x + e + C
2 x
17. x + 3cos x + x 2 + C
3 3
18. tan x + sec x + C 19. tan x – x + C
20. 2 tan x – 3 sec x + C 21. C
22. A
EXERCISE 7.2
1
1. log (1 + x2) + C 2. (log| x |)3 + C 3. log 1+ log x + C
3
1
4. cos (cos x) + C 5. − cos 2(ax + b) + C
4a
3 5 3
2 2 4
6. (ax + b) 2 + C 7. ( x + 2) 2 − ( x + 2) 2 + C
3a 5 3
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440 MATHEMATICS
3 3
1 4 2
8. (1+ 2 x 2 ) 2 + C 9. ( x + x + 1) 2 + C 10. 2log x −1 +C
6 3
2
11. x + 4( x − 8) + C
3
7 4 1
1 3 1 − +C
12. ( x − 1) 3 + ( x 3 −1) 3 + C 13.
7 4 18(2 + 3 x3 )2
1
17. − 2 +C 18. e tan
−1
x
+C 19. log (e x + e − x ) +C
2ex
1 1
20. log (e 2 x + e −2 x ) + C 21. tan (2 x − 3) − x + C
2 2
1 1
22. − tan (7 − 4 x) + C 23. (sin −1 x )2 + C
4 2
1 1
24. log 2sin x + 3cos x + C 25. +C
2 (1 − tan x)
3
1
26. 2sin x + C 27. (sin 2 x) 2 + C 28. 2 1+sin x + C
3
1 1
29. (logsin x) 2 + C 30. – log 1+ cos x + C 31. +C
2 1+ cos x
x 1 x 1
32. − log cos x + sin x + C 33. − log cos x − sin x + C
2 2 2 2
1 1
34. 2 tan x + C 35. (1+ log x )3 + C 36. ( x + log x)3 + C
3 3
1
37. − cos (tan −1 x 4 ) + C 38. D
4
39. B
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ANSWERS 441
EXERCISE 7.3
x 1 1 1
1. − sin (4 x + 10) + C 2. − cos 7 x + cos x + C
2 8 14 2
1 1 1 1
3. sin 12 x + x + sin 8 x + sin 4 x + C
4 12 8 4
1 1 1 1
4. − cos (2 x + 1) + cos3 (2 x + 1) + C 5. cos 6 x − cos 4 x + C
2 6 6 4
1 1 1 1
6. cos 6 x − cos 4 x − cos 2 x + C
4 6 4 2
1 1 1 x
7. sin 4 x − sin 12 x + C 8. 2 tan − x + C
2 4 12 2
x 3x 1 1
9. x − tan + C 10. − sin 2 x + sin 4 x + C
2 8 4 32
3x 1 1
11. + sin 4 x + sin 8 x + C 12. x – sin x + C
8 8 64
1
13. 2 (sinx + x cosα) + C 14. − +C
cos x +sin x
1 3 1 1 3
15. sec 2 x − sec 2 x + C 16. tan x − tan x + x + C
6 2 3
17. sec x – cosec x + C 18. tan x + C
1 2
19. log tan x + tan x + C 20. log cos x + sin x + C
2
π x x2 1 cos ( x − a )
21. − +C 22. log +C
2 2 sin (a − b) cos ( x − b)
23. A 24. B
EXERCISE 7.4
1
1. tan −1 x 3 + C 2. log 2 x + 1 + 4 x 2 + C
2
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442 MATHEMATICS
1 1 –1 5 x
3. log +C 4. sin +C
2 − x + x − 4x + 5
2
5 3
3 −1 1 1 + x3
5. tan 2 x +C
2
6. log +C
2 2 6 1 − x3
1
7. x 2 − 1 − log x + x 2 − 1 + C 8. log x3 + x 6 + a6 + C
3
11. 12.
3
13. log x – + x − 3x + 2 + C
2
14.
2
a +b
15. log x – + ( x − a) ( x − b) + C
2
18.
9
19. 6 x – 9x + 20 + 34 log x − + x − 9 x + 20 + C
2 2
2
20.
21. x 2 + 2 x +3 + log x + 1 + x 2 + 2 x + 3 + C
1 2 x −1− 6
22. log x 2 − 2 x − 5 + log +C
2 6 x −1 + 6
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ANSWERS 443
24. B 25. B
EXERCISE 7.5
( x + 2) 2 1 x−3
1. log +C 2. log +C
x +1 6 x+3
3. log x − 1 − 5log x − 2 + 4log x − 3 + C
1 3
4. log x − 1 − 2log x − 2 + log x − 3 + C
2 2
x 3
5. 4log x +2 − 2log x + 1 + C 6. + log x − log 1 − 2 x + C
2 4
1 1 1
7. log x − 1 − log ( x 2 + 1) + tan −1 x + C
2 4 2
2 x −1 1 1 x +1 4
8. log − +C 9. log − +C
9 x + 2 3( x − 1) 2 x −1 x −1
5 1 12
10. log x + 1 − log x − 1 − log 2 x + 3 + C
2 10 5
5 5 5
11. log x + 1 − log x + 2 + log x − 2 + C
3 2 6
x2 1 3
12. + log x + 1 + log x − 1 + C
2 2 2
1
13. – log x − 1 + log (1 + x2) + tan–1x + C
2
7 1 x −1 1
14. 3log x + 2 + +C 15. log − tan −1 x + C
x+2 4 x +1 2
1 xn 2 – sin x
16. log n +C 17. log +C
n x +1 1– sinx
2 x x
18. x+ tan −1 − 3tan −1 + C 19.
3 3 2
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444 MATHEMATICS
1 x4 − 1 ex – 1
20. log +C 21. log x + C
4 x4 e
22. B 23. A
EXERCISE 7.6
x 1
1. – x cos x + sin x + C 2. − cos3x + sin 3x + C
3 9
x2 x2
3. ex (x2 – 2x + 2) + C 4. log x − + C
2 4
x2 x2 x3 x3
5. log 2 x − + C 6. log x − + C
2 4 3 9
1 x 1 − x2 x2 x 1
7. (2 x 2 − 1) sin −1 x + +C 8. tan −1 x − + tan −1 x + C
4 4 2 2 2
cos –1 x x
9. (2 x − 1) − 1 − x2 + C
2
4 4
(sin x)
2
10. –1
x + 2 1 − x2 sin −1 x − 2 x + C
1 x2 x2 x2
13. x tan −1 x − log (1+ x 2 ) + C 14. (log x ) 2
− log x + +C
2 2 2 4
ex x
17. +C 18. e tan + C
x
1+ x 2
ex ex
19. +C 20. +C
x ( x − 1) 2
e2 x
21. (2sin x − cos x) + C 22. 2x tan–1x – log (1 + x2) + C
5
23. A 24. B
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ANSWERS 445
EXERCISE 7.7
1 x 1 −1 1
1. x 4 − x 2 + 2sin −1 + C 2. sin 2 x + x 1 − 4 x 2 + C
2 2 4 2
(x +2) 2
3. x + 4 x + 6 + log x + 2 + x 2 + 4 x + 6 + C
2
(x +2) 2 3
4. x + 4 x + 1 − log x + 2 + x 2 + 4 x + 1 + C
2 2
5.
(x +2) 2 9
6. x + 4 x − 5 − log x + 2 + x 2 + 4 x − 5 + C
2 2
7.
2x +3 2 9 3
8. x + 3 x − log x + + x 2 + 3x + C
4 8 2
x 2 3
9. x + 9 + log x + x 2 + 9 + C
6 2
10. A 11. D
EXERCISE 7.8
3 64
1. 2 2. log 3.
2 3
1
4. 5. 0 6. e4 (e – 1)
2
1 π
7. log 2 8. 9.
2 2
π 1 3 π
10. 11. log 12.
4 2 2 4
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446 MATHEMATICS
1 1 3
13. log 2 14. log 6 + tan −1 5
2 5 5
1
15. (e – 1) 16.
2
π4 π 3π
17. + +2 18. 0 19. 3log 2 +
1024 2 8
4 2 2
20. 1 + − 21. D 22. C
π π
EXERCISE 7.9
1 64 π
1. log 2 2. 3. – log 2
2 231 2
16 2 π 1 21+ 5 17
4. ( 2 + 1) 5. 6. log
15 4 17 4
π e2 (e 2 − 2)
7. 8. 9. D
8 4
10. B
EXERCISE 7.10
π π π π
1. 2. 3. 4.
4 4 4 4
1
5. 29 6. 9 7. (n + 1) ( n + 2)
π 16 2 π 1 π
8. log 2 9. 10. log 11.
8 15 2 2 2
12. π 13. 0 14. 0 15. 0
a
16. – π log 2 17. 18. 5 20. C
2
21. C
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ANSWERS 447
1 x2
1. log +C 2.
2 1 − x2
2 ( a − x)
3. – +C 4.
a x
1 1 1
5. 2 x − 3x 3 + 6x 6 − 6log (1+ x6 ) + C
1 1 3 x
6. − log x + 1 + log ( x 2 + 9) + tan −1 + C
2 4 2 3
x3
7. sin a log sin ( x − a ) + x cos a + C 8. +C
3
1
9. 10. − sin 2 x + C
2
1 cos ( x + b ) 1 −1 4
11. log + C 12. sin ( x ) + C
sin (a – b) cos( x + a ) 4
1 −1 1 x
13. 14. tan x − tan −1 + C
3 6 2
1 1
15. − cos4 x + C 16. log ( x 4 + 1) + C
4 4
[f (ax + b)]n +1 –2 sin ( x + α )
17. +C 18. +C
a (n+1) sin α sin x
19. –2 1– x + cos −1 x + x − x 2 + C
1
20. ex tan x + C 21. − 2log x +1 − + 3log x + 2 + C
x +1
22. 23.
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448 MATHEMATICS
π π
24. e 2 25.
8
π ( 3 − 1)
26. 27. 2sin −1
6 2
4 2 1
28. 29. log 9
3 40
π 19
30. −1 31.
2 2
38. A 39. B
40. D
EXERCISE 8.1
1. 12π 2. 6π 3. A 4. B
7
1. (i) (ii) 624.8
3
2. 9 3. 4 4. D 5. C
EXERCISE 9.1
1. Order 4; Degree not defined 2. Order 1; Degree 1
3. Order 2; Degree 1 4. Order 2; Degree not defined
5. Order 2; Degree 1 6. Order 3; Degree 2
7. Order 3; Degree 1 8. Order 1; Degree 1
9. Order 2; Degree 1 10. Order 2; Degree 1
11. D 12. A
EXERCISE 9.2
11. D 12. D
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ANSWERS 449
EXERCISE 9.3
x
1. y = 2 tan−x+C 2. y = 2 sin (x + C)
2
3. y = 1 + Ae–x 4. tan x tan y = C
x3
5. y = log (ex + e–x) + C 6. tan –1 y = x + +C
3
7. y = ecx 8. x – 4 + y –4 =C
9. y = x sin–1x + 1– x 2 + C 10. tan y = C ( 1 – ex)
11.
1 x 2 −1 1 3
12. y = log 2 − log 13.
2 x 2 4
14. y = sec x 15. 2y – 1 = ex ( sin x – cos x)
16. y – x + 2 = log (x2 (y + 2)2) 17. y2 – x2 = 4
1
18. (x + 4)2 = y + 3 19. (63t + 27) 3
20. 6.93% 21. Rs 1648
22. 23. A
EXERCISE 9.4
−y
1. ( x − y) = Cx e
2 x
2. y = x log x + Cx
y 1
3. tan –1 = log ( x 2 + y 2 ) + C 4. x2 + y2 = Cx
x 2
1 x + 2y
5. log = log x + C 6. y + x 2 + y 2 = Cx 2
2 2 x− 2y
y y y
7. xy cos =C 8. x 1 − cos = Csin
x x x
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450 MATHEMATICS
x
y
9. cy = log –1 10. ye y + x = C
x
y π
11. log ( x2 + y2) + 2 tan–1 = + log 2
x 2
y
12. y + 2x = 3x2 y 13. cot = log ex
x
y y=
2x
( x ≠ 0, x ≠ e)
14. cos = log ex 15.
x 1 − log x
16. C 17. D
EXERCISE 9.5
1
1. y = (2sin x – cos x) + C e–2x 2. y = e–2x + Ce–3x
5
x4
3. xy = +C 4. y (sec x + tan x) = sec x + tan x – x + C
4
x2
5. y = (tan x – 1) + C e–tanx 6. y= (4log x − 1) + Cx −2
16
−2
7. y log x = (1 + log x ) + C 8. y = (1+ x ) −1 log sin x + C (1+ x 2 ) −1
x
1 C
9. y = − cot x + 10. (x + y + 1) = C ey
x x sin x
y2 C
11. x= + 12. x = 3y2 + Cy
3 y
π
13. y = cos x – 2 cos2 x 14. y (1 + x2) = tan–1 x –
4
15. y = 4 sin3 x – 2 sin2 x 16. x + y + 1 = ex
17. y = 4 – x – 2 ex 18. C 19. D
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ANSWERS 451
sec x
4. sin–1y + sin–1x = C 6. cos y =
2
x
π
7. tan–1 y + tan–1(ex) = 8. e y = y + C
2
9. log x – y = x + y + 1 10. y e2 x
= (2 x + C)
π2 2 x +1
11. y sin x = 2 x 2 − (sin x ≠ 0) 12. y = log , x ≠ −1
2 x +1
13. C 14. C
15. C
EXERCISE 10.1
1. In the adjoining figure, the vector represents the required displacement.
2. (i) scalar (ii) vector (iii) scalar (iv) scalar (v) scalar
(vi) vector
3. (i) scalar (ii) scalar (iii) vector (iv) vector (v) scalar
4. (i) Vectors and are coinitial
(ii) Vectors and are equal
(iii) Vectors and are collinear but not equal
5. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) False
EXERCISE 10.2
1.
2. An infinite number of possible answers.
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452 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 10.3
π
1. 2. 3. 0
4
60 16 2 2 2
4. 6. , 7.
114 3 7 3 7
8. 9. 13 10. 8
−3
12. Vector can be any vector 13.
2
14. Take any two non-zero perpendicular vectors and
EXERCISE 10.4
2 2ˆ 1ˆ π 1 1 1
1. 19 2 2. ± iˆ j k 3. ; , ,
3 3 3 3 2 2 2
27
5. 3, 6. Either
2
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ANSWERS 453
3ˆ 1 ˆ
1. i+ j
2 2
2. x2 – x1 , y2 – y1 , z2 − z1; ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2
−5 ˆ 3 3 ˆ
3. i+ j
2 2
r
4. No; take , and c to represent the sides of a triangle.
1 3 10 ˆ 3 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
5. ± 6. 10 iˆ + j 7. i− j+ k
3 2 2 22 22 22
1 ˆ
8. 2 : 3 9. 3 + 5 10. (3i – 6 ˆj + 2kˆ); 11 5
7
1
12. (160iˆ – 5 ˆj + 70kˆ) 13. λ = 1 16. (B)
3
17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (B)
EXERCISE 11.1
−1 1 1 1 1
1. 0, , 2. ± ,± ,± 3.
2 2 3 3 3
−2 −2 3 −2 −3 −2 4 5 −1
5. , , ; , , ; , ,
17 17 17 17 17 17 42 42 42
EXERCISE 11.2
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454 MATHEMATICS
−1 19 −1 8
8. (i) θ = cos (ii) θ = cos
21 5 3
−1 26 −1 2
9. (i) θ = cos (ii) θ = cos
9 38 3
70 3 2
10. p= 12. 13. 2 29
11 2
3 8
14. 15.
19 29
x y z −10
1. 90° 2. = = 3. k=
1 0 0 7
4. 9 5.
EXERCISE 12.1
1. Maximum Z = 16 at (0, 4)
2. Minimum Z = – 12 at (4, 0)
235 20 45
3. Maximum Z = at ,
19 19 19
3 1
4. Minimum Z = 7 at ,
2 2
5. Maximum Z = 18 at (4, 3)
6. Minimum Z = 6 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (6, 0)
and (0, 3).
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ANSWERS 455
EXERCISE 13.1
2 1 16
1. P ( E|F) = , P ( F|E ) = 2. P ( A|B) =
3 3 25
3. (i) 0.32 (ii) 0.64 (iii) 0.98
11
4.
26
4 4 2
5. (i) (ii) (iii)
11 5 3
1 3 6
6. (i) (ii) (iii)
2 7 7
7. (i) 1 (ii) 0
1 1 1
8. 9. 1 10. (a) , (b)
6 3 9
1 1 1 2 3 1
11. (i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
2 3 2 3 4 4
1 1 5
12. (i) (ii) 13.
2 3 9
1
14. 15. 0 16. C 17. D
15
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456 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 13.2
3 25 44
1. 2. 3.
25 102 91
4. A and B are independent 5. A and B are not independent
6. E and F are not independent
1 1
7. (i) p= (ii) p=
10 5
8. (i) 0.12 (ii) 0.58 (iii) 0.3 (iv) 0.4
3
9. 10. A and B are not independent
8
11. (i) 0.18 (ii) 0.12 (iii) 0.72 (iv) 0.28
7 16 20 40
12. 13. (i) , (ii) , (iii)
8 81 81 81
2 1 1 1 1
14. (i) , (ii) 15. (i) , (ii) 16. (a) , (b) , (c)
3 2 5 3 2
17. D 18. B
EXERCISE 13.3
1 2 9 12
1. 2. 3. 4.
2 3 13 13
22 4 1 1
5. 6. 7. 8.
133 9 52 4
2 8 5 11
9. 10. 11. 12.
9 11 34 50
13. A 14. C
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ANSWERS 457
2
4. 5.
7
1 2 8 14 3
6. , , 7. 8.
15 5 15 29 16
16
9. (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.05 10.
31
11. A 12. C 13. B
—v—
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Notes
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MATHEMATICS
PART II
Textbook for Class XII
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12080 – MATHEMATICS PART II ISBN 81-7450-629-2 (Part-I)
Textbook for Class XII 81-7450-653-5 (Part-II)
Publication Team
Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput
Division
Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Chief Production : Arun Chitkara
watermark Officer
Chief Business : Amitabh Kumar
Published at the Publication Manager (In charge)
Division by the Secretary, National
Council of Educational Research Assistant Production : Sunil Kumar
and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, Officer
New Delhi 110 016 and printed at
Laxmi Offset Printers, Plot No-1, Cover and Illustration
Saiyad Nagar, chawad ka madh, Nai Arvinder Chawla
ki thadi, Jaipur -302027
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Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the
legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap
between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the
basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to
discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different
subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the
direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative
activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children
generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key
reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity
and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not
as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a
source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of
curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The
textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities
requiring hands-on experience.
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iv
NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in
Science and Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor P.K. Jain for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed
to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this
possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products,
NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training
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Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes given above.
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Preface
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) had constituted
21 Focus Groups on Teaching of various subjects related to School Education,
to review the National Curriculum Framework for School Education - 2000
(NCFSE - 2000) in face of new emerging challenges and transformations occurring in
the fields of content and pedagogy under the contexts of National and International
spectrum of school education. These Focus Groups made general and specific comments
in their respective areas. Consequently, based on these reports of Focus Groups, National
Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 was developed.
NCERT designed the new syllabi and constituted Textbook Development
Teams for Classes XI and XII to prepare textbooks in Mathematics under the new
guidelines and new syllabi. The textbook for Class XI is already in use, which was
brought in 2005.
The first draft of the present book (Class XII) was prepared by the team
consisting of NCERT faculty, experts and practicing teachers. The draft was refined
by the development team in different meetings. This draft of the book was exposed
to a group of practicing teachers teaching Mathematics at higher secondary stage
in different parts of the country, in a review workshop organised by the NCERT at
Delhi. The teachers made useful comments and suggestions which were incorporated
in the draft textbook. The draft textbook was finalised by an editorial board constituted
out of the development team. Finally, the Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics
and the Monitoring Committee constituted by the HRD Ministry, Government of India
have approved the draft of the textbook.
In the fitness of things, let us cite some of the essential features dominating the
textbook. These characteristics have reflections in almost all the chapters. The existing
textbook contains thirteen main chapters and two appendices. Each chapter contains
the followings :
§ Introduction: Highlighting the importance of the topic; connection with earlier
studied topics; brief mention about the new concepts to be discussed in the
chapter.
§ Organisation of chapter into sections comprising one or more concepts/
subconcepts.
§ Motivating and introducing the concepts/subconcepts. Illustrations have been
provided wherever possible.
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viii
PAWAN K. JAIN
Chief Advisor
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Textbook Development Committee
CHIEF ADVISOR
P.K. Jain, Professor, Department of Mathematics, University of Delhi, Delhi
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
A.K. Rajput, Reader, RIE, Bhopal, M.P.
Arun Pal Singh, Sr. Lecturer, Department of Mathematics, Dayal Singh College,
University of Delhi, Delhi
B.S.P. Raju, Professor, RIE Mysore, Karnataka
C.R. Pradeep, Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, Karnataka
D.R. Sharma, P.G.T., Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Mungeshpur, Delhi
R.P. Maurya, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.) and Consultant, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K. Kaushik, Reader, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of
Delhi, Delhi
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.S. Khare, Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Tura Campus, Meghalaya
Sangeeta Arora, P.G.T., Apeejay School, Saket, New Delhi
Shailja Tewari, P.G.T., Kendriya Vidyalaya, Barkakana, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand
Sunil Bajaj, Sr. Specialist, SCERT, Gurgaon, Haryana
Vinayak Bujade, Lecturer, Vidarbha Buniyadi Junior College, Sakkardara Chowk,
Nagpur, Maharashtra
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
V.P. Singh, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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;
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Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop: Jagdish Saran, Professor, Deptt. of
Statistics, University of Delhi; Quddus Khan, Lecturer, Shibli National P.G. College,
Azamgarh (U.P.); P.K. Tewari, Assistant Commissioner (Retd.), Kendriya Vidyalaya
Sangathan; S.B. Tripathi, Lecturer, R.P.V.V., Surajmal Vihar, Delhi; O.N. Singh,
Reader, RIE, Bhubaneswar, Orissa; Miss Saroj, Lecturer, Govt. Girls Senior
Secondary School No.1, Roop Nagar, Delhi; P. Bhaskar Kumar, P.G.T., Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, Lepakshi, Anantapur, (A.P.); Mrs. S. Kalpagam, P.G.T.,
K.V. NAL Campus, Bangalore; Rahul Sofat, Lecturer, Air Force Golden Jubilee Institute,
Subroto Park, New Delhi; Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya,
Vikaspuri, District Centre, New Delhi; Janardan Tripathi, Lecturer, Govt. R.H.S.S.,
Aizawl, Mizoram and Ms. Sushma Jaireth, Reader, DWS, NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge,Computer
Station; Sajjad Haider Ansari, Rakesh Kumar and Nargis Islam, D.T.P. Operators;
Monika Saxena, Copy Editor; and Abhimanu Mohanty, Proof Reader.
The contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM and Publication
Department is also duly acknowledged.
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Contents of
MATHEMATICS PART I
For Class XII
Chapter 1 Relations and Functions 1 - 17
Chapter 2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 18 - 33
Chapter 3 Matrices 34 - 75
Chapter 4 Determinants 76 - 103
Chapter 5 Continuity and Differentiability 104 - 146
Chapter 6 Application of Derivatives 147 - 186
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 187 - 195
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 196 - 207
Answers 208 - 224
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Contents
PART II
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
Preface vii
7. Integrals 225
7.1 Introduction 225
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation 226
7.3 Methods of Integration 235
7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions 243
7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 252
7.6 Integration by Parts 259
7.7 Definite Integral 267
7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 267
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution 271
7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals 273
8. Application of Integrals 292
8.1 Introduction 292
8.2 Area under Simple Curves 292
9. Differential Equations 300
9.1 Introduction 300
9.2 Basic Concepts 300
9.3 General and Particular Solutions of a 304
Differential Equation
9.4 Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree 306
Differential Equations
10. Vector Algebra 338
10.1 Introduction 338
10.2 Some Basic Concepts 338
10.3 Types of Vectors 341
10.4 Addition of Vectors 343
10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 346
10.6 Product of Two Vectors 355
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xiv
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Chapter 1
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
vThere is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics ... . It may
be very hard to define mathematical beauty but that is just as true of
beauty of any kind, we may not know quite what we mean by a
beautiful poem, but that does not prevent us from recognising
one when we read it. — G. H. HARDY v
1.1 Introduction
Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain,
co-domain and range have been introduced in Class XI
along with different types of specific real valued functions
and their graphs. The concept of the term ‘relation’ in
mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation
in English language, according to which two objects or
quantities are related if there is a recognisable connection
or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be
the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the
set of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some
of the examples of relations from A to B are
(i) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a is brother of b}, Lejeune Dirichlet
(ii) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a is sister of b}, (1805-1859)
(iii) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: age of a is greater than age of b},
(iv) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: total marks obtained by a in the final examination is less than
the total marks obtained by b in the final examination},
(v) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a lives in the same locality as b}. However, abstracting from
this, we define mathematically a relation R from A to B as an arbitrary subset
of A × B.
If (a, b) ∈ R, we say that a is related to b under the relation R and we write as
a R b. In general, (a, b) ∈ R, we do not bother whether there is a recognisable
connection or link between a and b. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kind of
relations.
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition
of functions, invertible functions and binary operations.
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4 MATHEMATICS
In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero, as (0, ± 2), (0, ± 4)
etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, ± 1), (0, ± 3) etc., do not lie in R.
Similarly, all odd integers are related to one and no even integer is related to one.
Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers are subsets of
Z satisfying following conditions:
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to
each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E ∪ O.
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by
[0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing 1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that
[0] ≠ [1], [0] = [2r] and [1] = [2r + 1], r ∈ Z. Infact, what we have seen above is true
for an arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence
relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets Ai called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
(i) all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
(ii) no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i ≠ j.
(iii) ∪ Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj = φ, i ≠ j.
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation
is that we can go reverse also. For example, consider a subdivision of the set Z given
by three mutually disjoint subsets A1, A2 and A3 whose union is Z with
A1 = {x ∈ Z : x is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 6, – 3, 0, 3, 6, ...}
A2 = {x ∈ Z : x – 1 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 5, – 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
A3 = {x ∈ Z : x – 2 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 4, – 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}
Define a relation R in Z given by R = {(a, b) : 3 divides a – b}. Following the
arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we can show that R is an equivalence
relation. Also, A1 coincides with the set of all integers in Z which are related to zero, A2
coincides with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A3 coincides with the
set of all integers in Z which are related to 2. Thus, A1 = [0], A2 = [1] and A3 = [2].
In fact, A1 = [3r], A2 = [3r + 1] and A3 = [3r + 2], for all r ∈ Z.
Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by
R = {(a, b) : both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4, 6}.
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 5
Solution Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so
that (a, a) ∈ R. Further, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ both a and b must be either odd or even
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ all elements a, b, c, must be
either even or odd simultaneously ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all the elements
of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to
each other, as all of them are even. Also, no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be
related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements
of {2, 4, 6} are even.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Determine whether each of the following relations are reflexive, symmetric and
transitive:
(i) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 13, 14} defined as
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0}
(ii) Relation R in the set N of natural numbers defined as
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5 and x < 4}
(iii) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(x, y) : y is divisible by x}
(iv) Relation R in the set Z of all integers defined as
R = {(x, y) : x – y is an integer}
(v) Relation R in the set A of human beings in a town at a particular time given by
(a) R = {(x, y) : x and y work at the same place}
(b) R = {(x, y) : x and y live in the same locality}
(c) R = {(x, y) : x is exactly 7 cm taller than y}
(d) R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y}
(e) R = {(x, y) : x is father of y}
2. Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as
R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b2} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Check whether the relation R defined in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.
4. Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
5. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b3} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive.
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6 MATHEMATICS
6. Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
7. Show that the relation R in the set A of all the books in a library of a college,
given by R = {(x, y) : x and y have same number of pages} is an equivalence
relation.
8. Show that the relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is even}, is an equivalence relation. Show that all the
elements of {1, 3, 5} are related to each other and all the elements of {2, 4} are
related to each other. But no element of {1, 3, 5} is related to any element of {2, 4}.
9. Show that each of the relation R in the set A = {x ∈ Z : 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}, given by
(i) R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is a multiple of 4}
(ii) R = {(a, b) : a = b}
is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1 in each case.
10. Give an example of a relation. Which is
(i) Symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
(ii) Transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric.
(iii) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(iv) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Show that the relation R in the set A of points in a plane given by
R = {(P, Q) : distance of the point P from the origin is same as the distance of the
point Q from the origin}, is an equivalence relation. Further, show that the set of
all points related to a point P ≠ (0, 0) is the circle passing through P with origin as
centre.
12. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all triangles as R = {(T1, T2) : T1
is similar to T2}, is equivalence relation. Consider three right angle triangles T1
with sides 3, 4, 5, T2 with sides 5, 12, 13 and T3 with sides 6, 8, 10. Which
triangles among T1, T2 and T3 are related?
13. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all polygons as R = {(P1, P2) :
P1 and P2 have same number of sides}, is an equivalence relation. What is the
set of all elements in A related to the right angle triangle T with sides 3, 4 and 5?
14. Let L be the set of all lines in XY plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is parallel to L2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find
the set of all lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 7
15. Let R be the relation in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4,4),
(1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)}. Choose the correct answer.
(A) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(B) R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
(D) R is an equivalence relation.
16. Let R be the relation in the set N given by R = {(a, b) : a = b – 2, b > 6}. Choose
the correct answer.
(A) (2, 4) ∈ R (B) (3, 8) ∈ R (C) (6, 8) ∈ R (D) (8, 7) ∈ R
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8 MATHEMATICS
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9
Example 9 Prove that the function f : R → R, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.
Solution f is one-one, as f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2. Also, given any real
y y y
number y in R, there exists in R such that f ( ) = 2 . ( ) = y. Hence, f is onto.
2 2 2
Fig 1.3
Example 10 Show that the function f : N → N, given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f (x) = x – 1,
for every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.
Solution f is not one-one, as f (1) = f (2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y ∈ N, y ≠ 1,
we can choose x as y + 1 such that f (y + 1) = y + 1 – 1 = y. Also for 1 ∈ N, we
have f (1) = 1.
Example 11 Show that the function f : R → R,
defined as f (x) = x2, is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution Since f (– 1) = 1 = f (1), f is not one-
one. Also, the element – 2 in the co-domain R is
not image of any element x in the domain R
(Why?). Therefore f is not onto.
Example 12 Show that f : N → N, given by
x + 1,if x is odd,
f ( x) =
x − 1,if x is even
is both one-one and onto. Fig 1.4
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10 MATHEMATICS
Solution Suppose f (x1) = f (x2). Note that if x1 is odd and x2 is even, then we will have
x1 + 1 = x2 – 1, i.e., x2 – x1 = 2 which is impossible. Similarly, the possibility of x1 being
even and x2 being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. Therefore,
both x1 and x2 must be either odd or even. Suppose both x1 and x2 are odd. Then
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 ⇒ x1 = x2. Similarly, if both x1 and x2 are even, then also
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 – 1 = x2 – 1 ⇒ x1 = x2. Thus, f is one-one. Also, any odd number
2r + 1 in the co-domain N is the image of 2r + 2 in the domain N and any even number
2r in the co-domain N is the image of 2r – 1 in the domain N. Thus, f is onto.
Example 13 Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.
Solution Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can be
only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the
co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f must be one-one.
Example 14 Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} must be onto.
Solution Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.
Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary
finite set X, i.e., a one-one function f : X → X is necessarily onto and an onto map
f : X → X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8
and 10 show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic
difference between a finite and an infinite set.
EXERCISE 1.2
1
1. Show that the function f : R∗ → R∗ defined by f (x) = is one-one and onto,
x
where R∗ is the set of all non-zero real numbers. Is the result true, if the domain
R∗ is replaced by N with co-domain being same as R∗?
2. Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the following functions:
(i) f : N → N given by f (x) = x2
(ii) f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x2
(iii) f : R → R given by f (x) = x2
(iv) f : N → N given by f (x) = x3
(v) f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x3
3. Prove that the Greatest Integer Function f : R → R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither
one-one nor onto, where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 11
1, if x > 0
f ( x) = 0, if x = 0
1, if x < 0
is neither one-one nor onto.
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one-one.
7. In each of the following cases, state whether the function is one-one, onto or
bijective. Justify your answer.
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3 – 4x
(ii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 1 + x2
8. Let A and B be sets. Show that f : A × B → B × A such that f (a, b) = (b, a) is
bijective function.
n +1
2 , if n is odd
9. Let f : N → N be defined by f (n) = for all n ∈ N.
n , if n is even
2
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12 MATHEMATICS
Fig 1.5
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 13
( y − 3) (4 x + 3 − 3)
g ( y) = . Now, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x + 3) = = x and
4 4
( y − 3) 4 ( y − 3)
fog (y) = f (g (y)) = f = + 3 = y – 3 + 3 = y. This shows that gof = IN
4 4
and fog = IY, which implies that f is invertible and g is the inverse of f.
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 18 If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations in a set A, show that R1 ∩ R2 is
also an equivalence relation.
Solution Since R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, (a, a) ∈ R1, and (a, a) ∈ R2 ∀ a ∈ A.
This implies that (a, a) ∈ R1 ∩ R2, ∀ a, showing R1 ∩ R2 is reflexive. Further,
(a, b) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R1 and (a, b) ∈ R2 ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R1 and (b, a) ∈ R2 ⇒
(b, a) ∈ R1 ∩ R2, hence, R1 ∩ R2 is symmetric. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 and
(b, c) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R1 and (a, c) ∈ R2 ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R1 ∩ R2. This shows that
R1 ∩ R2 is transitive. Thus, R1 ∩ R2 is an equivalence relation.
Example 19 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers
defined by (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (x, y) R (x, y), ∀ (x, y) ∈ A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is
reflexive. Further, (x, y) R (u, v) ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ uy = vx and hence (u, v) R (x, y). This
shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (x, y) R (u, v) and (u, v) R (a, b) ⇒ xv = yu and
a a b a
ub = va ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ xb = ya and hence (x, y) R (a, b). Thus, R
u u v u
is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
Example 20 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R1 be a relation in X given
by R1 = {(x, y) : x – y is divisible by 3} and R2 be another relation on X given by
R2 = {(x, y): {x, y} ⊂ {1, 4, 7}} or {x, y} ⊂ {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} ⊂ {3, 6, 9}}. Show that
R1 = R2.
Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8} and {3, 6, 9} is
that difference between any two elements of these sets is a multiple of 3. Therefore,
(x, y) ∈ R1 ⇒ x – y is a multiple of 3 ⇒ {x, y} ⊂ {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} ⊂ {2, 5, 8}
or {x, y} ⊂ {3, 6, 9} ⇒ (x, y) ∈ R2. Hence, R1 ⊂ R2. Similarly, {x, y} ∈ R2 ⇒ {x, y}
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 15
π
g : 0, → R given by g(x) = cos x. Show that f and g are one-one, but f + g is not
2
one-one.
π
Solution Since for any two distinct elements x1 and x2 in 0, , sin x1 ≠ sin x2 and
2
cos x1 ≠ cos x2, both f and g must be one-one. But (f + g) (0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and
π π π
(f + g) = sin + cos = 1 . Therefore, f + g is not one-one.
2 2 2
x
1. Show that the function f : R → {x ∈ R : – 1 < x < 1} defined by f ( x ) = ,
1+ | x |
x ∈ R is one one and onto function.
2. Show that the function f : R → R given by f (x) = x3 is injective.
3. Given a non empty set X, consider P(X) which is the set of all subsets of X.
Define the relation R in P(X) as follows:
For subsets A, B in P(X), ARB if and only if A ⊂ B. Is R an equivalence relation
on P(X)? Justify your answer.
4. Find the number of all onto functions from the set {1, 2, 3,......, n} to itself.
5. Let A = {– 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {– 4, – 2, 0, 2} and f, g : A → B be functions defined
1
by f (x) = x2 – x, x ∈ A and g ( x) = 2 x − − 1, x ∈ A. Are f and g equal?
2
Justify your answer. (Hint: One may note that two functions f : A → B and
g : A → B such that f (a) = g (a) ∀ a ∈ A, are called equal functions).
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16 MATHEMATICS
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of relations containing (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are
reflexive and symmetric but not transitive is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
7. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Summary
In this chapter, we studied different types of relations and equivalence relation,
composition of functions, invertible functions and binary operations. The main features
of this chapter are as follows:
® Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R = φ ⊂ X × X.
® Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X × X.
® Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) ∈ R ∀ a ∈ X.
® Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ∈ R implies (b, a) ∈ R.
® Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R
implies that (a, c) ∈ R.
® Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
® Equivalence class [a] containing a ∈ X for an equivalence relation R in X is
the subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
® A function f : X → Y is one-one (or injective) if
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2 ∀ x1, x2 ∈ X.
® A function f : X → Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y ∈ Y, ∃ x ∈ X such
that f (x) = y.
® A function f : X → Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one
and onto.
® Given a finite set X, a function f : X → X is one-one (respectively onto) if and
only if f is onto (respectively one-one). This is the characteristic property of a
finite set. This is not true for infinite set
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 17
Historical Note
The concept of function has evolved over a long period of time starting from
R. Descartes (1596-1650), who used the word ‘function’ in his manuscript
“Geometrie” in 1637 to mean some positive integral power xn of a variable x
while studying geometrical curves like hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. James
Gregory (1636-1675) in his work “ Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura”
(1667) considered function as a quantity obtained from other quantities by
successive use of algebraic operations or by any other operations. Later G. W.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) in his manuscript “Methodus tangentium inversa, seu de
functionibus” written in 1673 used the word ‘function’ to mean a quantity varying
from point to point on a curve such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the
slope of the curve, the tangent and the normal to the curve at a point. However,
in his manuscript “Historia” (1714), Leibnitz used the word ‘function’ to mean
quantities that depend on a variable. He was the first to use the phrase ‘function
of x’. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) used the notation φx for the first time in 1718 to
indicate a function of x. But the general adoption of symbols like f, F, φ, ψ ... to
represent functions was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1734 in the first
part of his manuscript “Analysis Infinitorium”. Later on, Joeph Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813) published his manuscripts “Theorie des functions analytiques” in
1793, where he discussed about analytic function and used the notion f (x), F(x),
φ (x) etc. for different function of x. Subsequently, Lejeunne Dirichlet
(1805-1859) gave the definition of function which was being used till the set
theoretic definition of function presently used, was given after set theory was
developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The set theoretic definition of function
known to us presently is simply an abstraction of the definition given by Dirichlet
in a rigorous manner.
—v —
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18 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 2
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
v Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of
self-evident things. — FELIX KLEIN v
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function
f, denoted by f –1, exists if f is one-one and onto. There are
many functions which are not one-one, onto or both and
hence we can not talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we
studied that trigonometric functions are not one-one and
onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their
inverses do not exist. In this chapter, we shall study about
the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric
functions which ensure the existence of their inverses and
observe their behaviour through graphical representations.
Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.
The inverse trigonometric functions play an important Aryabhata
(476-550 A. D.)
role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals.
The concepts of inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering.
2.2 Basic Concepts
In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows:
sine function, i.e., sine : R → [– 1, 1]
cosine function, i.e., cos : R → [– 1, 1]
π
tangent function, i.e., tan : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} → R
2
cotangent function, i.e., cot : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R
π
secant function, i.e., sec : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)
2
cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 19
We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if f : X→Y such that f (x) = y is one-one and
onto, then we can define a unique function g : Y→X such that g (y) = x, where x ∈ X
and y = f (x), y ∈ Y. Here, the domain of g = range of f and the range of g = domain
of f. The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f –1. Further, g is also
one-one and onto and inverse of g is f. Thus, g –1 = (f –1)–1 = f. We also have
(f –1 o f ) (x) = f –1 (f (x)) = f –1(y) = x
and (f o f –1) (y) = f (f –1(y)) = f (x) = y
Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the
−π π
closed interval [–1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to , , then it becomes one-one
2 2
and onto with range [– 1, 1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals
−3π π , −π π , π 3π etc., is one-one and its range is [–1, 1]. We can,
2 , 2 2 , 2 2 , 2
therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. We denote the
inverse of sine function by sin–1 (arc sine function). Thus, sin–1 is a function whose
−3π −π −π π
domain is [– 1, 1] and range could be any of the intervals , , , or
2 2 2 2
π 3π
2 , 2 , and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
−π π
function sin–1. The branch with range , is called the principal value branch,
2 2
whereas other intervals as range give different branches of sin–1. When we refer
to the function sin–1, we take it as the function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range is
−π π −π π
2 , 2 . We write sin : [–1, 1] → 2 , 2
–1
From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin–1 x) = x
π π
if – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and sin–1 (sin x) = x if − ≤ x ≤ . In other words, if y = sin–1 x, then
2 2
sin y = x.
Remarks
(i) We know from Chapter 1, that if y = f (x) is an invertible function, then x = f –1 (y).
Thus, the graph of sin–1 function can be obtained from the graph of original
function by interchanging x and y axes, i.e., if (a, b) is a point on the graph of
sine function, then (b, a) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse
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20 MATHEMATICS
of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function y = sin–1 x can be obtained from
the graph of y = sin x by interchanging x and y axes. The graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of
y = sin–1 x represent the principal value branch.
(ii) It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the
corresponding graph of original function as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along
the line y = x. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).
Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all
real numbers and range is the set [–1, 1]. If we restrict the domain of cosine function
to [0, π], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [–1, 1]. Actually, cosine function
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 21
restricted to any of the intervals [– π, 0], [0,π], [π, 2π] etc., is bijective with range as
[–1, 1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of cosine function in each of these
intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos–1 (arc cosine function).
Thus, cos–1 is a function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range
could be any of the intervals [–π, 0], [0, π], [π, 2π] etc.
Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function cos–1. The branch with range [0, π] is called the principal
value branch of the function cos–1. We write
cos–1 : [–1, 1] → [0, π].
The graph of the function given by y = cos–1 x can be drawn
in the same way as discussed about the graph of y = sin–1 x. The
graphs of y = cos x and y = cos–1 x are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).
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22 MATHEMATICS
Thus cosec–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R – (–1, 1) and range could
−3π − π −π π
be any of the intervals , − {− π} , , − {0} , π , 3π − {π} etc. The
2 2 2 2 2 2
−π π
function corresponding to the range , − {0} is called the principal value branch
2 2
of cosec–1. We thus have principal branch as
−π π
cosec–1 : R – (–1, 1) → , − {0}
2 2
–1
The graphs of y = cosec x and y = cosec x are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).
1 π
Also, since sec x = , the domain of y = sec x is the set R – {x : x = (2n + 1) ,
cos x 2
n ∈ Z} and range is the set R – (–1, 1). It means that sec (secant function) assumes
π
all real values except –1 < y < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of . If we
2
π
restrict the domain of secant function to [0, π] – { }, then it is one-one and onto with
2
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 23
its range as the set R – (–1, 1). Actually, secant function restricted to any of the
−π π 3π
intervals [–π, 0] – { }, [0, π] – , [π, 2π] – { } etc., is bijective and its range
2
–1
2 2
is R – {–1, 1}. Thus sec can be defined as a function whose domain is R– (–1, 1) and
−π π 3π
range could be any of the intervals [– π, 0] – { }, [0, π] – { }, [π, 2π] – { } etc.
2 2 2
Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec–1.
π
The branch with range [0, π] – { } is called the principal value branch of the
2
function sec–1. We thus have
π
sec–1 : R – (–1,1) → [0, π] – { }
2
The graphs of the functions y = sec x and y = sec-1 x are given in Fig 2.4 (i), (ii).
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24 MATHEMATICS
−π π
, , then it is one-one and onto with its range as R. Actually, tangent function
2 2
−3π −π −π π π 3 π
restricted to any of the intervals , , , , , etc., is bijective
2 2 2 2 2 2
and its range is R. Thus tan–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R and
−3π −π −π π π 3π
range could be any of the intervals , , , , , and so on. These
2 2 2 2 2 2
−π π
intervals give different branches of the function tan–1. The branch with range ,
2 2
is called the principal value branch of the function tan–1.
We thus have
−π π
tan–1 : R → ,
2 2
The graphs of the function y = tan x and y = tan–1x are given in Fig 2.5 (i), (ii).
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 25
intervals (–π, 0), (0, π), (π, 2π) etc. These intervals give different branches of the
function cot –1. The function with range (0, π) is called the principal value branch of
the function cot –1. We thus have
cot–1 : R → (0, π)
The graphs of y = cot x and y = cot–1x are given in Fig 2.6 (i), (ii).
π π
cosec –1 : R – (–1,1) → − 2 , 2 – {0}
π
sec –1 : R – (–1, 1) → [0, π] – { }
2
−π π
tan –1 : R → ,
2 2
cot –1 : R → (0, π)
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26 MATHEMATICS
A Note 1
1. sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 = and
sin x
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned, we
mean the principal value branch of that function.
3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range of
principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
We now consider some examples:
1
Example 1 Find the principal value of sin–1 .
2
1 1
Solution Let sin–1 = y. Then, sin y = .
2 2
−π π
We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin–1 is , and
2 2
π 1 1 π
sin = . Therefore, principal value of sin–1 is
4 2 2 4
− 1
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot–1
3
−1
Solution Let cot–1 = y. Then,
3
−1 π π 2π
cot y = = − cot = cot π − = cot
3 3 3 3
We know that the range of principal value branch of cot–1 is (0, π) and
2π −1 −1 2π
cot = . Hence, principal value of cot–1 is
3 3 3 3
EXERCISE 2.1
Find the principal values of the following:
1 3
1. sin–1 − 2. cos–1 2 3. cosec–1 (2)
2
1
4. tan–1 (− 3) 5. cos–1 − 6. tan–1 (–1)
2
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 27
2 1
7. sec–1 8. cot–1 ( 3) 9. cos–1 −
3 2
10. cosec–1 ( − 2 )
Find the values of the following:
1 1 1 1
11. tan–1(1) + cos–1 − + sin–1 − 12. cos–1 + 2 sin–1
2 2 2 2
13. If sin–1 x = y, then
π π
(A) 0 ≤ y ≤ π (B) − ≤ y≤
2 2
π π
(C) 0 < y < π (D) − < y<
2 2
14. tan–1 3 − sec −1 ( − 2 ) is equal to
π π 2π
(A) π (B) − (C) (D)
3 3 3
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric
functions. It may be mentioned here that these results are valid within the principal
value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever
they are defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse
trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid only for some values of x for which
inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these
values of x in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this textbook.
Let us recall that if y = sin–1x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin–1x. This
is equivalent to
−π π
sin (sin–1 x) = x, x ∈ [– 1, 1] and sin–1 (sin x) = x, x ∈ ,
2 2
For suitable values of domain similar results follow for remaining trigonometric
functions.
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28 MATHEMATICS
(
sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = sin–1 2sin θ 1 − sin 2 θ )
= sin–1 (2sinθ cosθ) = sin–1 (sin2θ) = 2θ
= 2 sin–1 x
(ii) Take x = cos θ, then proceeding as above, we get, sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = 2 cos–1 x
cos x − 3π π
Example 4 Express tan −1 , < x < in the simplest form.
1 − sin x 2 2
Solution We write
x x
cos 2 − sin 2
cos x 2 2
tan −1 = tan
–1
1 − sin x 2 x 2 x
cos + sin − 2sin cos
x x
2 2 2 2
x x x x
cos 2 + sin 2 cos 2 − sin 2
–1
= tan
x x2
cos − sin
2 2
x x x
cos + sin 1 + tan
–1 2 2 –1 2
= tan = tan
x x x
cos − sin 1 − tan
2 2 2
–1 π x π x
= tan tan + = +
4 2 4 2
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 29
–1 1
Example 5 Write cot 2 , x > 1 in the simplest form.
x −1
–1 1
Therefore, cot = cot–1 (cot θ) = θ = sec–1 x, which is the simplest form.
x −1
2
EXERCISE 2.2
Prove the following:
1 1
1. 3sin–1 x = sin–1 (3x – 4x3), x ∈ – ,
2 2
1
2. 3cos–1 x = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x), x ∈ , 1
2
Write the following functions in the simplest form:
1 + x2 − 1 1 − cos x
3. tan −1 ,x≠0 4. tan −1 , 0 < x < π
x 1 + cos x
cos x − sin x −π 3π
5. tan −1 , <x<
cos x + sin x 4 4
−1 x
6. tan , |x| < a
a − x2
2
3a 2 x − x 3 −a a
tan −1 3 <x<
7. 2 , a > 0;
a − 3ax 3 3
Find the values of each of the following:
1
8. tan –1 2 cos 2sin –1
2
1 2x –1 1 − y
2
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30 MATHEMATICS
Miscellaneous Examples
−1 3π
Example 6 Find the value of sin (sin )
5
−1 3π 3π
Solution We know that sin −1 (sin x) = x . Therefore, sin (sin )=
5 5
3π π π
But ∉ − , , which is the principal branch of sin–1 x
5 2 2
3π 3π 2π 2π π π
However sin ( ) = sin(π − ) = sin and ∈ − ,
5 5 5 5 2 2
3π 2π 2 π
Therefore sin −1 (sin ) = sin −1 (sin ) =
5 5 5
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 31
–1 13π 7π
1. cos cos 2. tan –1 tan
6 6
Prove that
3 24 8 3 77
3. 2sin
–1
= tan –1 4. sin
–1
+ sin –1 = tan –1
5 7 17 5 36
–1 4 12 33 12 3 56
5. cos + cos –1 = cos –1 6. cos
–1
+ sin –1 = sin –1
5 13 65 13 5 65
63 5 3
7. tan –1 = sin –1 + cos –1
16 13 5
Prove that
1 1− x
8. tan –1 x = cos –1 , x ∈ [0, 1]
2 1+ x
1 + sin x + 1 − sin x x π
9. cot –1 = , x ∈ 0,
1 + sin x − 1 − sin x 2 4
1+ x − 1− x π 1 1
tan –1 = − cos x , − ≤ x ≤ 1 [Hint: Put x = cos 2θ]
–1
10.
1+ x + 1− x 4 2 2
Solve the following equations:
1 − x 1 –1
11. 2tan–1 (cos x) = tan–1 (2 cosec x) 12. tan –1 = tan x,( x > 0)
1+ x 2
13. sin (tan–1 x), | x | < 1 is equal to
x 1 1 x
(A) (B) (C) (D)
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
π
14. sin–1 (1 – x) – 2 sin–1 x = , then x is equal to
2
1 1 1
(A) 0, (B) 1, (C) 0 (D)
2 2 2
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32 MATHEMATICS
Summary
® The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric
functions are given in the following table:
Functions Domain Range
(Principal Value Branches)
−π π
y = sin–1 x [–1, 1] 2 , 2
y = cos–1 x [–1, 1] [0, π]
−π π
y = cosec–1 x R – (–1,1) 2 , 2 – {0}
π
y = sec–1 x R – (–1, 1) [0, π] – { }
2
π π
y = tan–1 x R − ,
2 2
y = cot–1 x R (0, π)
1
® sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 =
sin x
and
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
® The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal
value branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
For suitable values of domain, we have
® y = sin–1 x ⇒ x = sin y ® x = sin y ⇒ y = sin–1 x
® sin (sin–1 x) = x ® sin–1 (sin x) = x
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 33
Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhata (476A.D.), Brahmagupta (598 A.D.), Bhaskara I
(600 A.D.) and Bhaskara II (1114 A.D.) got important results of trigonometry. All
this knowledge went from India to Arabia and then from there to Europe. The
Greeks had also started the study of trigonometry but their approach was so
clumsy that when the Indian approach became known, it was immediately adopted
throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents one of
the main contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600 A.D.) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for sines or
cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., were given by Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were suggested
by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The name of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H h
= = tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.
—v —
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34 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 3
MATRICES
3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices
are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.
3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession
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MATRICES 35
of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens,
Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens,
Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens.
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks Pens
Radha 15 6
Fauzia 10 2
Simran 13 5
and this can be expressed as
or
Radha Fauzia Simran
Notebooks 15 10 13
Pens 6 2 5
which can be expressed as:
In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,
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36 MATHEMATICS
respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:
1
– 2 5 2 + i 3 − 2
1 + x x3 3
A= 0 5 , B = 3.5 –1 2 , C =
cos x sin x + 2 tan x
3 6 5
3 5
7
In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply m × n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 × 2 matrix, B as 3 × 3 matrix and C as 2 × 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 × 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:
or A = [aij]m × n, 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
Thus the ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the jth column
consists of the elements a1j, a2j, a3j,..., amj ,
In general aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be
equal to mn.
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MATRICES 37
We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as
x
y (or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as
0
P = or [0 1].
1
Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (–1, 2).
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as
A B C D A 1 0
1 3 1 −1 B 3 2
X= or Y=
0 2 3 2 2 × 4 C 1 3
D −1 2 4× 2
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38 MATHEMATICS
a11 a12
Solution In general a 3 × 2 matrix is given by A = a21 a22 .
a31 a32
1
Now aij = | i − 3 j | , i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2
1 1 5
Therefore a11 = |1 − 3 × 1| = 1 a12 = |1 − 3 × 2 | =
2 2 2
1 1 1
a21 = | 2 − 3 × 1| = a22 = | 2 − 3× 2 | = 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
a31 = | 3 − 3 × 1| = 0 a32 = | 3 − 3× 2 | =
2 2 2
1 5
2
1
Hence the required matrix is given by A = 2 .
2 3
0
2
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MATRICES 39
0
3
For example, A = −1 is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
1/ 2
In general, A = [aij] m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.
(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
1
For example, B = −
5 2 3 is a row matrix.
2 1× 4
In general, B = [bij] 1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.
(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.
3 −1 0
3
For example A = 3 2 1 is a square matrix of order 3.
2
4 3 −1
In general, A = [aij] m × m is a square matrix of order m.
1 −3 1
are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if A = 2 4 −1 .
3 5 6
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
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40 MATHEMATICS
−1.1 0 0
−1 0
For example, A = [4], B = , C= 0 2 0 , are diagonal matrices
0 2 0 0 3
of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i ≠ j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example
3 0 0
−1 0
A = [3], B= , C= 0 3 0
0 −1
0 0 3
are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n × n is an
1 if i = j
identity matrix, if aij = .
0 if i ≠ j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
For example [1], , are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
0 1 0 0 1
respectively.
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.
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MATRICES 41
x y −1.5 0
If z a = 2 6 , then x = – 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a = 6 , b = 3, c = 2
b c 3 2
x + 3 z + 4 2 y − 7 0 6 3y − 2
−6 a −1
0 = − 6 −3 2c + 2
Example 4 If
b − 3 − 21 0 2b + 4 − 21 0
Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.
Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0, z + 4 = 6, 2y – 7 = 3y – 2
a – 1 = – 3, 0 = 2c + 2 b – 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = – 2, b = – 7, c = – 1, x = – 3, y = –5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
2a + b a − 2b 4 −3
5c − d 4c + 3d = 11 24
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42 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 3.1
2 5 19 −7
5
1. In the matrix A = 35 −2 12 , write:
2
3 1 −5 17
(i) The order of the matrix, (ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix, A = [aij], whose elements are given by:
(i + j ) 2 i (i + 2 j )2
(i) aij = (ii) aij = (iii) aij =
2 j 2
5. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:
1
(i) aij = | −3i + j | (ii) aij = 2i − j
2
6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:
x + y + z 9
4 3 y z x + y 2 6 2 x + z = 5
(i) = (ii) = (iii)
x 5 1 5 5 + z xy 5 8
y + z 7
7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:
a − b 2a + c −1 5
2a − b 3c + d = 0 13
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MATRICES 43
Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
In category 2 : for boys (75 + 70), for girls (65 + 55)
In category 3 : for boys (90 + 75), for girls (85 + 75)
80 + 90 60 + 50
This can be represented in the matrix form as 75 + 70 65 + 55 .
90 + 75 85 + 75
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44 MATHEMATICS
This new matrix is the sum of the above two matrices. We observe that the sum of
two matrices is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. Furthermore, the two matrices have to be of the same order.
3 1 − 1 2 5 1
Example 6 Given A =
and B = 1 , find A + B
2 3 0 −2 3
2
Since A, B are of the same order 2 × 3. Therefore, addition of A and B is defined
and is given by
2 + 3 1 + 5 1 − 1 2 + 3 1 + 5 0
A+B =
1 = 1
2 − 2 3+3 0+ 0 6
2 2
A Note
1. We emphasise that if A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not
2 3 1 2 3
defined. For example if A = , B= , then A + B is not defined.
1 0 1 0 1
2. We may observe that addition of matrices is an example of binary operation
on the set of matrices of the same order.
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MATRICES 45
Boys Girls
1 2 × 80 2 × 60
2 2 × 75 2 × 65
3 2 × 90 2 × 85
160 120
This can be represented in the matrix form as 150 130 . We observe that
180 170
the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix by 2.
In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if
A = [aij] m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which is obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, kA = k [aij] m × n = [k (aij)] m × n, that is, (i, j)th element of kA is kaij
for all possible values of i and j.
3 1 1.5
For example, if A = 5 7 −3 , then
2 0 5
3 1 1.5 9 3 4.5
3A = 3 5 7 −3 = 3 5 21 −9
2 0 5 6 0 15
Negative of a matrix The negative of a matrix is denoted by – A. We define
– A = (– 1) A.
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46 MATHEMATICS
3 1
For example, let A= , then – A is given by
−5 x
3 1 −3 −1
– A = (– 1) A = (−1) =
−5 x 5 − x
Difference of matrices If A = [aij], B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order,
say m × n, then difference A – B is defined as a matrix D = [dij], where dij = aij – bij,
for all value of i and j. In other words, D = A – B = A + (–1) B, that is sum of the matrix
A and the matrix – B.
1 2 3 3 −1 3
Example 7 If A = and B = , then find 2A – B.
2 3 1 −1 0 2
Solution We have
1 2 3 3 −1 3
2A – B = 2 −
2 3 1 −1 0 2
2 4 6 −3 1 −3
= +
4 6 2 1 0 −2
2 − 3 4 + 1 6 − 3 −1 5 3
= =
4 + 1 6 + 0 2 − 2 5 6 0
3.4.3 Properties of matrix addition
The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties:
(i) Commutative Law If A = [aij], B = [bij] are matrices of the same order, say
m × n, then A + B = B + A.
Now A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij]
= [bij + aij] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([bij] + [aij]) = B + A
(ii) Associative Law For any three matrices A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the
same order, say m × n, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Now (A + B) + C = ([aij] + [bij]) + [cij]
= [aij + bij] + [cij] = [(aij + bij) + cij]
= [aij + (bij + cij)] (Why?)
= [aij] + [(bij + cij)] = [aij] + ([bij] + [cij]) = A + (B + C)
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MATRICES 47
8 0 2 −2
Example 8 If A = 4 −2 and B = 4 2 , then find the matrix X, such that
3 6 −5 1
2A + 3X = 5B.
Solution We have 2A + 3X = 5B
or 2A + 3X – 2A = 5B – 2A
or 2A – 2A + 3X = 5B – 2A (Matrix addition is commutative)
or O + 3X = 5B – 2A (– 2A is the additive inverse of 2A)
or 3X = 5B – 2A (O is the additive identity)
1
or X= (5B – 2A)
3
2 −2 8 0 10 −10 −16 0
1 1 −8 4
or X = 5 4 2 − 2 4 −2 = 20 10 +
3 3 −25 5
−5 1 3 6 −6 −12
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48 MATHEMATICS
−10
−2 3
10 − 16 −10 + 0 − 6 −10
1 1 4 14
= 20 − 8 10 + 4 = 3 12 14 =
3 3
−25 − 6 5 − 12 −31 −7
−31 −7
3 3
5 2 3 6
Example 9 Find X and Y, if X + Y = and X − Y = .
0 9 0 −1
5 2 3 6
Solution We have ( X + Y ) + ( X − Y ) = + .
0 9 0 −1
8 8 8 8
or (X + X) + (Y – Y) = ⇒ 2X =
0 8 0 8
1 8 8 4 4
or X= 0 8 = 0 4
2
5 2 3 6
Also (X + Y) – (X – Y) = −
0 9 0 −1
5 − 3 2 − 6 2 −4
or (X – X) + (Y + Y) = ⇒ 2Y =
0 9 +1 0 10
1 2 − 4 1 −2
or Y= 0 10 = 0 5
2
Example 10 Find the values of x and y from the following equation:
x 5 3 −4 7 6
2 + =
7 y − 3 1 2 15 14
Solution We have
x 5 3 −4 7 6 2x 10 3 − 4 7 6
2 + ⇒
7 y − 3 1 2
= + =
2 15 14
15 14 14 2 y − 6 1
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MATRICES 49
2x + 3 10 − 4 7 6 2x + 3 6 7 6
or 14 + 1 2 y − 6 + 2 = ⇒ =
15 14 15 2 y − 4 15 14
or 2x + 3 = 7 and 2y – 4 = 14 (Why?)
or 2x = 7 – 3 and 2y = 18
4 18
or x= and y=
2 2
i.e. x =2 and y = 9.
Example 11 Two farmers Ramkishan and Gurcharan Singh cultivates only three
varieties of rice namely Basmati, Permal and Naura. The sale (in Rupees) of these
varieties of rice by both the farmers in the month of September and October are given
by the following matrices A and B.
(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each
variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.
(iii) If both farmers receive 2% profit on gross sales, compute the profit for each
farmer and for each variety sold in October.
Solution
(i) Combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each variety is
given by
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50 MATHEMATICS
2
(iii) 2% of B = × B = 0.02 × B
100
= 0.02
Thus, in October Ramkishan receives ` 100, ` 200 and ` 120 as profit in the
sale of each variety of rice, respectively, and Grucharan Singh receives profit of ` 400,
` 200 and ` 200 in the sale of each variety of rice, respectively.
3.4.5 Multiplication of matrices
Suppose Meera and Nadeem are two friends. Meera wants to buy 2 pens and 5 story
books, while Nadeem needs 8 pens and 10 story books. They both go to a shop to
enquire about the rates which are quoted as follows:
Pen – ` 5 each, story book – ` 50 each.
How much money does each need to spend? Clearly, Meera needs ` (5 × 2 + 50 × 5)
that is ` 260, while Nadeem needs (8 × 5 + 50 × 10) `, that is ` 540. In terms of matrix
representation, we can write the above information as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
2 5 5 5 × 2 + 5 × 50 260
8 10 50 8 × 5 + 10 × 50 = 540
Suppose that they enquire about the rates from another shop, quoted as follows:
pen – ` 4 each, story book – ` 40 each.
Now, the money required by Meera and Nadeem to make purchases will be
respectively ` (4 × 2 + 40 × 5) = ` 208 and ` (8 × 4 + 10 × 40) = ` 432
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MATRICES 51
2 5 4 4 × 2 + 40 × 5 208
8 10 40 8 × 4 + 10 × 4 0 = 432
Now, the information in both the cases can be combined and expressed in terms of
matrices as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
2 5 5 4 5 × 2 + 5 × 50 4 × 2 + 40 × 5
8 10 50 40 8 × 5 + 10 × 5 0 8 × 4 + 10 × 4 0
260 208
=
540 432
The above is an example of multiplication of matrices. We observe that, for
multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A should be equal to
the number of rows in B. Furthermore for getting the elements of the product matrix,
we take rows of A and columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.
Formally, we define multiplication of matrices as follows:
The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be an
n × p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m × p.
To get the (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. In other words,
if A = [aij]m × n, B = [bjk]n × p, then the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain] and the kth column of
b1k
b n
2k
B is .. , then cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bnk = ∑ aij b jk .
j =1
.
b
nk
The matrix C = [cik]m × p is the product of A and B.
2 7
1 −1 2 −1 1 , then the product CD is defined
For example, if C = and D =
0 3 4 5 − 4
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52 MATHEMATICS
2 7
1 −1 2
and is given by CD = −1 1 . This is a 2 × 2 matrix in which each
0 3 4
5 − 4
entry is the sum of the products across some row of C with the corresponding entries
down some column of D. These four computations are
13 −2
Thus CD =
17 −13
6 9 2 6 0
Example 12 Find AB, if A = and B = .
2 3 7 9 8
Solution The matrix A has 2 columns which is equal to the number of rows of B.
Hence AB is defined. Now
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MATRICES 53
2 3
1 −2 3
Example 13 If A = and B = 4 5 , then find AB, BA. Show that
− 4 2 5 2 1
AB ≠ BA.
Solution Since A is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is 3 × 2 matrix. Hence AB and BA are both
defined and are matrices of order 2 × 2 and 3 × 3, respectively. Note that
2 3
1 −2 3 4 2−8+6 3 − 10 + 3 0 − 4
AB = 5 = =
− 4 2 5 −8 + 8 + 10 −12 + 10 + 5 10 3
2 1
2 3 2 − 12 − 4 + 6 6 + 15 −10 2 21
1 −2 3
and BA = 4
5 = 4 − 20 −8 + 10 12 + 25 = −16 2 37
−4 2 5
2 1 2 − 4 − 4 + 2 6 + 5 −2 −2 11
Clearly AB ≠ BA
In the above example both AB and BA are of different order and so AB ≠ BA. But
one may think that perhaps AB and BA could be the same if they were of the same
order. But it is not so, here we give an example to show that even if AB and BA are of
same order they may not be same.
1 0 0 1 0 1
Example 14 If A = and B = , then AB = .
0 −1 1 0 −1 0
0 −1
and BA = . Clearly AB ≠ BA.
1 0
Thus matrix multiplication is not commutative.
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54 MATHEMATICS
ANote This does not mean that AB ≠ BA for every pair of matrices A, B for
which AB and BA, are defined. For instance,
1 0 3 0 3 0
If A = , B= , then AB = BA =
0 2 0 4 0 8
Observe that multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.
Zero matrix as the product of two non zero matrices
We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need
not be true for matrices, we will observe this through an example.
0 −1 3 5
Example 15 Find AB, if A = and B = .
0 2 0 0
0 −1 3 5 0 0
Solution We have AB = = .
0 2 0 0 0 0
Thus, if the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
3.4.6 Properties of multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without
proof.
1. The associative law For any three matrices A, B and C. We have
(AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributive law For three matrices A, B and C.
(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.
Now, we shall verify these properties by examples.
1 1 −1 1 3
1 2 3 − 4
Example 16 If A = 2 0 3 , B = 0 2 and C =
, find
3 −1 2 −1 4 2 0 −2 1
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MATRICES 55
1 1 −1 1 3 1 + 0 + 1 3 + 2 − 4 2 1
Solution We have AB = 2 0 3 0 2 = 2 + 0 − 3 6 + 0 + 12 = −1 18
3 −1 2 −1 4 3 + 0 − 2 9 − 2 + 8 1 15
2 1 2+ 2 4 + 0 6 − 2 − 8 +1
1 2 3 − 4
(AB) (C) = −1 18
2 0 −2 1 = −1 + 36 −2 + 0 −3 − 36 4 + 18
1 15
1 + 30 2 + 0 3 − 30 − 4 + 15
4 4 4 −7
35 −2 −39 22
=
31 2 −27 11
1 3 1 + 6 2 + 0 3 − 6 −4 + 3
1 2 3 −4
Now BC = 0
2 = 0 + 4 0 + 0 0 − 4 0 + 2
2 0 −2 1
−1
4 −1 + 8 −2 + 0 −3 − 8 4 + 4
7 2 −3 −1
= 4 0 −4 2
7 −2 −11 8
1 1 −1 7 2 −3 −1
Therefore A(BC) = 2 0 3 4 0 −4 2
3 −1 2 7 −2 −11 8
7 + 4 − 7 2 + 0 + 2 −3 − 4 + 11 −1 + 2 − 8
= 14 + 0 + 21 4 + 0 − 6 −6 + 0 − 33 −2 + 0 + 24
21 − 4 + 14 6 + 0 − 4 −9 + 4 − 22 −3 − 2 + 16
4 4 4 −7
35 −2 −39 22
= . Clearly, (AB) C = A (BC)
31 2 −27 11
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56 MATHEMATICS
0 6 7 0 1 1 2
Example 17 If A = − 6 0 8 , B = 1 0 2 , C = −2
7 − 8 0 1 2 0 3
Calculate AC, BC and (A + B)C. Also, verify that (A + B)C = AC + BC
0 7 8
Solution Now, A + B = −5 0 10
8 − 6 0
0 7 8 2 0 − 14 + 24 10
10 −2 = −10 + 0 + 30 = 20
So (A + B) C = −5 0
8 − 6 0 3 16 + 12 + 0 28
0 6 7 2 0 − 12 + 21 9
= 12
Further AC = −6 0 8 −2 = −12 + 0 + 24
7 − 8 0 3 14 + 16 + 0 30
0 1 1 2 0 − 2 + 3 1
= 2 + 0 + 6 = 8
and BC = 1 0 2 −2
1 2 0 3 2 − 4 + 0 − 2
9 1 10
So AC + BC = 12 + 8 = 20
30 −2 28
Clearly, (A + B) C = AC + BC
1 2 3
1 , then show that A3 – 23A – 40 I = O
Example 18 If A = 3 −2
4 2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 19 4 8
Solution We have A = A.A = 3 −2
2
1 3 −2 1 = 1 12 8
4 2 1 4 2 1 14 6 15
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MATRICES 57
1 2 3 19 4 8 63 46 69
So A = A A = 3 −2
3 2
1 1 12 8 = 69 −6 23
4 2 1 14 6 15 92 46 63
Now
63 46 69 1 2 3 1 0 0
3 69 −6 23 – 23 3 −2 1 – 40 0 1 0
A – 23A – 40I =
92 46 63 4 2 1 0 0 1
63 − 23 − 40 46 − 46 + 0 69 − 69 + 0
= 69 − 69 + 0 −6 + 46 − 40 23 − 23 + 0
92 − 92 + 0 46 − 46 + 0 63 − 23 − 40
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = O
0 0 0
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58 MATHEMATICS
Solution We have
40,000 + 50,000 + 250, 000 → X
BA =
120,000 + 100,000 +500,000 → Y
340, 000 → X
=
720,000 → Y
So the total amount spent by the group in the two cities is 340,000 paise and
720,000 paise, i.e., ` 3400 and ` 7200, respectively.
EXERCISE 3.2
2 4 1 3 −2 5
1. Let A = ,B= ,C=
3 2 −2 5 3 4
Find each of the following:
(i) A + B (ii) A – B (iii) 3A – C
(iv) AB (v) BA
2. Compute the following:
a b a b a2 + b2 b2 + c2 2ab 2bc
(i) + (ii) 2 +
−b a b a a + c
2
a 2 + b 2 −2ac −2ab
−1
4 −6 12 7 6
cos 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x
5 16 + 8 0 5 (iv)
(iii) 8 + 2
2 2 2
2
8 5 3 2 4 sin x cos x cos x sin x
3. Compute the indicated products.
1
a b a −b 2 1 −2 1 2 3
(i) (ii) [2 3 4]
a b a
(iii)
−b 3 2 3 2 3 1
2 3 4 1 −3 5 2 1
3 1 0 1
(iv) 3 4 5 0 2 4 (v) 2
−1 2 1
4 5 6 3 0 5 −1 1
2 −3
3 −1 3
(vi) 1 0
−1 0 2 3 1
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MATRICES 59
1 2 −3 3 −1 2 4 1 2
4. If A = 5 0 2 , B = 4 2 5 and C = 0 3 2 , then compute
1 −1 1 2 0 3 1 −2 3
(A+B) and (B – C). Also, verify that A + (B – C) = (A + B) – C.
2 5 2 3
3 1 5 1
3 5
1 2 4 1 2 4
5. If A =
and B =
, then compute 3A – 5B.
3 3 3 5 5 5
7 2 7 6 2
2
3 3 5 5 5
2 3 2 −2
(ii) 2X + 3Y = and 3X + 2Y =
4 0 −1 5
3 2 1 0
8. Find X, if Y = and 2X + Y = −3 2
1 4
1 3 y 0 5 6
9. Find x and y, if 2 + =
0 x 1 2 1 8
x z 1 −1 3 5
10. Solve the equation for x, y, z and t, if 2 +3 =3
y t 0 2 4 6
2 −1 10
11. If x + y = , find the values of x and y.
3 1 5
x y x 6 4 x + y
12. Given 3 = + , find the values of x, y, z and w.
z w −1 2 w z + w 3
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60 MATHEMATICS
cos x − sin x 0
13. If F ( x ) = sin x cos x 0 , show that F(x) F(y) = F(x + y).
0 0 1
14. Show that
5 −1 2 1 2 1 5 −1
(i) ≠
6 7 3 4 3 4 6 7
1 2 3 −1 1 0 −1 1 0 1 2 3
1 ≠ 0 −1 1 0 1 0
(ii) 0 1 0 0 −1
1 1 0 2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1 0
2 0 1
15. Find A – 5A + 6I, if A = 2 1
2
3
1 −1 0
1 0 2
16. If A = 0 2 1 , prove that A3 – 6A2 + 7A + 2I = 0
2 0 3
3 −2 1 0
17. If A = and I= 2
, find k so that A = kA – 2I
4 −2 0 1
α
0 − tan
18. If A = 2 and I is the identity matrix of order 2, show that
tan α 0
2
cos α − sin α
I + A = (I – A)
sin α cos α
19. A trust fund has ` 30,000 that must be invested in two different types of bonds.
The first bond pays 5% interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest
per year. Using matrix multiplication, determine how to divide ` 30,000 among
the two types of bonds. If the trust fund must obtain an annual total interest of:
(a) ` 1800 (b) ` 2000
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MATRICES 61
20. The bookshop of a particular school has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen
physics books, 10 dozen economics books. Their selling prices are ` 80, ` 60 and
` 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the bookshop will receive from
selling all the books using matrix algebra.
Assume X, Y, Z, W and P are matrices of order 2 × n, 3 × k, 2 × p, n × 3 and p × k,
respectively. Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21. The restriction on n, k and p so that PY + WY will be defined are:
(A) k = 3, p = n (B) k is arbitrary, p = 2
(C) p is arbitrary, k = 3 (D) k = 2, p = 3
22. If n = p, then the order of the matrix 7X – 5Z is:
(A) p × 2 (B) 2 × n (C) n × 3 (D) p × n
3.5. Transpose of a Matrix
In this section, we shall learn about transpose of a matrix and special types of matrices
such as symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Definition 3 If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is
denoted by A′ or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij]m × n, then A′ = [aji]n × m. For example,
3 5 3 3 0
if A = 3 1 , then A′ =
5 1 −1
0 −1 5 2 × 3
5 3 × 2
3.5.1 Properties of transpose of the matrices
We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These
may be verified by taking suitable examples.
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (A′)′ = A, (ii) (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)
(iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (iv) (A B)′ = B′ A′
3 3 2 2 −1 2
Example 20 If A = and B =
2 4
, verify that
4 2 0 1
(i) (A′)′ = A, (ii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′,
(iii) (kB)′ = kB′, where k is any constant.
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62 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) We have
3 4
3 3 2 ′ 3 3 2
A= ⇒ A′ = 3 2 ⇒ ( A′ ) = =A
4 2 0 2 0 4 2 0
Thus (A′)′ = A
(ii) We have
3 3 2 2 −1 2 5 3 − 1 4
A= , B = 1 ⇒A+B=
4 2 0 2 4 5 4 4
5 5
Therefore (A + B)′ = 3 − 1 4
4 4
3 4 2 1
Now ′
A′ = 3 2 , B = −1 2 ,
2 0
2 4
5 5
So A′ + B′ = 3 −1 4
4 4
Thus (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
(iii) We have
2 −1 2 2 k −k 2k
kB = k =
1 2 4 k 2k 4 k
2k k 2 1
− k 2k = k −1 2 = kB′
Then (kB)′ =
2k 4k 2 4
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MATRICES 63
−2
Example 21 If A = 4 , B = [1 3 −6] , verify that (AB)′ = B′A′.
5
Solution We have
−2
4 , B = 1 3 −6
A= [ ]
5
−2 −2 −6 12
then
4 1 3 −6
AB = [ ] = 4 12 −24
5 5 15 −30
1
Now A′ = [–2 4 5] , B′ = 3
− 6
1 −2 4 5
3 −2 4 5 = −6 12 15 = (AB)′
B′A′ = [ ]
− 6 12 −24 −30
Clearly (AB)′ = B′A′
3 2 3
For example A = 2 −1.5 −1 is a symmetric matrix as A′ = A
3 −1 1
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64 MATHEMATICS
0 e f
For example, the matrix B = −e 0 g is a skew symmetric matrix as B′= –B
− f −g 0
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MATRICES 65
1
is symmetric matrix and (A − A′) is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square
2
matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
2 −2 −4
Example 22 Express the matrix B = −1 3 4 as the sum of a symmetric and a
1 −2 −3
skew symmetric matrix.
Solution Here
2 −1 1
B′ = − 2 3 −2
−4 4 −3
−3 −3
2 2 2
4 −3 −3
1 −3 1 ,
2 =
1
Let P = (B + B′) = − 3 6 3
2 2 2
−3 2 −6 −3
1 −3
−3 −3 2
2 2 2
−3
Now P′ = 3 1 = P
2
−3 1 −3
2
1
Thus P = (B + B′) is a symmetric matrix.
2
−1 −5
0 2 2
0 −1 −5
1 1 1
Also, let Q = (B – B′) = 1 0 6 = 0 3
2 2 2
5 −6 0
5 −3 0
2
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66 MATHEMATICS
1 5
0 2 3
−1
Then Q′ = 0 −3 = − Q
2
−5 3 0
2
1
Thus Q= (B – B′) is a skew symmetric matrix.
2
−3 −3 −1 −5
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
−2 −4
−3
3 = −1 3 4 = B
1
Now P+Q= 3 1 + 0
2 2
1 −2 −3
−3 1 −3
5
−3 0
2 2
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
5
1 −1 5 6
1 −1
(i) (ii) (iii) 3 5 6
2 2 3
−1 2 3 −1
−1 2 3 −4 1 −5
2. If A = 5 7 9 and B = 1 2 0 , then verify that
−2 1 1 1 3 1
(i) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′, (ii) (A – B)′ = A′ – B′
3 4
−1 2 1
3. If A′ = −1 2 and B = , then verify that
1 2 3
0 1
(i) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (ii) (A – B)′ = A′ – B′
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MATRICES 67
−2 3 −1 0
4. If A′ = and B = , then find (A + 2B)′
1 2 1 2
5. For the matrices A and B, verify that (AB)′ = B′A′, where
1 0
(i) A = −4 , B = [ −1 2 1] (ii) A = 1 , B = [1 5 7 ]
3 2
cos α sin α
6. If (i) A = , then verify that A′ A = I
− sin α cos α
sin α cos α
(ii) If A = , then verify that A′ A = I
− cos α sin α
1 −1 5
7. (i) Show that the matrix A = −1 2 1 is a symmetric matrix.
5 1 3
0 1 −1
(ii) Show that the matrix A = −1 0 1 is a skew symmetric matrix.
1 −1 0
1 5
8. For the matrix A = , verify that
6 7
(i) (A + A′) is a symmetric matrix
(ii) (A – A′) is a skew symmetric matrix
0 a b
1 1
9. Find ( ′ )
A + A and ( A − A , when A = − a 0
′ ) c
2 2
−b −c 0
10. Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix:
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68 MATHEMATICS
6 −2 2
3 5
(i) (ii) −2 3 −1
1 −1
2 −1 3
3 3 −1
−2 −2 1 1 5
(iii) (iv)
−1 2
−4 −5 2
4 − 3 −6 + 6 1 0
= = =I
2 − 2 −3 + 4 0 1
1 0
Also BA = = I . Thus B is the inverse of A, in other
0 1
words B = A– 1 and A is inverse of B, i.e., A = B–1
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MATRICES 69
A Note
1. A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix, since for products BA
and AB to be defined and to be equal, it is necessary that matrices A and B
should be square matrices of the same order.
2. If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.
EXERCISE 3.4
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70 MATHEMATICS
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 24 If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB
is symmetric if and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Solution Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore A′ = A and B′ = B.
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MATRICES 71
2 −1 5 2 2 5
Example 25 Let A = ,B= ,C= . Find a matrix D such that
3 4 7 4 3 8
CD – AB = O.
Solution Since A, B, C are all square matrices of order 2, and CD – AB is well
defined, D must be a square matrix of order 2.
a b
Let D= . Then CD – AB = 0 gives
c d
2 5 a b 2 −1 5 2
3 8 c d − 3 4 7 4 = O
2a + 5c 2b + 5d 3 0 0 0
or 3a + 8c 3b + 8d − 43 22 =
0 0
2a + 5c − 3 2b + 5d 0 0
or 3a + 8c − 43 3b + 8d − 22 = 0 0
By equality of matrices, we get
2a + 5c – 3 = 0 ... (1)
3a + 8c – 43 = 0 ... (2)
2b + 5d = 0 ... (3)
and 3b + 8d – 22 = 0 ... (4)
Solving (1) and (2), we get a = –191, c = 77. Solving (3) and (4), we get b = – 110,
d = 44.
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72 MATHEMATICS
a b −191 −110
Therefore D= = 44
c d 77
0 2 y z
3. Find the values of x, y, z if the matrix A = x y − z satisfy the equation
x − y z
A′A = I.
1 2 0 0
4. For what values of x : [1 2 1] 2 0 1 2 = O?
1 0 2 x
3 1
5. If A = , show that A2 – 5A + 7I = 0.
−1 2
1 0 2 x
6. Find x, if [ x −5 −1] 0 2 1 4 = O
2 0 3 1
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MATRICES 73
(a) If unit sale prices of x, y and z are ` 2.50, ` 1.50 and ` 1.00, respectively,
find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix algebra.
(b) If the unit costs of the above three commodities are ` 2.00, ` 1.00 and
50 paise respectively. Find the gross profit.
1 2 3 −7 −8 −9
8. Find the matrix X so that X = 4 6
4 5 6 2
Choose the correct answer in the following questions:
α β
9. If A = is such that A² = I, then
γ −α
(A) 1 + α² + βγ = 0 (B) 1 – α² + βγ = 0
(C) 1 – α² – βγ = 0 (D) 1 + α² – βγ = 0
10. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then
(A) A is a diagonal matrix (B) A is a zero matrix
(C) A is a square matrix (D) None of these
2
11. If A is square matrix such that A = A, then (I + A)³ – 7 A is equal to
(A) A (B) I – A (C) I (D) 3A
Summary
® A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.
® A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n.
® [aij]m × 1 is a column matrix.
® [aij]1 × n is a row matrix.
® An m × n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.
® A = [aij]m × m is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
® A = [aij]n × n is a scalar matrix if aij = 0, when i ≠ j, aij = k, (k is some
constant), when i = j.
® A = [aij]n × n is an identity matrix, if aij = 1, when i = j, aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
® A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.
® A = [aij] = [bij] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) aij = bij for all
possible values of i and j.
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74 MATHEMATICS
® kA = k[aij]m × n = [k(aij)]m × n
® – A = (–1)A
® A – B = A + (–1) B
® A+ B = B +A
® (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.
® k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.
® (k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant. n
® c
If A = [aij]m × n and B = [bjk]n × p , then AB = C = [cik]m × p, where ik = ∑a b
j =1
ij jk
—v —
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MATRICES 75
NOTES
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76 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 4
DETERMINANTS
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DETERMINANTS 77
This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
numbers (real or complex) and f : M → K is defined by f (A) = k, where A ∈ M and
k ∈ K, then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by | A | or det A or ∆.
a b a b
If A = , then determinant of A is written as | A| = = det (A)
c d c d
Remarks
(i) For matrix A, | A | is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A = [a ] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two
a11 a12
Let A= be a matrix of order 2 × 2,
a21 a22
then the determinant of A is defined as:
2 4
Example 1 Evaluate .
–1 2
2 4
Solution We have = 2 (2) – 4(–1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
–1 2
x x +1
Example 2 Evaluate
x –1 x
Solution We have
x x +1
= x (x) – (x + 1) (x – 1) = x2 – (x2 – 1) = x2 – x2 + 1 = 1
x –1 x
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78 MATHEMATICS
3 corresponding to each of three rows (R1, R2 and R3) and three columns (C1, C2 and
C3) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [aij]3 × 3
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and third column (C3)
of | A | as a13 lies in R1 and C3,
a21 a22
i.e., (–1)1 + 3 a13 a a32
31
Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by
a22 a23 a a23
det A = |A| = (–1)1 + 1 a11 a + (–1)1 + 2 a12 21
32 a33 a31 a33
1+ 3 a21 a22
+ (–1) a13
a31 a32
or |A| = a11 (a22 a33 – a32 a23) – a12 (a21 a33 – a31 a23)
+ a13 (a21 a32 – a31 a22)
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DETERMINANTS 79
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a32 a23 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (1)
2 +1 a12 a13 a a
| A | = (–1) a21 + (–1)2 + 2 a22 11 13
a32 a33 a31 a33
a11 a12
+ (–1) 2 + 3 a23
a31 a32
= – a21 (a12 a33 – a32 a13) + a22 (a11 a33 – a31 a13)
– a23 (a11 a32 – a31 a12)
| A | = – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a22 a11 a33 – a22 a31 a13 – a23 a11 a32
+ a23 a31 a12
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (2)
Expansion along first Column (C1)
a11 a12 a13
| A | = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
By expanding along C1, we get
3 + 1 a 12 a13
+ a31 (–1) a22 a23
= a11 (a22 a33 – a23 a32) – a21 (a12 a33 – a13 a32) + a31 (a12 a23 – a13 a22)
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80 MATHEMATICS
| A | = a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a13 a32 + a31 a12 a23
– a31 a13 a22
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (3)
Clearly, values of | A | in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of |A| by expanding along R3, C2 and C3 are equal to the
value of | A | obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column
which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (–1)i + j, we can multiply by +1 or –1
according as (i + j) is even or odd.
2 2 1 1
(iii) Let A = and B = . Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also
4 0 2 0
| A | = 0 – 8 = – 8 and | B | = 0 – 2 = – 2.
Observe that, | A | = 4 (– 2) = 22 | B | or | A | = 2n | B |, where n = 2 is the order of
square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then | A| = kn
| B |, where n = 1, 2, 3
1 2 4
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant ∆ = –1 3 0 .
4 1 0
Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C3), we get
–1 3 1 2 1 2
∆= 4 –0 +0
4 1 4 1 –1 3
= 4 (–1 – 12) – 0 + 0 = – 52
0 sin α – cos α
Example 4 Evaluate ∆ = – sin α 0 sin β .
cos α – sin β 0
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DETERMINANTS 81
3 x 3 2
Solution We have =
x 1 4 1
i.e. 3 – x2 = 3 – 8
i.e. x2 = 8
Hence x= ±2 2
EXERCISE 4.1
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
2 4
1.
–5 –1
cos θ – sin θ x2 – x + 1 x – 1
2. (i) (ii)
sin θ cos θ x +1 x +1
1 2
3. If A = , then show that | 2A | = 4 | A |
4 2
1 0 1
4. If A = 0 1 2 , then show that | 3 A | = 27 | A |
0 0 4
5. Evaluate the determinants
3 –1 –2 3 –4 5
(i) 0 0 –1 (ii) 1 1 –2
3 –5 0 2 3 1
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82 MATHEMATICS
0 1 2 2 –1 –2
(iii) –1 0 –3 (iv) 0 2 –1
–2 3 0 3 –5 0
1 1 –2
6. If A = 2 1 –3 , find | A |
5 4 –9
7. Find values of x, if
2 4 2x 4 2 3 x 3
(i) = (ii) =
5 1 6 x 4 5 2x 5
x 2 6 2
8. If = , then x is equal to
18 x 18 6
(A) 6 (B) ± 6 (C) – 6 (D) 0
4.3 Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are
1
(x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3), is given by the expression [x (y –y ) + x2 (y3–y1) +
2 1 2 3
x3 (y1–y2)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
x1 y1 1
1
∆= x2 y2 1 ... (1)
2
x3 y3 1
Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).
(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 6 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), (– 4, 2) and (5, 1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
3 8 1
1
∆= –4 2 1
2
5 1 1
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DETERMINANTS 83
1
3 ( 2 – 1) – 8 ( – 4 – 5) + 1( – 4 – 10 )
2
=
1 61
= ( 3 + 72 – 14 ) =
2 2
Example 7 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using determinants
and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq units.
Solution Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?). So
0 0 1
1
1 3 1 =0
2
x y 1
1
This gives ( y – 3 x ) = 0 or y = 3x,
2
which is the equation of required line AB.
Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have
1 3 1
1
0 0 1 =±3
2
k 0 1
− 3k
This gives, = ± 3 , i.e., k = ∓ 2.
2
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the following :
(i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3) (ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (–2, –3), (3, 2), (–1, –8)
2. Show that points
A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2) (ii) (–2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, – 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then k is
(A) 12 (B) –2 (C) –12, –2 (D) 12, –2
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84 MATHEMATICS
Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M23 is given by
1 2
M23 = = 8 – 14 = – 6 (obtained by deleting R2 and C3 in ∆).
7 8
Definition 2 Cofactor of an element aij , denoted by Aij is defined by
Aij = (–1)i + j Mij , where Mij is minor of aij .
1 –2
Example 9 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
4 3
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DETERMINANTS 85
Example 10 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a11, a21 in the determinant
Cofactor of a21 = A21 = (–1)2+1 M21 = (–1) (a12 a33 – a13 a32) = – a12 a33 + a13 a32
Remark Expanding the determinant ∆, in Example 21, along R1, we have
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
∆ = (–1) a11 a
1+1 1+2
a + (–1) a12 a
1+3
a + (–1) a13 a31 a32
32 33 31 33
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13, where Aij is cofactor of aij
= sum of product of elements of R1 with their corresponding cofactors
Similarly, ∆ can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R2, R3,
C1, C2 and C3.
Hence ∆ = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.
A Note If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example,
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86 MATHEMATICS
2 –3 5
6 0 4 and verify that a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33= 0
1 5 –7
0 4
Solution We have M11 = = 0 –20 = –20; A11 = (–1)1+1 (–20) = –20
5 –7
6 4
M12 = = – 42 – 4 = – 46; A12 = (–1)1+2 (– 46) = 46
1 –7
6 0
M13 = = 30 – 0 = 30; A13 = (–1)1+3 (30) = 30
1 5
–3 5
M21 = = 21 – 25 = – 4; A21 = (–1)2+1 (– 4) = 4
5 –7
2 5
M22 = = –14 – 5 = –19; A22 = (–1)2+2 (–19) = –19
1 –7
2 –3
M23 = = 10 + 3 = 13; A23 = (–1)2+3 (13) = –13
1 5
–3 5
M31 = = –12 – 0 = –12; A31 = (–1)3+1 (–12) = –12
0 4
2 5
M32 = = 8 – 30 = –22; A32 = (–1)3+2 (–22) = 22
6 4
2 –3
and M33 = = 0 + 18 = 18; A33 = (–1)3+3 (18) = 18
6 0
Now a11 = 2, a12 = –3, a13 = 5; A31 = –12, A32 = 22, A33 = 18
So a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33
= 2 (–12) + (–3) (22) + 5 (18) = –24 – 66 + 90 = 0
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DETERMINANTS 87
EXERCISE 4.3
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
2 –4 a c
1. (i) (ii)
0 3 b d
1 0 0 1 0 4
2. (i) 0 1 0 (ii) 3 5 –1
0 0 1 0 1 2
5 3 8
3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate ∆ = 2 0 1 .
1 2 3
1 x yz
4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate ∆ = 1 y zx .
1 z xy
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88 MATHEMATICS
2 3
Example 12 Find adj A for A =
1 4
Solution We have A11 = 4, A12 = –1, A21 = –3, A22 = 2
A11 A 21 4 –3
Hence adj A = =
A12 A 22 –1 2
Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by
a11 a12
A=
a21 a22
The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a11 and a22 and by changing signs
of a12 and a21, i.e.,
A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I ,
where I is the identity matrix of order n
Verification
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DETERMINANTS 89
A 0 0 1 0 0
A (adj A) = 0 A 0 = A 0 1 0 = A I
0 0 A 0 0 1
1 2
For example, the determinant of matrix A = 4 8 is zero
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A ≠ 0
1 2 1 2
Let A= . Then A = = 4 – 6 = – 2 ≠ 0.
3 4 3 4
Hence A is a nonsingular matrix
We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, AB = A B , where A and B are square matrices of
the same order
A 0 0
Remark We know that (adj A) A = A I = 0 A 0 , A ≠ 0
0 0 A
Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have
A 0 0
(adj A) A = 0 A 0
0 0 A
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90 MATHEMATICS
1 0 0
3
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = A 0 1 0 (Why?)
0 0 1
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = | A |3 (1)
i.e. |(adj A)| = | A | 2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then | adj (A) | = | A |n – 1.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
Now AB = I. So AB = I or A B =1 (since I =1, AB = A B )
1 1
or A adj A = adj A A = I
| A | | A |
1
or AB = BA = I, where B = adj A
|A|
1
Thus A is invertible and A–1 = adj A
|A|
1 3 3
Example 13 If A = 1 4 3 , then verify that A adj A = | A | I. Also find A–1.
1 3 4
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DETERMINANTS 91
1 3 3 7 −3 −3
Now A (adj A) = 1 4 3 −1 1 0
1 3 4 −1 0 1
7 − 3 − 3 −3 + 3 + 0 −3 + 0 + 3
= 7 − 4 − 3 −3 + 4 + 0 −3 + 0 + 3
7 − 3 − 4 −3 + 3 + 0 −3 + 0 + 4
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0
= 0 1 0 = (1) = A .I
0 0 1 0 0 1
7 −3 −3 7 −3 −3
1 1
Also A–1 = a d j A = −1 1 0 = −1 1 0
A 1
−1 0 1 −1 0 1
2 3 1 −2
Example 14 If A = and B = , then verify that (AB) = B A .
–1 –1 –1
1 − 4 −1 3
2 3 1 −2 −1 5
Solution We have AB = −1 3 = 5 −14
1 − 4
Since, AB = –11 ≠ 0, (AB)–1 exists and is given by
1 − 4 −3 −1 3 2
A–1 = − ,B =
11 −1 2 1 1
1 3 2 −4 −3 1 −14 −5 1 14 5
Therefore B−1 A −1 = − =− =
11 1 1 −1 2 11 −5 −1 11 5 1
Hence (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1
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92 MATHEMATICS
2 3
Example 15 Show that the matrix A = satisfies the equation A2 – 4A + I = O,
1 2
where I is 2 × 2 identity matrix and O is 2 × 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A–1.
2 3 2 3 7 12
Solution We have A 2 = A.A = =
1 2 1 2 4 7
7 12 8 12 1 0 0 0
Hence A 2 − 4A + I = − + = =O
4 7 4 8 0 1 0 0
Now A2 – 4A + I = O
Therefore A A – 4A = – I
or A A (A–1) – 4 A A–1 = – I A–1 (Post multiplying by A–1 because |A| ≠ 0)
or A (A A–1) – 4I = – A–1
or AI – 4I = – A–1
4 0 2 3 2 −3
or A–1 = 4I – A = − =
0 4 1 2 −1 2
2 −3
Hence A −1 =
−1 2
EXERCISE 4.4
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.
1 −1 2
1 2
1. 3 4 2. 2 3 5
−2 0 1
Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I in Exercises 3 and 4
1 −1 2
2 3
3. −4 −6 4. 3 0 −2
1 0 3
Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.
1 2 3
2 −2 −1 5
5. 4 3 6. 7. 0 2 4
−3 2 0 0 5
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DETERMINANTS 93
1 0 0 2 1 3 1 −1 2
3 3 0
8. 9. 4 −1 0 10. 0 2 −3
5 2 −1 −7 2 1 3 −2 4
1 0 0
0 cos α sin α
11.
0 sin α − cos α
3 7 6 8
12. Let A = and B = . Verify that (AB) = B A .
–1 –1 –1
2 5 7 9
3 1
13. If A = , show that A – 5A + 7I = O. Hence find A .
2 –1
−1 2
3 2
14. For the matrix A = , find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = O.
1 1
1 1 1
15. For the matrix A = 1 2 −3
2 −1 3
Show that A3– 6A2 + 5A + 11 I = O. Hence, find A–1.
2 −1 1
16. If A = −1 2 −1
1 −1 2
Verify that A3 – 6A2 + 9A – 4I = O and hence find A–1
17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 × 3. Then | adj A | is equal to
(A) | A | (B) | A | 2 (C) | A | 3 (D) 3 | A |
–1
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A ) is equal to
1
(A) det (A) (B) det (A) (C) 1 (D) 0
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DETERMINANTS 95
1 2 −5 1
11 −3 2 7
Therefore X = A–1B = –
x 1 −33 3
y = − =
11 11 −1
i.e.
Hence x = 3, y = – 1
Example 17 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.
3x – 2y + 3z = 8
2x + y – z = 1
4x – 3y + 2z = 4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
3 −2 3 x 8
A = 2 1 −1 , X = y and B =
1
4 −3 2 z 4
We see that
A = 3 (2 – 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 (– 6 – 4) = – 17 ≠ 0
Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists. Now
A11 = –1, A12 = – 8, A13 = –10
A21 = –5, A22 = – 6, A23 = 1
A31 = –1, A32 = 9, A33 = 7
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96 MATHEMATICS
−1 − 5 −1
1
Therefore A = − −8 − 6 9
–1
17
−10 1 7
−1 − 5 −1 8
1
X = A B = − −8 − 6 9 1
–1
So
17
−10 1 7 4
x −17 1
y 1
i.e. = − 17 −34 = 2
z −51 3
Hence x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
Example 18 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add
second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we get double of the
second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z, respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x+y+z=6
y + 3z = 11
x + z = 2y or x – 2y + z = 0
This system can be written as A X = B, where
1 1 1 x 6
y
A = 0 1 3 , X = and B =
11
1 2 1 z 0
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DETERMINANTS 97
7 –3 2
1 1
Thus –1
A = adj (A) = 3 0 –3
A 9
–1 3 1
Since X = A–1 B
7 –3 2 6
1
X = 3 0 –3 11
9
–1 3 1 0
x 42 − 33 + 0 9 1
y 1 18 + 0 + 0 1 18
or = = = 2
z 9 −6 + 33 + 0 9 27 3
Thus x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
EXERCISE 4.5
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2 2. 2x – y = 5 3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3 x+y=4 2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1 5. 3x–y – 2z = 2 6. 5x – y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 2z = 2 2y – z = –1 2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4 3x – 5y = 3 5x – 2y + 6z = –1
Solve system of linear equations, using matrix method, in Exercises 7 to 14.
7. 5x + 2y = 4 8. 2x – y = –2 9. 4x – 3y = 3
7x + 3y = 5 3x + 4y = 3 3x – 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3 11. 2x + y + z = 1 12. x – y + z = 4
3
3x + 2y = 5 x – 2y – z = 2x + y – 3z = 0
2
3y – 5z = 9 x+y+z=2
13. 2x + 3y +3 z = 5 14. x – y + 2z = 7
x – 2y + z = – 4 3x + 4y – 5z = – 5
3x – y – 2z = 3 2x – y + 3z = 12
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98 MATHEMATICS
2 –3 5
3 2 – 4 –1 –1
15. If A = , find A . Using A solve the system of equations
1 1 –2
2x – 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y – 4z = – 5
x + y – 2z = – 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is ` 60. The cost of 2 kg onion,
4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is ` 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg rice
is ` 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.
Miscellaneous Examples
1 1 2 2 0 1
3 9 2 3 to solve the system of equations
Example 19 Use product 0 2
3 2 4 6 1 2
x – y + 2z = 1
2y – 3z = 1
3x – 2y + 4z = 2
1 –1 2 –2 0 1
– 3 9 – 3
Solution Consider the product 0 2 2
3 –2 4 6 1 – 2
− 2 − 9 + 12 0 − 2 + 2 1 + 3 − 4 1 0 0
0 + 18 − 18 0 + 4 − 3 0 − 6 + 6 0 1 0
= =
− 6 − 18 + 24 0 − 4 + 4 3 + 6 − 8 0 0 1
1 –1 2 –2 0 1
–1
Hence 0 2 –3 = 9 2 –3
3 – 2 4 6 1 – 2
Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows
1 –1 2 x 1
0 2 –3 y
= 1
3 –2 4 z 2
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DETERMINANTS 99
−1
x 1 −1 2 1 2 0 1 1
3 1
or y = 0 2 −3 1 = 9 2
z 3 −2 4 2 6 1 2 2
−2 + 0 + 2 0
= 9 + 2 − 6 = 5
6 + 1 − 4 3
Hence x = 0, y = 5 and z = 3
3 –1 1 1 2 –2
3. If A–1 = –15 6 –5 and B = –1 3 0 , find ( AB )
–1
5 –2 2 0 –2 1
1 2 1
3 1 . Verify that
4. Let A = 2
1 1 5
(i) [adj A]–1 = adj (A–1) (ii) (A–1)–1 = A
x y x+ y
5. Evaluate y x+ y x
x+ y x y
1 x y
6. Evaluate 1 x + y y
1 x x+ y
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100 MATHEMATICS
4 6 5
– + =1
x y z
6 9 20
+ – =2
x y z
Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.
x 0 0
8. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix A = 0 y 0 is
0 0 z
x −1 0 0 x −1 0 0
−1
−1
(A) 0 y 0 (B) xyz 0 y 0
0 0 z −1 0 0 z −1
x 0 0 1 0 0
1
0 y 0
1
(C) (D) 0 1 0
xyz xyz
0 0 z 0 0 1
1 sin θ 1
− sin θ 1 sin θ , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Then
9. Let A =
−1 − sin θ 1
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DETERMINANTS 101
Summary
® Determinant of a matrix A = [a11]1 × 1 is given by | a11| = a11
a a12
® Determinant of a matrix A = 11 is given by
a21 a22
a11 a12
A = = a11 a22 – a12 a21
a21 a22
a1 b1 c1
® Determinant of a matrix A = a2 b2 c2 is given by (expanding along R1)
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a c2 a b2
A = a2 b2 c2 = a1 2 − b1 2 + c1 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.
® Area of a triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by
x1 y1 1
1
∆= x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
® Minor of an element aij of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant
obtained by deleting ith row and jth column and denoted by Mij.
® Cofactor of aij of given by Aij = (– 1)i + j Mij
® Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements
of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For example,
A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13.
® If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements
of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example, a11 A21 + a12
A22 + a13 A23 = 0
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102 MATHEMATICS
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DETERMINANTS 103
Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns of
several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally led to the
discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods was precisely
that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore, early developed the
idea of subtracting columns and rows as in simplification of a determinant
Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work ‘Kai Fukudai no Ho’ in 1683 showed that he had the idea of
determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in eliminating a
quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equations. T. Hayashi, “The Fakudoi and Determinants in Japanese
Mathematics,” in the proc. of the Tokyo Math. Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent functions.
He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave general method of
expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors. In 1773 Lagrange
treated determinants of the second and third orders and used them for purpose
other than the solution of equations. In 1801, Gauss used determinants in his
theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812) who
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-columns and n-
rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same subject. He
used the word ‘determinant’ in its present sense. He gave the proof of multiplication
theorem more satisfactory than Binet’s.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, after
this the word determinant received its final acceptance.
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104 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 5
CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
v The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement
of everyday thinking.” — ALBERT EINSTEIN v
5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.
Sir Issac Newton
5.2 Continuity (1642-1727)
We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function
1, if x ≤ 0
f ( x) =
2, if x > 0
This function is of course defined at every
point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like – 0.1, – 0.01, – 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, Fig 5.1
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 105
0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In
particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the value
of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we try to draw
the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the plane of the
paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when
we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being not continuous at x = 0.
Now, consider the function defined as
1, if x ≠ 0
f ( x) =
2, if x = 0
This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x = 0
are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that point without
Fig 5.2
lifting the pen from the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, it may be phrased precisely as follows:
Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if
lim f ( x ) = f (c )
x→ c
More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c. Recall that
if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that the common
value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase the definition of
continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at
x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at
x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.
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106 MATHEMATICS
Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.
Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly
lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 02 = 0
x→ 0 x→ 0
Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition
− x, if x < 0
f (x) =
x, if x ≥ 0
Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim− (– x) = 0
x→ 0 − x→ 0
Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at
x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by
x + 3, if x ≠ 0
3
f (x) =
1, if x = 0
is not continuous at x = 0.
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 107
Thus, lim f (x) = c = f (c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.
x→ c
Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural
extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point
in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means
lim f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a+
of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.
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108 MATHEMATICS
Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim f ( x ) = lim x = c (Why?)
x→ c x→ c
Thus lim f ( x ) = f (c ) , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means
x→ c
f is a continuous function.
1
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) = , x ≠ 0.
x
Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have
1 1
lim f ( x) = lim =
x→c x→c x c
1
Also, since for c ≠ 0, f (c) =
, we have lim f ( x ) = f (c ) and hence, f is continuous
c x→ c
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 109
(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to emphasise
that + ∞ is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as
a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.
Table 5.2
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110 MATHEMATICS
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 111
x + 2, if x < 0
f (x) =
− x + 2, if x > 0
Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0. Domain
of definition of this function is
D1 ∪ D2 where D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0} and
D2 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
Case 1 If c ∈ D 1, then lim f ( x) = lim (x + 2)
x →c x →c
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D1.
Case 2 If c ∈ D2, then lim f ( x) = lim (– x + 2)
x →c x →c
= – c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D2.
Since f is continuous at all points in the domain of f,
we deduce that f is continuous. Graph of this
function is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to graph Fig 5.6
this function we need to lift the pen from the plane
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by
x, if x ≥ 0
f (x) = 2
x , if x < 0
Solution Clearly the function is defined at
every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
Let D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0}, D2 = {0} and
Fig 5.7
D3 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
Case 1 At any point in D1, we have f (x) = x2 and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D3, we have f (x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).
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112 MATHEMATICS
Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f (0) = 0.
The left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim− x 2 = 02 = 0
x →0 – x →0
The right hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim+ x = 0
x → 0+ x →0
Fig 5.8
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 113
Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from the
graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c]; i.e.,
lim f ( x) = lim [ x] = [c] . Also f (c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real
x →c x →c
Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt some
algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of continuous functions.
Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function at
that point, it is reasonable to expect results analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f – g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.
f
(4) is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) ≠ 0).
g
Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at
x = c. We have
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114 MATHEMATICS
Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f (x) = λ for some
real number λ, then the function (λ . g) defined by (λ . g) (x) = λ . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if λ = – 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of – f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f (x) = λ, then the
λ λ λ
function defined by ( x) = is also continuous wherever g (x) ≠ 0. In
g g g ( x)
1
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of .
g
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions. They
also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following examples
illustrate this:
Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.
Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by
p ( x)
f ( x) = , q ( x) ≠ 0
q( x)
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14), f is
continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Solution To see this we use the following facts
lim sin x = 0
x →0
We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f (x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
number. Put x = c + h. If x → c we know that h → 0. Therefore
lim f ( x) = lim sin x
x →c x→c
= lim sin(c + h)
h →0
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 115
Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.
sin x
Solution The function f (x) = tan x = . This is defined for all real numbers such
cos x
π
that cos x ≠ 0, i.e., x ≠ (2n +1) . We have just proved that both sine and cosine
2
functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions.
Theorem 2 Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c.
The following examples illustrate this theorem.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function
f may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x2. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2,
it can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 – x + | x | |,
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116 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f (x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = – 3 and at x = 5.
2. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) = 2x2 – 1 at x = 3.
3. Examine the following functions for continuity.
1
(a) f (x) = x – 5 (b) f (x) = ,x≠5
x −5
x 2 − 25
(c) f (x) = , x ≠ –5 (d) f (x) = | x – 5 |
x+5
4. Prove that the function f (x) = xn is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by
x, if x ≤ 1
f ( x) =
5, if x > 1
continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by
| x | +3, if x ≤ − 3
2 x + 3, if x ≤ 2
6. f ( x) = 7. f ( x) = −2 x, if − 3 < x < 3
2 x − 3, if x > 2 6 x + 2, if x ≥ 3
| x | x
, if x ≠ 0 , if x < 0
8. f ( x) = x 9. f ( x) = | x |
0, if x = 0 −1, if x ≥ 0
x + 1, if x ≥ 1 x − 3, if x ≤ 2
3
10. f ( x) = 2 11. f ( x) = 2
x + 1, if x < 1 x + 1, if x > 2
x − 1, if x ≤ 1
10
12. f ( x) = 2
x , if x > 1
13. Is the function defined by
x + 5, if x ≤ 1
f ( x) =
x − 5, if x > 1
a continuous function?
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 117
−2, if x ≤ − 1
16. f ( x) = 2 x, if − 1 < x ≤ 1
2, if x > 1
17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
ax + 1, if x ≤ 3
f ( x) =
bx + 3, if x > 3
is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of λ is the function defined by
λ ( x 2 − 2 x), if x ≤ 0
f ( x) =
4 x + 1, if x > 0
continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?
19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x – [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
20. Is the function defined by f (x) = x2 – sin x + 5 continuous at x = π?
21. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x (b) f (x) = sin x – cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
sin x
, if x < 0
f ( x) = x
x + 1, if x ≥ 0
24. Determine if f defined by
2 1
x sin , if x ≠ 0
f ( x) = x
0, if x = 0
is a continuous function?
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118 MATHEMATICS
kx , if x ≤ 2
2
27. f ( x) = at x = 2
3, if x > 2
kx + 1, if x ≤ π
28. f ( x) = at x = π
cos x, if x > π
kx + 1, if x ≤ 5
29. f ( x) = at x = 5
3x − 5, if x > 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by
5, if x ≤ 2
f ( x) = ax + b, if 2 < x < 10
21, if x ≥ 10
is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x2) is a continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f (x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = | x | – | x + 1 |.
5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a real
function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
f (c + h ) − f (c )
lim
h →0 h
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 119
d
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f ′(c) or ( f ( x)) | c . The
dx
function defined by
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = lim
h →0 h
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is
d dy
denoted by f ′ (x) or ( f ( x)) or if y = f (x) by or y′. The process of finding
dx dx
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f (x) with respect to x to mean find f ′(x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u ± v)′ = u′ ± v′
(2) (uv)′ = u′v + uv′ (Leibnitz or product rule)
′
(3) u = u′v − uv′ , wherever v ≠ 0 (Quotient rule).
v v2
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard functions:
Table 5.3
f (x) xn sin x cos x tan x
Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesn’t? The question is quite pertinent and so is
f (c + h ) − f (c )
its answer. If lim does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable at c.
h →0 h
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if both
f (c + h ) − f ( c ) f (c + h ) − f (c )
lim– and lim+ are finite and equal. A function is said
h →0 h h →0 h
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and left hand
limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative of the function
at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).
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120 MATHEMATICS
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.
5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example. Say,
we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)3
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 121
One way is to expand (2x + 1)3 using binomial theorem and find the derivative as
a polynomial function as illustrated below.
d d
f ( x) = (2 x + 1)3
dx dx
d
(8 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 6 x + 1)
=
dx
= 24x2 + 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)2
Now, observe that f (x) = (h o g) (x)
where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x3. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t3. Thus
df dh dt
= 6 (2x + 1)2 = 3(2x + 1)2 . 2 = 3t2 . 2 = ⋅
dx dt dx
The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in finding
the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in the following
theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
dt dv
functions u and v ; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u (x) and if both and exist, we have
dx dt
df dv dt
= ⋅
dx dt dx
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows. Suppose
f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and w ; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then
df d ( w o u ) dt dw ds dt
= ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
dx dt dx ds dt dx
provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate chain
rule for composite of more functions.
Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = sin (x2).
Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x2 and v(t) = sin t, then
f (x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x2) = sin x2
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122 MATHEMATICS
dv dt
Put t = u(x) = x2. Observe that = cos t and = 2 x exist. Hence, by chain rule
dt dx
df dv dt
= ⋅ = cos t ⋅ 2 x
dx dt dx
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus
df
= cos t ⋅ 2 x = 2 x cos x 2
dx
EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.
1. sin (x2 + 5) 2. cos (sin x) 3. sin (ax + b)
sin (ax + b)
4. sec (tan ( x )) 5. cos (cx + d ) 6. cos x3 . sin2 (x5)
7. 2 cot ( x 2 ) 8. cos ( x )
9. Prove that the function f given by
f (x) = | x – 1 |, x ∈ R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 123
is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate implicit
functions.
dy
Example 22 Find if x – y = π.
dx
Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as
y=x–π
dy
But then =1
dx
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
d dπ
( x − y) =
dx dx
dπ
Recall that means to differentiate the constant function taking value π
dx
everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus
d d
( x) − ( y ) = 0
dx dx
which implies that
dy dx
= =1
dx dx
dy
Example 23 Find , if y + sin y = cos x.
dx
Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x, i.e.,
dy d d
+ (sin y ) = (cos x)
dx dx dx
which implies using chain rule
dy dy
+ cos y ⋅ = – sin x
dx dx
dy sin x
This gives = −
dx 1 + cos y
where y ≠ (2n + 1) π
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124 MATHEMATICS
dy
1 = cos y
dx
dy 1 1
which implies that = =
dx cos y cos (sin −1 x)
π π
Observe that this is defined only for cos y ≠ 0, i.e., sin–1 x ≠ − , , i.e., x ≠ – 1, 1,
2 2
i.e., x ∈ (– 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following manipulation.
Recall that for x ∈ (– 1, 1), sin (sin–1 x) = x and hence
cos2 y = 1 – (sin y)2 = 1 – (sin (sin–1 x))2 = 1 – x2
π π
Also, since y ∈ − , , cos y is positive and hence cos y = 1 − x 2
2 2
Thus, for x ∈ (– 1, 1),
dy 1 1
= =
dx cos y 1 − x2
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 125
EXERCISE 5.3
dy
Find in the following:
dx
1. 2x + 3y = sin x 2. 2x + 3y = sin y 3. ax + by2 = cos y
4. xy + y2 = tan x + y 5. x2 + xy + y2 = 100 6. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81
2x
7. sin2 y + cos xy = κ 8. sin2 x + cos2 y = 1 9. y = sin–1
1 + x2
3 x − x3 1 1
10. y = tan–1 2
, − <x<
1 − 3x 3 3
1 − x2
11. y = cos −1 , 0 < x < 1
1 + x2
1 − x2
12. y = sin −1 , 0 < x < 1
1 + x2
2x ,
13. y = cos −1 −1 < x < 1
1 + x2
14. (
y = sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , −)1
<x<
1
2 2
1 , 1
15. y = sec −1 2 0< x<
2x −1 2
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126 MATHEMATICS
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 127
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0. In
other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series
1 1
1+ + + ...
1! 2!
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain an
extremely important exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists and
has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if
bx = a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a. Thus logb a = x if bx = a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 23 = 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, 104 = 10000 is equivalent to
saying log10 10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 54 = 252 is equivalent to saying log5 625 = 4 or
log25 625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
logb : R+ → R
x → logb x = y if by = x
As before if the base b = 10, we say it
is common logarithms and if b = e, then
we say it is natural logarithms. Often
natural logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the logarithm
function to base e, i.e., ln x will be written
as simply log x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots
of logarithm function to base 2, e and 10.
Some of the important observations
about the logarithm function to any base
b > 1 are listed below:
Fig 5.10
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128 MATHEMATICS
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 129
Solution
(i) Let y = e – x. Using chain rule, we have
dy −x d
= e ⋅ (– x) = – e– x
dx dx
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have
dy d cos (log x)
= cos (log x) ⋅ (log x) =
dx dx x
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130 MATHEMATICS
dy −1 d x −e x
= ⋅ (e ) =
dx 1 − (e x ) 2 dx 1 − e2 x
(iv) Let y = ecos x. Using chain rule, we have
dy
= ecos x ⋅ (− sin x) = − (sin x) ecos x
dx
EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
ex −1 3
1. 2. esin x
3. e x
sin x
2 5
6. e + e + ... + e
x x x
4. sin (tan–1 e–x) 5. log (cos ex)
cos x
7. e x
, x>0 8. log (log x), x > 1 9. log x , x > 0
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 131
( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4)
Example 27 Differentiate w.r.t. x.
3x 2 + 4 x + 5
( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4)
Solution Let y =
(3 x 2 + 4 x + 5)
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
1
log y = [log (x – 3) + log (x2 + 4) – log (3x2 + 4x + 5)]
2
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy 1 1 2x 6x + 4
⋅ = + 2 − 2
y dx 2 ( x − 3) x + 4 3x + 4 x + 5
dy y 1 2x 6x + 4
= + 2 − 2
2 ( x − 3) x + 4 3 x + 4 x + 5
or
dx
1 ( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4) 1 2x 6x + 4
= + 2 − 2
2 3x + 4 x + 5 ( x − 3) x + 4 3 x + 4 x + 5
2
dy
or = y log a
dx
d x
Thus (a ) = ax log a
dx
d x d x log a d
Alternatively (a ) = (e ) = e x log a ( x log a )
dx dx dx
= ex log a . log a = ax log a.
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132 MATHEMATICS
sin x sin x
= x + cos x log x
x
= xsin x −1 ⋅ sin x + xsin x ⋅ cos x log x
dy
Example 30 Find , if yx + xy + xx = ab.
dx
Solution Given that yx + xy + xx = ab.
Putting u = yx, v = xy and w = xx, we get u + v + w = ab
du dv dw
Therefore + + =0 ... (1)
dx dx dx
Now, u = yx. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log u = x log y
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 du d d
⋅ = x (log y ) + log y ( x )
u dx dx dx
1 dy
= x ⋅ + log y ⋅ 1
y dx
du x dy x dy
So = u + log y = y x + log y ... (2)
dx y dx y dx
Also v = xy
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 133
y y dy
= x + log x ... (3)
x dx
Again w = xx
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log w = x log x.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dw d d
⋅ = x (log x) + log x ⋅ ( x)
w dx dx dx
1
= x ⋅ + log x ⋅ 1
x
dw
i.e. = w (1 + log x)
dx
= xx (1 + log x) ... (4)
From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have
x dy y dy
yx + log y + x y + log x + xx (1 + log x) = 0
y dx x dx
dy
or (x . yx – 1 + xy . log x) = – xx (1 + log x) – y . xy–1 – yx log y
dx
dy − [ y x log y + y . x y −1 + x x (1 + log x)]
Therefore =
dx x . y x −1 + x y log x
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134 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.5
Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x.
( x − 1) ( x − 2)
1. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x 2.
( x − 3) ( x − 4) ( x − 5)
3. (log x)cos x 4. xx – 2sin x
x 1
1 1+
5. (x + 3)2 . (x + 4)3 . (x + 5)4 6. x + + x x
x
7. (log x)x + xlog x 8. (sin x)x + sin–1 x
x2 + 1
9. xsin x + (sin x)cos x 10. x x cos x +
x2 − 1
1
11. (x cos x)x + ( x sin x) x
dy
Find of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
dx
12. xy + yx = 1 13. yx = xy
14. (cos x)y = (cos y)x 15. xy = e(x – y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 + x8)
and hence find f ′(1).
17. Differentiate (x2 – 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?
18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that
d du dv dw
(u. v. w) = v. w + u . .w+u.v
dx dx dx dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by logarithmic
differentiation.
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but some
link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a relation
between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation between
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 135
them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the parameter. More
precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form
x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain rule.
dy dy dx
= ⋅
dt dx dt
dy
dy dx
or = dt whenever ≠ 0
dx dx dt
dt
dy g ′(t ) dy dx
Thus = as = g ′(t ) and = f ′(t ) [provided f ′(t) ≠ 0]
dx f ′(t ) dt dt
dy
Example 31 Find , if x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ.
dx
Solution Given that
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ
dx dy
Therefore = – a sin θ, = a cos θ
dθ dθ
dy
dy d θ = a cos θ = − cot θ
Hence =
dx dx − a sin θ
dθ
dy
Example 32 Find , if x = at2, y = 2at.
dx
Solution Given that x = at2, y = 2at
dx dy
So = 2at and = 2a
dt dt
dy
dy dt = 2a = 1
Therefore =
dx dx 2at t
dt
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136 MATHEMATICS
dy
Example 33 Find , if x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ).
dx
dx dy
Solution We have = a(1 + cos θ), = a (sin θ)
dθ dθ
dy
dy d θ = a sin θ = tan θ
Therefore =
dx dx a (1 + cos θ) 2
dθ
dy
ANote It may be noted here that
dx
is expressed in terms of parameter only
without directly involving the main variables x and y.
2 2 2
Example 34 Find dy , if x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
dx
Solution Let x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ. Then
2 2 2 2
= (a cos θ) 3 + (a sin θ) 3
3 3
x3 + y3
2 2
= a 3 (cos θ + (sin θ) = a 3
2 2
2 2 2
Hence, x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ is parametric equation of x 3 + y 3 = a 3
dx dy
Now = – 3a cos2 θ sin θ and = 3a sin2 θ cos θ
dθ dθ
dy
d θ = 3a sin θ cos θ = − tan θ = − 3 y
2
dy
Therefore =
dx dx − 3a cos 2 θ sin θ x
dθ
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 137
EXERCISE 5.6
t
8.x = a cos t + log tan y = a sin t 9. x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ
2
10. x = a (cos θ + θ sin θ), y = a (sin θ – θ cos θ)
−1 −1 dy y
11. If x = a sin t , y = a cos t , show that =−
dx x
5.7 Second Order Derivative
Let y = f (x). Then
dy
= f ′(x) ... (1)
dx
If f ′(x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand
d dy
side becomes which is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t. x and
dx dx
d2y
is denoted by . The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f ″(x). It is also
dx 2
denoted by D2 y or y″ or y2 if y = f (x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be
defined similarly.
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138 MATHEMATICS
d2y
Example 35 Find , if y = x3 + tan x.
dx 2
Solution Given that y = x3 + tan x. Then
dy
= 3x2 + sec2 x
dx
d2y d ( 2
Therefore 2 =
3x + sec2 x )
dx dx
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x = 6x + 2 sec2 x tan x
d2y
Example 36 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that + y=0.
dx 2
Solution We have
dy
= A cos x – B sin x
dx
d2y d
and 2 = (A cos x – B sin x)
dx dx
= – A sin x – B cos x = – y
d2y
Hence +y=0
dx 2
d2y dy
Example 37 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, prove that 2
− 5 + 6y = 0 .
dx dx
Solution Given that y = 3e2x + 2e3x. Then
dy
= 6e2x + 6e3x = 6 (e2x + e3x)
dx
d2y
Therefore = 12e2x + 18e3x = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx 2
d2y dy
Hence 2
−5 + 6y = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx dx
– 30 (e2x + e3x) + 6 (3e2x + 2e3x) = 0
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 139
d2y dy
Example 38 If y = sin–1 x, show that (1 – x2) 2
−x =0.
dx dx
Solution We have y = sin–1 x. Then
dy 1
=
dx (1 − x 2 )
dy
or (1 − x 2 ) =1
dx
d dy
(1 − x ) . = 0
2
So
dx dx
or (1 − x 2 ) ⋅
d 2 y dy d
+ ⋅
dx 2 dx dx
( )
(1 − x 2 ) = 0
d 2 y dy 2x
or (1 − x 2 ) ⋅ 2
− ⋅ =0
dx dx 2 1 − x 2
d2y dy
Hence (1 − x 2 )2
−x =0
dx dx
Alternatively, Given that y = sin–1 x, we have
1
y1 = , i.e., (1 − x 2 ) y 2 = 1
1 − x2 1
So (1 − x 2 ) . 2 y1 y2 + y12 (0 − 2 x) = 0
Hence (1 – x2) y2 – xy1 = 0
EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to 10.
1. x2 + 3x + 2 2. x 20 3. x . cos x
4. log x 5. x3 log x 6. ex sin 5x
7. e6x cos 3x 8. tan–1 x 9. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
d2y
11. If y = 5 cos x – 3 sin x, prove that + y=0
dx 2
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140 MATHEMATICS
d2y
12. If y = cos–1 x, Find in terms of y alone.
dx 2
13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
d2y dy
mx nx
14. If y = Ae + Be , show that 2
− (m + n) + mny = 0
dx dx
d2y
15. If y = 500e7x + 600e– 7x, show that = 49 y
dx 2
2
d 2 y dy
16. If ey (x + 1) = 1, show that =
dx 2 dx
17. If y = (tan–1 x)2, show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 39 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:
1
(i) 3x + 2 + (ii) log7 (log x)
2x2 + 4
Solution
1 1
1 −
(i) Let y = 3x + 2 + = (3x + 2) 2 + (2 x + 4)
2 2
2 x2 + 4
2
Note that this function is defined at all real numbers x > − . Therefore
3
1 1
dy 1 −1 d 1 − −1 d
= (3 x + 2) 2 ⋅ (3 x + 2) + − (2 x + 4) 2 ⋅ (2 x + 4)
2 2
dx 2 dx 2 dx
1 3
1 − 1 −
= (3x + 2) 2 ⋅ (3) − (2 x + 4) 2 ⋅ 4 x
2
2 2
3 2x
= − 3
2 3x + 2
( 2x2 + 4) 2
2
This is defined for all real numbers x > − .
3
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 141
log (log x)
(ii) Let y = log7 (log x) = (by change of base formula).
log 7
The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore
dy 1 d
= (log (log x))
dx log 7 dx
1 1 d
= ⋅ (log x)
log 7 log x dx
1
=
x log 7 log x
Example 40 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
sin x 2 x +1
(i) cos – 1 (sin x) (ii) tan −1 (iii) sin −1
1 + cos x 1 + 4x
Solution
(i) Let f (x) = cos – 1 (sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real numbers.
We may rewrite this function as
f (x) = cos – 1 (sin x)
π
= cos −1 cos − x
2
π
= −x
2
Thus f ′(x) = – 1.
sin x
(ii) Let f (x) = tan – 1 . Observe that this function is defined for all real
1 + cos x
numbers, where cos x ≠ – 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of π. We may rewrite this
function as
−1 sin x
f (x) = tan
1 + cos x
x x
2 sin cos
−1 2 2
= tan
2 x
2cos
2
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142 MATHEMATICS
−1 x x
= tan tan =
2 2
x
Observe that we could cancel cos in both numerator and denominator as it
2
1.
is not equal to zero. Thus f ′(x) =
2
2x + 1
(iii) Let f (x) = sin – 1 . To find the domain of this function we need to find all
1 + 4x
2 x +1
x such that −1 ≤ ≤ 1 . Since the quantity in the middle is always positive,
1 + 4x
2 x +1
we need to find all x such that ≤ 1 , i.e., all x such that 2x + 1 ≤ 1 + 4x. We
1+ 4 x
1
may rewrite this as 2 ≤ + 2x which is true for all x. Hence the function
2x
is defined at every real number. By putting 2x = tan θ, this function may be
rewritten as
x +1
−1 2
f (x) = sin x
1 + 4
−1 2 ⋅ 2
x
= sin 2
1 + ( 2 x )
−1 2 tan θ
= sin
1 + tan 2 θ
= sin – 1 [sin 2θ]
= 2θ = 2 tan – 1 (2x)
1 d x
Thus f ′(x) = 2 ⋅ ⋅ (2 )
1 + (2 )
x 2 dx
2
= ⋅ (2 x )log 2
1 + 4x
2 x + 1 log 2
=
1 + 4x
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 143
Example 41 Find f ′(x) if f (x) = (sin x)sin x for all 0 < x < π.
Solution The function y = (sin x)sin x is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)sin x = sin x log (sin x)
1 dy d
Then = (sin x log (sin x))
y dx dx
1 d
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x . ⋅ (sin x)
sin x dx
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x
= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x
dy
Thus = y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x)sin x cos x
dx
dy
Example 42 For a positive constant a find , where
dx
1 a
t+ 1
y=a and x = t +
t,
t
Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t ≠ 0. Clearly
( )
1
dy d t +1 t+ d 1
= a t = a t
t + ⋅ log a
dt dt dt t
1
t+ 1
1 − 2 log a
t
= a
t
a −1
dx 1 d 1
Similarly = a t + ⋅ t +
dt t dt t
a −1
1 1
= a t + ⋅ 1 − 2
t t
dx
≠ 0 only if t ≠ ± 1. Thus for t ≠ ± 1,
dt
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144 MATHEMATICS
1
t+ 1
dy a t 1 − 2 log a
dy dt t
= = a −1
dx dx 1 1
a t + ⋅ 1 − 2
dt t t
1
t+
a t log a
= a −1
1
at +
t
2 cos x
Example 43 Differentiate sin x w.r.t. e .
Solution Let u (x) = sin2 x and v (x) = e cos x. We want to find du = du / dx . Clearly
dv dv / dx
du dv
= 2 sin x cos x and = e cos x (– sin x) = – (sin x) e cos x
dx dx
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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 145
x2
−3
+ ( x − 3) , for x > 3
2
11. xx
dy π π
12. Find , if y = 12 (1 – cos t), x = 10 (t – sin t), − < t <
dx 2 2
dy
13. Find , if y = sin–1 x + sin–1 1 − x 2 , 0 < x < 1
dx
14. If x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 , for , – 1 < x < 1, prove that
dy 1
=−
dx (1 + x )2
15. If (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = c2, for some c > 0, prove that
3
dy 2 2
1 +
dx
d2y
dx 2
is a constant independent of a and b.
dy cos 2 ( a + y )
16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a ≠ ± 1, prove that = .
dx sin a
d2y
17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t – t cos t), find .
dx 2
18. If f (x) = | x |3, show that f ″(x) exists for all real x and find it.
19. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation,
obtain the sum formula for cosines.
20. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable
at exactly two points? Justify your answer.
f ( x) g ( x ) h( x ) f ′( x) g ′( x) h′( x)
dy
21. If y = l m n , prove that = l m n
dx
a b c a b c
2
, – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, show that (1 − x 2 ) d y − x dy − a 2 y = 0 .
−1
22. If y = ea cos x
dx 2 dx
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146 MATHEMATICS
Summary
® A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.
® Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.
i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g (x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g (x) is continuous.
f f ( x)
g ( x) = g ( x) (wherever g (x) ≠ 0) is continuous.
® Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.
® Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x)
dt dv
and if both and exist then
dx dt
df dv dt
= ⋅
dx dt dx
® Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):
d ( −1 ) 1 d ( −1 ) 1
sin x = cos x = −
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
d ( −1 ) 1
tan x =
dx 1 + x2
d ( x) x d 1
e =e ( log x ) =
dx dx x
® Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions
of the form f (x) = [u (x)]v (x). Here both f (x) and u (x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
—v —
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Chapter 6
APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
v With the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied
to the explanation of the course of Nature.” — WHITEHEAD v
6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, we have learnt how to find derivative of composite functions, inverse
trigonometric functions, implicit functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
In this chapter, we will study applications of the derivative in various disciplines, e.g., in
engineering, science, social science, and many other fields. For instance, we will learn
how the derivative can be used (i) to determine rate of change of quantities, (ii) to find
the equations of tangent and normal to a curve at a point, (iii) to find turning points on
the graph of a function which in turn will help us to locate points at which largest or
smallest value (locally) of a function occurs. We will also use derivative to find intervals
on which a function is increasing or decreasing. Finally, we use the derivative to find
approximate value of certain quantities.
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities
ds
Recall that by the derivative , we mean the rate of change of distance s with
dt
respect to the time t. In a similar fashion, whenever one quantity y varies with another
dy
quantity x, satisfying some rule y = f ( x ) , then (or f ′(x)) represents the rate of
dx
dy
change of y with respect to x and dx (or f ′(x0)) represents the rate of change
x = x0
of y with respect to x at x = x0 .
Further, if two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.,
if x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dx
= , if ≠0
dx dt dt dt
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148 MATHEMATICS
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of
change of y and that of x both with respect to t.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to
its radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = πr2. Therefore, the rate
dA d
of change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by = ( π r 2 ) = 2π r .
dr dr
dA
When r = 5 cm, = 10π . Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of
dr
10π cm2/s.
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per
second. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10
centimetres ?
Solution Let x be the length of a side, V be the volume and S be the surface area of
the cube. Then, V = x3 and S = 6x2, where x is a function of time t.
dV
Now = 9cm3/s (Given)
dt
dV d 3 d dx
Therefore 9= = ( x ) = ( x3 ) ⋅ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt
dx
= 3x ⋅
2
dt
dx 3
or = 2 ... (1)
dt x
dS d d dx
Now = (6 x 2 ) = (6 x 2 ) ⋅ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt
3 36
= 12x ⋅ 2 = (Using (1))
x x
dS
Hence, when x = 10 cm, = 3.6 cm2 /s
dt
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 149
Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed
of 4cm per second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how
fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = πr2. Therefore, the rate
of change of area A with respect to time t is
dA d d dr dr
= (π r 2 ) = (π r 2 ) ⋅ = 2π r (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dr dt dt
dr
It is given that = 4cm/s
dt
dA
Therefore, when r = 10 cm, = 2π (10) (4) = 80π
dt
Thus, the enclosed area is increasing at the rate of 80π cm2/s, when r = 10 cm.
dy
ANote dx
is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if y decreases
as x increases.
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150 MATHEMATICS
Example 5 The total cost C(x) in Rupees, associated with the production of x units of
an item is given by
C (x) = 0.005 x3 – 0.02 x2 + 30x + 5000
Find the marginal cost when 3 units are produced, where by marginal cost we
mean the instantaneous rate of change of total cost at any level of output.
Solution Since marginal cost is the rate of change of total cost with respect to the
output, we have
dC
Marginal cost (MC) = = 0.005(3x 2 ) − 0.02(2 x ) + 30
dx
x = 3, MC = 0.015(3 ) − 0.04(3) + 30
2
When
= 0.135 – 0.12 + 30 = 30.015
Hence, the required marginal cost is ` 30.02 (nearly).
Example 6 The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product
is given by R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by
marginal revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of items sold at an instant.
Solution Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to
the number of units sold, we have
dR
Marginal Revenue (MR) = = 6 x + 36
dx
When x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is ` 66.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when
(a) r = 3 cm (b) r = 4 cm
2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. How fast is the
surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate
at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of
5 cm/s. At the instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is
the enclosed area increasing?
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 151
6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of
increase of its circumference?
7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the
width y is increasing at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on inflation, is being inflated by pumping
in 900 cubic centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of
the balloon increases when the radius is 15 cm.
9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at
which its volume is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled
along the ground, away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height
on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 +2. Find the points on the curve at
which the y-coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
1
12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm/s. At what rate is the
2
volume of the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?
3
13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter (2 x + 1) .
2
Find the rate of change of its volume with respect to x.
14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3/s. The falling sand forms a cone
on the ground in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the
radius of the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing when the
height is 4 cm?
15. The total cost C (x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an
item is given by
C (x) = 0.007x3 – 0.003x2 + 15x + 4000.
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced.
16. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R (x) = 13x2 + 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7.
Choose the correct answer for questions 17 and 18.
17. The rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r at r = 6 cm is
(A) 10π (B) 12π (C) 8π (D) 11π
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152 MATHEMATICS
18. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. The marginal revenue, when x = 15 is
(A) 116 (B) 96 (C) 90 (D) 126
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In this section, we will use differentiation to find out whether a function is increasing or
decreasing or none.
Consider the function f given by f (x) = x2, x ∈ R. The graph of this function is a
parabola as given in Fig 6.1.
Values left to origin Values right to origin
x f (x) = x2 x f (x) = x2
–2 4 0 0
3 9 1 1
−
2 4 2 4
–1 1 1 1
1 1 3 9
−
2 4 2 4
0 0 2 4
as we move from left to right, the as we move from left to right, the
height of the graph decreases height of the graph increases
Fig 6.1
First consider the graph (Fig 6.1) to the right of the origin. Observe that as we
move from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously increases.
For this reason, the function is said to be increasing for the real numbers x > 0.
Now consider the graph to the left of the origin and observe here that as we move
from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously decreases.
Consequently, the function is said to be decreasing for the real numbers x < 0.
We shall now give the following analytical definitions for a function which is
increasing or decreasing on an interval.
Definition 1 Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be
(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.
(ii) decreasing on I, if x1, x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.
(iii) constant on I, if f(x) = c for all x ∈ I, where c is a constant.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 153
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154 MATHEMATICS
Remarks
There is a more generalised theorem, which states that if f¢(x) > 0 for x in an interval
excluding the end points and f is continuous in the interval, then f is increasing. Similarly,
if f¢(x) < 0 for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in the
interval, then f is decreasing.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 155
Solution We have
f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6
Fig 6.3
or f ′(x) = 2x – 4
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 2. Now the point x = 2 divides the real line into two
disjoint intervals namely, (– ∞, 2) and (2, ∞) (Fig 6.3). In the interval (– ∞, 2), f ′(x) = 2x
– 4 < 0.
Therefore, f is decreasing in this interval. Also, in the interval (2, ∞) , f ′ ( x) > 0
and so the function f is increasing in this interval.
Example 11 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x
+ 30 is (a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x + 30
or f ′(x) = 12x2 – 12x – 72
= 12(x2 – x – 6)
= 12(x – 3) (x + 2)
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = – 2, 3. The
points x = – 2 and x = 3 divides the real line into
three disjoint intervals, namely, (– ∞, – 2), (– 2, 3) Fig 6.4
and (3, ∞).
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156 MATHEMATICS
In the intervals (– ∞, – 2) and (3, ∞), f ′(x) is positive while in the interval (– 2, 3),
f ′(x) is negative. Consequently, the function f is increasing in the intervals
(– ∞, – 2) and (3, ∞) while the function is decreasing in the interval (– 2, 3). However,
f is neither increasing nor decreasing in R.
π
Example 12 Find intervals in which the function given by f (x) = sin 3x, x ∈ 0, is
2
(a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = sin 3x
or f ′(x) = 3cos 3x
π 3π π
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives cos 3x = 0 which in turn gives 3x = , (as x ∈ 0,
2 2 2
3π π π π π
implies 3x ∈ 0, ). So x = and . The point x = divides the interval 0,
2 6 2 6 2
π π π
into two disjoint intervals 0, and , .
6 6 2
Fig 6.5
π π π
Now, f ′ ( x) > 0 for all x ∈ 0, as 0 ≤ x < ⇒ 0 ≤ 3 x < and f ′ ( x) < 0 for
6 6 2
π π π π π 3 π
all x ∈ , as < x < ⇒ < 3x < .
6 2 6 2 2 2
π π π
Therefore, f is increasing in 0, and decreasing in , .
6 6 2
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 157
π
Also, the given function is continuous at x = 0 and x = . Therefore, by Theorem 1,
6
π π π
f is increasing on 0, and decreasing on , .
6 6 2
Solution We have
f(x) = sin x + cos x,
or f ′(x) = cos x – sin x
π 5π
Now f ′ ( x) = 0 gives sin x = cos x which gives that x = , as 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
4 4
π 5π
The points x = and x = divide the interval [0, 2π] into three disjoint intervals,
4 4
π π 5π 5π
namely, 0, , , and , 2π .
4 4 4 4
Fig 6.6
π 5π
Note that f ′( x) > 0 if x ∈ 0, ∪ , 2π
4 4
π 5π
or f is increasing in the intervals 0, and , 2π
4 4
π 5π
Also f ′ ( x ) < 0 if x ∈ ,
4 4
π 5π
or f is decreasing in ,
4 4
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158 MATHEMATICS
π
0, 4 >0 f is increasing
π 5π
, <0 f is decreasing
4 4
5π
, 2π >0 f is increasing
4
EXERCISE 6.2
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is increasing on R.
3. Show that the function given by f (x) = sin x is
π π
(a) increasing in 0, (b) decreasing in , π
2 2
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, π)
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x2 – 3x is
(a) increasing (b) decreasing
5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 7 is
(a) increasing (b) decreasing
6. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or
decreasing:
(a) x2 + 2x – 5 (b) 10 – 6x – 2x2
(c) –2x3 – 9x2 – 12x + 1 (d) 6 – 9x – x2
(e) (x + 1)3 (x – 3)3
2x
7. Show that y = log(1 + x ) − , x > – 1, is an increasing function of x
2+ x
throughout its domain.
8. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x – 2)]2 is an increasing function.
4sin θ π
9. Prove that y = − θ is an increasing function of θ in 0, .
(2 + cos θ) 2
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 159
π
decreasing on , π .
2
π
17. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log |cos x| is decreasing on 0, and
2
3π
increasing on , 2π .
2
18. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 100 is increasing in R.
19. The interval in which y = x2 e–x is increasing is
(A) (– ∞, ∞) (B) (– 2, 0) (C) (2, ∞) (D) (0, 2)
6.4 Maxima and Minima
In this section, we will use the concept of derivatives to calculate the maximum or
minimum values of various functions. In fact, we will find the ‘turning points’ of the
graph of a function and thus find points at which the graph reaches its highest (or
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160 MATHEMATICS
lowest) locally. The knowledge of such points is very useful in sketching the graph of
a given function. Further, we will also find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
of a function that are necessary for the solution of many applied problems.
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by P(x) = ax + bx2, where a,b
are constants and x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per
acre will maximise the profit?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path
x2
given by h( x ) = 60 + x − , where x is the horizontal distance from the building
60
and h(x) is the height of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will
reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the path given by the curve
f (x) = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter
when it is nearest to him. What is the nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to find out
the maximum or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems,
we first formally define maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
Definition 3 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) > f ( x ) , for all x ∈ I.
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a
point of maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) < f (x), for all x ∈ I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point
c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c
is called an extreme point.
Remark In Fig 6.7(a), (b) and (c), we have exhibited that graphs of certain particular
functions help us to find maximum value and minimum value at a point. Infact, through
graphs, we can even find maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it
is not even differentiable (Example 15).
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 161
Fig 6.7
Example 14 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if
any, of the function f given by
f (x) = x2, x ∈ R.
Solution From the graph of the given function (Fig 6.8), we
have f (x) = 0 if x = 0. Also
f (x) ≥ 0, for all x ∈ R.
Therefore, the minimum value of f is 0 and the point of
minimum value of f is x = 0. Further, it may be observed
from the graph of the function that f has no maximum value
and hence no point of maximum value of f in R.
Fig 6.8
A Note If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only,
then f will have maximum value(– 2)2 = 4 at x = – 2.
A Note
(i) If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only, then f will have maximum value
| – 2| = 2.
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162 MATHEMATICS
(ii) One may note that the function f in Example 27 is not differentiable at
x = 0.
Example 16 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if any, of the function
given by
f (x) = x, x ∈ (0, 1).
Solution The given function is an increasing (strictly) function in the given interval
(0, 1). From the graph (Fig 6.10) of the function f , it
seems that, it should have the minimum value at a
point closest to 0 on its right and the maximum value
at a point closest to 1 on its left. Are such points
available? Of course, not. It is not possible to locate
such points. Infact, if a point x0 is closest to 0, then
x0
we find < x0 for all x0 ∈ (0,1) . Also, if x1 is closest
2
x1 + 1
to 1, then > x1 for all x1 ∈ (0,1) .
2 Fig 6.10
Therefore, the given function has neither the
maximum value nor the minimum value in the interval (0,1).
Remark The reader may observe that in Example 16, if we include the points 0 and 1
in the domain of f , i.e., if we extend the domain of f to [0,1], then the function f has
minimum value 0 at x = 0 and maximum value 1 at x = 1. Infact, we have the following
results (The proof of these results are beyond the scope of the present text)
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the end
points of the domain of definition of the function.
A more general result is
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum
value.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 163
Fig 6.11
valleys. Similarly, the function has maximum value in some neighbourhood of points B
and D which are at the top of their respective hills. For this reason, the points A and C
may be regarded as points of local minimum value (or relative minimum value) and
points B and D may be regarded as points of local maximum value (or relative maximum
value) for the function. The local maximum value and local minimum value of the
function are referred to as local maxima and local minima, respectively, of the function.
We now formally give the following definition
Definition 4 Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain
of f. Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ≥ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h), x ≠ c
The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f,
then the graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig 6.12(a). Note that the function f is
increasing (i.e., f ′(x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f ′(x) < 0) in the
interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f ′(c) must be zero.
Fig 6.12
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164 MATHEMATICS
We shall now give a working rule for finding points of local maxima or points of
local minima using only the first order derivatives.
Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.
Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if
f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) < 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
maxima.
(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if
f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) > 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
minima.
(iii) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of
inflection (Fig 6.13).
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 165
Fig 6.14
Example 17 Find all points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3.
Solution We have
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3
or f ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3 (x – 1) (x + 1)
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 1 and x = – 1
Thus, x = ± 1 are the only critical points which could possibly be the points of local
maxima and/or local minima of f . Let us first examine the point x = 1.
Note that for values close to 1 and to the right of 1, f ′(x) > 0 and for values close
to 1 and to the left of 1, f ′(x) < 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point
of local minima and local minimum value is f (1) = 1. In the case of x = –1, note that
f ′(x) > 0, for values close to and to the left of –1 and f ′(x) < 0, for values close to and
to the right of – 1. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = – 1 is a point of local maxima
and local maximum value is f (–1) = 5.
Values of x Sign of f ′(x) = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
to the right (say 1.1 etc.) >0
Close to 1
to the left (say 0.9 etc.) <0
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166 MATHEMATICS
Example 18 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 5
or f ′(x) = 6x2 – 12x + 6 = 6 (x – 1)2
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 1
Thus, x = 1 is the only critical point of f . We shall now examine this point for local
maxima and/or local minima of f. Observe that f ′(x) ≥ 0, for all x ∈ R and in particular
f ′(x) > 0, for values close to 1 and to the left and to the right of 1. Therefore, by first
derivative test, the point x = 1 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
minima. Hence x = 1 is a point of inflexion.
Remark One may note that since f ′(x), in Example 30, never changes its sign on R,
graph of f has no turning points and hence no point of local maxima or local minima.
We shall now give another test to examine local maxima and local minima of a
given function. This test is often easier to apply than the first derivative test.
Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I
and c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) < 0
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ′ (c) = 0 and f ″(c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is a point of
local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 167
the right of 0, f (x) = 3 + x and so f ′(x) = 1 > 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x =
0 is a point of local minima of f and local minimum value of f is f (0) = 3.
Example 20 Find local maximum and local minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
Solution We have
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
or f ′(x) = 12x3 + 12x2 – 24x = 12x (x – 1) (x + 2)
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 0, x = 1 and x = – 2.
Now f ″(x) = 36x2 + 24x – 24 = 12 (3x2 + 2x – 2)
f ′′ (0) = −24 < 0
or f ′′ (1) = 36 > 0
f ′′ ( −2) = 72 > 0
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 0 is a point of local maxima and local
maximum value of f at x = 0 is f (0) = 12 while x = 1 and x = – 2 are the points of local
minima and local minimum values of f at x = – 1 and – 2 are f (1) = 7 and f (–2) = –20,
respectively.
Example 21 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5
f ′( x) = 6 x 2 − 12 x + 6 = 6( x − 1) 2
or
f ′′( x) = 12( x − 1)
Now f ′(x) = 0 gives x =1. Also f ″(1) = 0. Therefore, the second derivative test
fails in this case. So, we shall go back to the first derivative test.
We have already seen (Example 18) that, using first derivative test, x =1 is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and so it is a point of inflexion.
Example 22 Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose
squares is minimum.
Solution Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number is (15 – x). Let S(x)
denote the sum of the squares of these numbers. Then
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168 MATHEMATICS
D = (h − 0) 2 + ( k − c) 2 = h 2 + ( k − c ) 2 ... (1)
Since (h, k) lies on the parabola y = x2, we have k = h2. So (1) gives
D ≡ D(k) = k + ( k − c) 2
1 + 2(k − c)
or D′(k) =
2 k + ( k − c) 2
2c − 1
Now D′(k) = 0 gives k =
2
2c − 1
Observe that when k < , then 2(k − c ) + 1 < 0 , i.e., D′( k ) < 0 . Also when
2
2c − 1 2c − 1
k> , then D′( k ) > 0 . So, by first derivative test, D (k) is minimum at k = .
2 2
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 169
A Note The reader may note that in Example 35, we have used first derivative
test instead of the second derivative test as the former is easy and short.
Fig 6.17
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170 MATHEMATICS
CQ on AB. Let AP = x cm. Note that ∆APD ~ ∆BQC. Therefore, QB = x cm. Also, by
Pythagoras theorem, DP = QC = 100 − x 2 . Let A be the area of the trapezium. Then
1
A ≡ A(x) = (sum of parallel sides) (height)
2
(2 x + 10 + 10) ( 100 − x 2 )
1
=
2
= ( x + 10) ( 100 − x 2 )
+ ( 100 − x 2 )
(−2 x )
or A′(x) = ( x + 10)
2 100 − x 2
−2 x 2 − 10 x + 100
=
100 − x 2
Now A′(x) = 0 gives 2x2 + 10x – 100 = 0, i.e., x = 5 and x = –10.
Since x represents distance, it can not be negative.
So, x = 5. Now
( −2 x )
100 − x 2 (−4 x − 10) − (−2 x 2 − 10 x + 100)
2 100 − x 2
A″(x) =
100 − x 2
2 x 3 − 300 x − 1000
= 3 (on simplification)
(100 − x2 ) 2
Example 26 Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface area which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Solution Let OC = r be the radius of the cone and OA = h be its height. Let a cylinder
with radius OE = x inscribed in the given cone (Fig 6.18). The height QE of the cylinder
is given by
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 171
QE EC
= (since ∆QEC ~ ∆AOC)
OA OC
QE r−x
or =
h r
h (r − x)
or QE =
r
Let S be the curved surface area of the given
cylinder. Then
2πx h ( r − x ) 2πh
S ≡ S (x) = = ( rx − x 2 )
r r Fig 6.18
2πh
S′( x) = r ( r − 2 x )
or
S′′( x) = − 4πh
r
r r r
Now S′(x) = 0 gives x = . Since S″(x) < 0 for all x, S′′ < 0 . So x = is a
2 2 2
point of maxima of S. Hence, the radius of the cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
6.4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
Let us consider a function f given by
f (x) = x + 2, x ∈ (0, 1)
Observe that the function is continuous on (0, 1) and neither has a maximum value
nor has a minimum value. Further, we may note that the function even has neither a
local maximum value nor a local minimum value.
However, if we extend the domain of f to the closed interval [0, 1], then f still may
not have a local maximum (minimum) values but it certainly does have maximum value
3 = f (1) and minimum value 2 = f (0). The maximum value 3 of f at x = 1 is called
absolute maximum value (global maximum or greatest value) of f on the interval
[0, 1]. Similarly, the minimum value 2 of f at x = 0 is called the absolute minimum
value (global minimum or least value) of f on [0, 1].
Consider the graph given in Fig 6.19 of a continuous function defined on a closed
interval [a, d]. Observe that the function f has a local minima at x = b and local
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172 MATHEMATICS
Fig 6.19
minimum value is f (b). The function also has a local maxima at x = c and local maximum
value is f (c).
Also from the graph, it is evident that f has absolute maximum value f (a) and
absolute minimum value f (d). Further note that the absolute maximum (minimum)
value of f is different from local maximum (minimum) value of f .
We will now state two results (without proof) regarding absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of a function on a closed interval I.
Theorem 5 Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute
minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Theorem 6 Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any
interior point of I. Then
(i) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.
(ii) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c.
In view of the above results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute
maximum and/or absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval
[a, b].
Working Rule
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either
f ′ ( x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in
Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 173
Example 27 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 1
or f ′(x) = 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 6 (x – 3) (x – 2)
Note that f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the
interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5. So
f (1) = 2 (13) – 15 (12) + 36 (1) + 1 = 24
f (2) = 2 (23) – 15 (22) + 36 (2) + 1 = 29
f (3) = 2 (33) – 15 (32) + 36 (3) + 1 = 28
f (5) = 2 (53) – 15 (52) + 36 (5) + 1 = 56
Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at
x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.
Example 28 Find absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
4 1
f ( x) = 12 x 3 − 6 x 3 , x ∈ [−1, 1]
Solution We have
4 1
f (x) = 12 x 3 − 6 x 3
1
2 2(8 x − 1)
or f ′(x) = 16 x 3 − 2
= 2
x3 x3
1
Thus, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = . Further note that f ′(x) is not defined at x = 0. So the
8
1
critical points are x = 0 and x = . Now evaluating the value of f at critical points
8
1
x = 0, and at end points of the interval x = –1 and x = 1, we have
8
4 1
f (–1) = 12(−1) 3 − 6( −1) 3 = 18
f (0) = 12 (0) – 6 (0) = 0
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174 MATHEMATICS
4 1
1
f = 12 1 − 6 1 = − 9
3 3
8 8 8 4
4 1
f (1) = =6
12(1) 3 − 6(1) 3
Hence, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f is 18 that occurs at x = – 1
−9 1
and absolute minimum value of f is that occurs at x = .
4 8
Example 29 An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by
y = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at (3, 7), wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is
nearest to him. Find the nearest distance.
Solution For each value of x, the helicopter’s position is at point (x, x 2 + 7).
Therefore, the distance between the helicopter and the soldier placed at (3,7) is
( x − 3) 2 + ( x 2 + 7 − 7) 2 , i.e., ( x − 3) 2 + x 4 .
Let f (x) = (x – 3)2 + x4
or f ′(x) = 2(x – 3) + 4x3 = 2 (x – 1) (2x2 + 2x + 3)
Thus, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 1 or 2x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 for which there are no real roots.
Also, there are no end points of the interval to be added to the set for which f ′ is zero,
i.e., there is only one point, namely, x = 1. The value of f at this point is given by
f (1) = (1 – 3)2 + (1)4 = 5. Thus, the distance between the solider and the helicopter is
f (1) = 5 .
Note that 5 is either a maximum value or a minimum value. Since
f (0) = (0 − 3) 2 + (0) 4 = 3 > 5 ,
EXERCISE 6.3
1. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = (2x – 1)2 + 3 (ii) f (x) = 9x2 + 12x + 2
(iii) f (x) = – (x – 1)2 + 10 (iv) g (x) = x3 + 1
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 175
2. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = | x + 2 | – 1 (ii) g (x) = – | x + 1| + 3
(iii) h (x) = sin (2x) + 5 (iv) f (x) = | sin 4x + 3|
(v) h (x) = x + 1, x ∈ (– 1, 1)
3. Find the local maxima and local minima, if any, of the following functions. Find
also the local maximum and the local minimum values, as the case may be:
(i) f (x) = x2 (ii) g (x) = x3 – 3x
π
(iii) h (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 < x <
2
(iv) f (x) = sin x – cos x, 0 < x < 2 π
x 2
(v) f (x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 15 (vi) g ( x ) = + , x>0
2 x
1
(vii) g ( x) = (viii) f ( x ) = x 1 − x , 0 < x < 1
x +2
2
1 9
(iii) f (x) = 4 x − x 2 , x ∈ −2, (iv) f ( x ) = ( x − 1) 2 + 3, x ∈[ −3,1]
2 2
6. Find the maximum profit that a company can make, if the profit function is
given by
p (x) = 41 – 72x – 18x2
7. Find both the maximum value and the minimum value of
3x4 – 8x3 + 12x2 – 48x + 25 on the interval [0, 3].
8. At what points in the interval [0, 2π], does the function sin 2x attain its maximum
value?
9. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x?
10. Find the maximum value of 2x3 – 24x + 107 in the interval [1, 3]. Find the
maximum value of the same function in [–3, –1].
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176 MATHEMATICS
11. It is given that at x = 1, the function x4 – 62x2 + ax + 9 attains its maximum value,
on the interval [0, 2]. Find the value of a.
12. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2π].
13. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
14. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy3 is maximum.
15. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y5
is a maximum.
16. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is
minimum.
17. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the flaps to form the box. What
should be the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is the
maximum possible.
18. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top,
by cutting off square from each corner and folding up the flaps. What should be
the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
19. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has
the maximum area.
20. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
21. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic
centimetres, find the dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface
area?
22. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be
made into a square and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the
two pieces so that the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
23. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of
8
radius R is of the volume of the sphere.
27
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has
an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of the base.
25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of
given slant height is tan −1 2 .
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and
−1 1
maximum volume is sin .
3
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 177
1 − x + x2
28. For all real values of x, the minimum value of is
1 + x + x2
1
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D)
3
1
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 30 A car starts from a point P at time t = 0 seconds and stops at point Q. The
distance x, in metres, covered by it, in t seconds is given by
t
x = t2 2 −
3
Find the time taken by it to reach Q and also find distance between P and Q.
t
Now x = t2 2 −
3
dx
Therefore v= = 4t – t2 = t (4 – t)
dt
Thus, v = 0 gives t = 0 and/or t = 4.
Now v = 0 at P as well as at Q and at P, t = 0. So, at Q, t = 4. Thus, the car will
reach the point Q after 4 seconds. Also the distance travelled in 4 seconds is given by
2 4 2 32
x]t = 4 = 4 2 − = 16 = m
3 3 3
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178 MATHEMATICS
Example 31 A water tank has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with its axis
vertical and vertex lowermost. Its semi-vertical angle is tan–1 (0.5). Water is poured
into it at a constant rate of 5 cubic metre per hour. Find the rate at which the level of
the water is rising at the instant when the depth of water in the tank is 4 m.
r
Solution Let r, h and α be as in Fig 6.20. Then tan α = .
h
−1 r
So α = tan .
h
But α = tan–1 (0.5) (given)
r
or = 0.5
h
h
or r=
2
Let V be the volume of the cone. Then
2 Fig 6.20
1 2 1 h πh3
V = πr h = π h =
3 3 2 12
dV d πh3 dh
Therefore = ⋅ (by Chain Rule)
dt dh 12 dt
π 2 dh
= h
4 dt
dV
Now rate of change of volume, i.e., = 5 m3/h and h = 4 m.
dt
π 2 dh
Therefore 5= (4) ⋅
4 dt
dh 5 35 22
or = = m/h π =
dt 4π 88 7
35
Thus, the rate of change of water level is m/h .
88
Example 32 A man of height 2 metres walks at a uniform speed of 5 km/h away from
a lamp post which is 6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
increases.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 179
MS MN
or =
AS AB
Fig 6.21
or AS = 3s (as MN =
2 and AB = 6 (given))
Thus AM = 3s – s = 2s. But AM = l
So l = 2s
dl ds
Therefore = 2
dt dt
dl 5
Since = 5 km/h. Hence, the length of the shadow increases at the rate km/h.
dt 2
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180 MATHEMATICS
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 181
cos x − sin x
= (on simplification)
2 + sin 2 x
π
Note that 2 + sin 2x > 0 for all x in 0, .
4
Therefore f ′(x) > 0 if cos x – sin x > 0
or f ′(x) > 0 if cos x > sin x or cot x > 1
π
Now cot x > 1 if tan x < 1, i.e., if 0 < x <
4
π
Thus f ′(x) > 0 in 0,
4
π
Hence f is increasing function in 0, .
4
Example 35 A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its
radius increases at the rate of 0.05 cm/s. Find the rate at which its area is increasing
when radius is 3.2 cm.
Solution Let r be the radius of the given disc and A be its area. Then
A = πr 2
dA dr
or = 2πr (by Chain Rule)
dt dt
dr
Now approximate rate of increase of radius = dr = ∆t = 0.05 cm/s.
dt
Therefore, the approximate rate of increase in area is given by
dA dr
dA = ( ∆t ) = 2πr ∆t
dt dt
= 2π (3.2) (0.05) = 0.320π cm2/s (r = 3.2 cm)
Example 36 An open topped box is to be constructed by removing equal squares from
each corner of a 3 metre by 8 metre rectangular sheet of aluminium and folding up the
sides. Find the volume of the largest such box.
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182 MATHEMATICS
Solution Let x metre be the length of a side of the removed squares. Then, the height
of the box is x, length is 8 – 2x and breadth is 3 – 2x (Fig 6.23). If V(x) is the volume
of the box, then
Fig 6.23
V (x) = x (3 – 2x) (8 – 2x)
= 4x3 – 22x2 + 24x
V′( x ) = 12 x − 44 x + 24 = 4( x − 3)(3x − 2)
2
Therefore
V′′( x) = 24 x − 44
2
Now V′(x) = 0 gives x = 3, . But x ≠ 3 (Why?)
3
2 2 2
Thus, we have x = . Now V′′ = 24 − 44 = − 28 < 0 .
3 3 3
2 2
Therefore, x = is the point of maxima, i.e., if we remove a square of side
3 3
metre from each corner of the sheet and make a box from the remaining sheet, then
the volume of the box such obtained will be the largest and it is given by
3 2
2
V = 4 − 22 + 24
2 2 2
3 3 3 3
200 3
= m
27
x
Example 37 Manufacturer can sell x items at a price of rupees 5 − each. The
100
x
cost price of x items is Rs + 500 . Find the number of items he should sell to earn
5
maximum profit.
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 183
Solution Let S (x) be the selling price of x items and let C (x) be the cost price of x
items. Then, we have
x x2
S(x) = 5 − x = 5 x −
100 100
x
and C (x) = + 500
5
Thus, the profit function P (x) is given by
x2 x
P(x) = S( x) − C ( x ) = 5 x − − − 500
100 5
24 x2
i.e. P(x) = x − − 500
5 100
24 x
or P′(x) = −
5 50
−1 −1
Now P′(x) = 0 gives x = 240. Also P′′( x) = . So P′′(240) = <0
50 50
Thus, x = 240 is a point of maxima. Hence, the manufacturer can earn maximum
profit, if he sells 240 items.
log x
1. Show that the function given by f ( x) = has maximum at x = e.
x
2. The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle with fixed base b are decreasing at
the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the area decreasing when the two equal
sides are equal to the base ?
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184 MATHEMATICS
x2 y 2
5. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle inscribed in the ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
with its vertex at one end of the major axis.
6. A tank with rectangular base and rectangular sides, open at the top is to be
constructed so that its depth is 2 m and volume is 8 m3. If building of tank costs
Rs 70 per sq metres for the base and Rs 45 per square metre for sides. What is
the cost of least expensive tank?
7. The sum of the perimeter of a circle and square is k, where k is some constant.
Prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square is double the
radius of the circle.
8. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening.
The total perimeter of the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to
admit maximum light through the whole opening.
9. A point on the hypotenuse of a triangle is at distance a and b from the sides of
the triangle.
2 2 3
Show that the minimum length of the hypotenuse is (a 3 + b 3 ) 2 .
10. Find the points at which the function f given by f (x) = (x – 2)4 (x + 1)3 has
(i) local maxima (ii) local minima
(iii) point of inflexion
11. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = cos2 x + sin x, x ∈ [0, π]
12. Show that the altitude of the right circular cone of maximum volume that can be
4r
inscribed in a sphere of radius r is .
3
13. Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such that f ′(x) > 0, for all x ∈ (a, b). Then
prove that f is an increasing function on (a, b).
14. Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
2R
a sphere of radius R is . Also find the maximum volume.
3
15. Show that height of the cylinder of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of height h and semi vertical angle α is one-third that of the
4
cone and the greatest volume of cylinder is πh3 tan 2 α .
27
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 185
16. A cylindrical tank of radius 10 m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314
cubic metre per hour. Then the depth of the wheat is increasing at the rate of
(A) 1 m/h (B) 0.1 m/h
(C) 1.1 m/h (D) 0.5 m/h
Summary
® If a quantity y varies with another quantity x, satisfying some rule y = f ( x) ,
dy
then (or f ′ ( x) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x and
dx
dy
dx (or f ′(x0 ) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at
x = x0
x = x0 .
® If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if
x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dx
= , if ≠0.
dx dt dt dt
® A function f is said to be
(a) increasing on an interval (a, b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b).
Alternatively, if f ′(x) ≥ 0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) decreasing on (a,b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b).
(c) constant in (a, b), if f (x) = c for all x ∈ (a, b), where c is a constant.
® A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable is called a critical point of f.
® First Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let
f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c,
i.e., if f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local maxima.
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186 MATHEMATICS
—v—
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INTEGRALS 225
Chapter 7
INTEGRALS
7.1 Introduction
Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the
derivative. The original motivation for the derivative was
the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of
functions and calculating the slope of such lines. Integral
Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and
calculating the area of the region bounded by the graph of
the functions.
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its
derivative f ′exists at each point of I, then a natural question
arises that given f ′at each point of I, can we determine
the function? The functions that could possibly have given
function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or G .W. Leibnitz
primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives (1646 -1716)
all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the function and such
process of finding anti derivatives is called integration. Such type of problems arise in
many practical situations. For instance, if we know the instantaneous velocity of an
object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, i.e., can we determine the
position of the object at any instant? There are several such practical and theoretical
situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral
calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the following types:
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given,
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph of a function under certain
conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and
definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus.
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226 MATHEMATICS
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INTEGRALS 227
Table 7.1
Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning
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228 MATHEMATICS
We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions.
From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae
(referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below
which will be used to find integrals of other functions.
Derivatives Integrals (Anti derivatives)
d xn + 1 x n+1
=x ;
n
∫ x dx = + C , n ≠ –1
n
(i)
dx n + 1 n +1
Particularly, we note that
d
( x) = 1 ; ∫ dx = x + C
dx
d
(ii) ( sin x ) = cos x ; ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
dx
d
(iii) ( – cos x ) = sin x ; ∫ sin x dx = – cos x + C
dx
d
(iv) ( tan x ) = sec2 x ; ∫ sec
2
x dx = tan x + C
dx
d
(v) ( – cot x ) = cosec2 x ; ∫ cosec
2
x dx = – cot x + C
dx
d
(vi) ( sec x ) = sec x tan x ; ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
dx
d
(vii) ( – cosec x ) = cosec x cot x ; ∫ cosec x cot x dx = – cosec x + C
dx
d
(
(viii) dx sin x =
–1 1
)
; ∫
dx
= sin – 1 x + C
1 – x2 1– x 2
d
(
(ix) dx – cos x =
–1 1
; ) ∫
dx
= – cos – 1 x + C
1 – x2 1– x 2
d
(
(x) dx tan x =
–1 1
)
1 + x2
;
dx
∫ 1 + x 2 = tan
–1
x+C
d x
(e ) = e x ; ∫ e dx = e +C
x x
(xi)
dx
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INTEGRALS 229
d 1 1
(xii) ( log | x |) = ; ∫ x dx = log | x | +C
dx x
d ax ax
=a ; ∫ a dx = +C
x x
(xiii)
dx log a log a
A Note In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various
functions are defined. However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind.
7.2.1 Some properties of indefinite integral
In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of indefinite integrals.
(I) The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other in the
sense of the following results :
d
dx ∫
f (x) dx = f (x)
d
= F (x ) = f (x)
dx
Similarly, we note that
d
f ′(x) = f (x)
dx
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230 MATHEMATICS
d d
∫ dx ∫
f (x) dx = g (x ) dx
dx
d
f (x) dx – ∫ g (x ) dx = 0
dx ∫
or
or ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ g (x) dx + C
So the families of curves {∫ f (x) dx + C , C ∈ R}
1 1
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INTEGRALS 231
d
dx ∫
Proof By the Property (I), k f (x) dx = k f (x) .
d d
Also
dx
k ∫ f (x) dx = k
dx ∫ f (x) dx = k f (x)
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232 MATHEMATICS
x
(ii)
∫ (x 3 + 1) dx x
Solution
(i) We have
x3 – 1
∫ x2 dx = ∫ x dx – ∫ x dx
–2
(by Property V)
x1 + 1 x– 2 + 1
= + C1 – + C 2 ; C , C are constants of integration
1+1 – 2 +1 1 2
x2 x– 1 x2 1
= + C1 – – C2 = + + C1 – C 2
2 –1 2 x
x2 1
= + + C , where C = C1 – C2 is another constant of integration.
2 x
A Note From now onwards, we shall write only one constant of integration in the
final answer.
(ii) We have
2 2
∫ (x 3 + 1) dx = ∫ x 3 dx + ∫ dx
2
+1
5
x3
= 2 + x + C = 3 x3 + x + C
+1 5
3
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INTEGRALS 233
3 3
1 1
∫ + 2 e – ) dx = ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ 2 e x dx – ∫ dx
x
(iii) We have (x 2
x x
3
+1
x2
= 3 + 2 e x – log x + C
+1
2
5
2
= x 2 + 2 e x – log x + C
5
Example 3 Find the following integrals:
(i) ∫ (sin x + cos x) dx (ii) ∫ cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx
1 – sin x
(iii) ∫ cos2 x
dx
Solution
(i) We have
∫ (sin x + cos x) dx = ∫ sin x dx + ∫ cos x dx
= – cos x + sin x + C
(ii) We have
= – cot x – cosec x + C
(iii) We have
1 – sin x 1 sin x
∫ 2
cos x
dx = ∫ 2
cos x
dx – ∫
cos 2 x
dx
= tan x – sec x + C
Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by f (x) = 4x3 – 6, where F (0) = 3
Solution One anti derivative of f (x) is x4 – 6x since
d 4
(x – 6 x ) = 4x3 – 6
dx
Therefore, the anti derivative F is given by
F(x) = x4 – 6x + C, where C is constant.
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234 MATHEMATICS
3 = 0 – 6 × 0 + C or C = 3
Hence, the required anti derivative is the unique function F defined by
F(x) = x4 – 6x + 3.
Remarks
(i) We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is F + C, where C is any
constant. Thus, if we know one anti derivative F of a function f, we can write
down an infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any constant to F
expressed by F(x) + C, C ∈ R. In applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an
additional condition which then determines a specific value of C giving unique
anti derivative of the given function.
(ii) Sometimes, F is not expressible in terms of elementary functions viz., polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are
therefore blocked for finding ∫ f (x) dx . For example, it is not possible to find
∫e
– x2 2
dx by inspection since we can not find a function whose derivative is e – x
(iii) When the variable of integration is denoted by a variable other than x, the integral
formulae are modified accordingly. For instance
y4 + 1 1
∫ y dy = + C = y5 + C
4
4 +1 5
EXERCISE 7.1
Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of inspection.
1. sin 2x 2. cos 3x 3. e 2x
2 3x
4. (ax + b) 5. sin 2x – 4 e
Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20:
1
∫ (4 e ∫x ∫ (ax
2
6.
3x
+ 1) dx 7. (1 – ) dx 8.
2
+ bx + c ) dx
x2
2
1 x3 + 5x 2 – 4
∫ (2 x + e ) dx 10. ∫ x – ∫
2 x
9. dx 11. dx
x x2
x3 + 3x + 4 x3 − x 2 + x – 1
12. ∫ x
dx 13. ∫ x –1
dx 14. ∫ (1 – x) x dx
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INTEGRALS 235
∫ x ( 3x + 2 x + 3) dx ∫ (2 x – 3cos x + e ) dx
2 x
15. 16.
sec 2 x 2 – 3sin x
19. ∫ cosec2 x dx 20. ∫
cos2 x
dx.
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236 MATHEMATICS
Consider I= ∫ f (x) dx
dx
Put x = g(t) so that = g′(t).
dt
We write dx = g′(t) dt
Thus I= ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f ( g (t )) g′(t ) dt
This change of variable formula is one of the important tools available to us in the
name of integration by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful
substitution. Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs
in the integrand as illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
(i) sin mx (ii) 2x sin (x2 + 1)
Solution
(i) We know that derivative of mx is m. Thus, we make the substitution
mx = t so that mdx = dt.
1 1 1
Therefore, ∫ sin mx dx = m ∫ sin t dt = – m cos t + C = – m cos mx + C
(ii) Derivative of x2 + 1 is 2x. Thus, we use the substitution x2 + 1 = t so that
2x dx = dt.
∫ 2 x sin (x + 1) dx = ∫ sin t dt = – cos t + C = – cos (x2 + 1) + C
2
Therefore,
1
1 –2 1
(iii) Derivative of x is x = . Thus, we use the substitution
2 2 x
1
x = t so that dx = dt giving dx = 2t dt.
2 x
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INTEGRALS 237
u5
Therefore, 2 ∫ tan 4t sec 2t dt = 2 ∫ u 4 du = 2 +C
5
2
= tan 5 t + C (since u = tan t)
5
2
= tan x + C (since t = x )
5
5
tan 4 x sec 2 x 2
Hence, ∫ x
dx =
5
tan 5 x +C
cos x
We have ∫ cot x dx = ∫ sin x dx
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238 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) We have
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INTEGRALS 239
t3 t 5
= – ∫ (t – t ) dt = – – + C
2 4
3 5
1 1
= – cos x + cos x + C
3 5
3 5
sin x
Hence, ∫ sin (x + a) dx = x cos a – sin a log |sin (x + a)| + C,
where, C = – C1 sin a + a cos a, is another arbitrary constant.
dx cos x dx
(iii) ∫ 1 + tan x = ∫ cos x + sin x
1 (cos x + sin x + cos x – sin x) dx
=
2 ∫ cos x + sin x
1 1 cos x – sin x
= 2 ∫ dx + 2 ∫ cos x + sin x dx
x C1 1 cos x – sin x
2 2 2 ∫ cos x + sin x
= + + dx ... (1)
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240 MATHEMATICS
cos x – sin x
Now, consider I = ∫ dx
cos x + sin x
Put cos x + sin x = t so that (cos x – sin x) dx = dt
dt
Therefore I=∫
= log t + C2 = log cos x + sin x + C2
t
Putting it in (1), we get
dx x C1 1 C
∫ 1 + tan x = 2 + + log cos x + sin x + 2
2 2 2
x 1 C C
= + log cos x + sin x + 1 + 2
2 2 2 2
x 1 C C
= + log cos x + sin x + C, C = 1 + 2
2 2 2 2
EXERCISE 7.2
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 37:
1.
2x
2.
( log x )2 3.
1
1 + x2 x x + x log x
4. sin x sin (cos x) 5. sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b)
6. ax + b 7. x x + 2 8. x 1 + 2 x 2
1 x
9. (4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 10. x – x 11. ,x>0
x+4
3
1
5
x2 1
12. (x – 1) 3 x 13. 14. , x > 0, m ≠ 1
(2 + 3x 3 )3 x (log x ) m
x x
15. 16. e2 x + 3 17. 2
9 – 4 x2 ex
–1
etan x e2x – 1 e2 x – e – 2 x
18. 19. 20.
1 + x2 e2 x + 1 e2 x + e – 2 x
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INTEGRALS 241
sin – 1 x
21. tan2 (2x – 3) 22. sec2 (7 – 4x) 23.
1 – x2
sin x sin x 1
30. 31. 32.
1 + cos x (1 + cos x ) 2
1 + cot x
33.
1
34.
tan x
35.
(1 + log x)2
1 – tan x sin x cos x x
36.
(x + 1) ( x + log x )
2
37.
(
x 3sin tan – 1 x 4 )
8
x 1+ x
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 38 and 39.
10 x 9 + 10 x log e 10 dx
38. ∫ x10 + 10 x
equals
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242 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1, which gives
1 + cos 2 x
cos2 x =
2
1 1 1
Therefore, =
2 ∫ (1 + cos 2x ) dx = ∫ dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx
2 2
x 1
= + sin 2 x + C
2 4
1
(ii) Recall the identity sin x cos y = [sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)] (Why?)
2
Then =
1 1
=
2 – 5 cos 5 x + cos x + C
1 1
cos 5 x + cos x + C
= –
10 2
(iii) From the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x, we find that
3sin x – sin 3x
sin3 x =
4
3 1
∫ sin ∫ sin x dx – ∫ sin 3x dx
3
Therefore, x dx =
4 4
3 1
= – cos x + cos 3 x + C
4 12
1
= – cos x +
cos3 x + C
3
Remark It can be shown using trigonometric identities that both answers are equivalent.
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INTEGRALS 243
EXERCISE 7.3
Find the integrals of the functions in Exercises 1 to 22:
1. sin2 (2x + 5) 2. sin 3x cos 4x 3. cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x
3 3 3
4. sin (2x + 1) 5. sin x cos x 6. sin x sin 2x sin 3x
1 – cos x cos x
7. sin 4x sin 8x 8. 9.
1 + cos x 1 + cos x
sin 2 x
10. sin4 x 11. cos4 2x 12.
1 + cos x
cos 2 x – cos 2α cos x – sin x
13. 14. 15. tan3 2x sec 2x
cos x – cos α 1 + sin 2 x
4
sin 3 x + cos3 x cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x
16. tan x 17. 18.
sin 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x
1 cos 2 x
19. 20. 21. sin – 1 (cos x)
sin x cos3 x ( cos x + sin x )2
1
22.
cos (x – a ) cos (x – b)
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
sin 2 x − cos 2 x
23. ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x dx is equal to
(A) tan x + cot x + C (B) tan x + cosec x + C
(C) – tan x + cot x + C (D) tan x + sec x + C
e x (1 + x)
24. ∫ cos2 (e x x) dx equals
(A) – cot (exx) + C (B) tan (xex) + C
(C) tan (ex) + C (D) cot (ex) + C
7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions
In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them
for integrating many other related standard integrals:
dx 1 x–a
(1) ∫ 2 2
= log +C
x –a 2 a x +a
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244 MATHEMATICS
dx 1 a+x
(2) ∫ a 2 – x 2 = 2a log a–x
+C
dx 1 x
∫ x 2 + a 2 = a tan
–1
(3) +C
a
dx
(4) ∫ x –a2 2
= log x + x 2 – a 2 + C
dx x
(5) ∫ a2 – x2
= sin – 1
a
+C
dx
(6) ∫ x +a2 2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
1 1
(1) We have =
x –a22
(x – a ) (x + a )
1 (x + a) – (x – a) 1 1 1
= –
2a (x – a) (x + a) 2a x – a x + a
=
dx 1 dx dx
Therefore, ∫ x2 – a 2 = 2a ∫ x – a – ∫ x + a
1
= [log | (x – a)| – log | (x + a)|] + C
2a
1 x–a
= log +C
2a x+a
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INTEGRALS 245
dx 1 dx dx
Therefore, ∫ a2 – x2 = ∫
2a a − x
+∫
a + x
1
= [ − log | a − x | + log | a + x |] + C
2a
1 a+ x
= log +C
2a a−x
x x2
= log + – 1 + C1
a a2
= log x + x – a − log a + C1
2 2
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246 MATHEMATICS
x x2
= log + + 1 + C1
a a2
2
= log x + x + a − log | a | + C1
2
2
= log x + x + a + C, where C = C1 – log |a|
2
Applying these standard formulae, we now obtain some more formulae which
are useful from applications point of view and can be applied directly to evaluate
other integrals.
dx
(7) To find the integral ∫ ax 2 + bx + c , we write
2 b c b c b2
2
2 a
ax + bx + c = x + x + = a x + + –
a a 2a a 4a 2
b c b2
= t so that dx = dt and writing – 2 = ± k . We find the
2
Now, put x +
2a a 4a
1 dt c b2
integral reduced to the form ∫ 2 depending upon the sign of – 2
a t ± k2 a 4a
and hence can be evaluated.
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INTEGRALS 247
( px + q) dx
(10) For the evaluation of the integral of the type
ax 2 + bx + c
∫ , we proceed
(ii)
= sin (x – 1) + C
–1
dx 1
So, ∫ x2 − 6 x + 13 = ∫ ( x – 3)2 + 22 dx
Let x – 3 = t. Then dx = dt
dx dt 1 t
∫ x2 − 6 x + 13 = ∫ t 2 + 22 = 2 tan +C
–1
Therefore, [by 7.4 (3)]
2
1 x–3
= tan – 1 +C
2 2
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248 MATHEMATICS
(ii) The given integral is of the form 7.4 (7). We write the denominator of the integrand,
2 13x 10
3 x 2 + 13x – 10 = 3 x + –
3 3
13 17
2 2
dx 1 dx
Thus ∫ 3x 2 + 13x − 10 = ∫
3 2
13 17
2
x + −
6 6
13
Put x + = t . Then dx = dt.
6
dx 1 dt
∫ 3x 2 + 13x − 10 3∫
Therefore, = 2
17
t2 −
6
17
t–
1 6 +C
= log 1 [by 7.4 (i)]
17 17
3× 2× t+
6 6
13 17
x+
–
1 6 6 +C
= log 1
17 13 17
x+ +
6 6
1 6x − 4
= log + C1
17 6 x + 30
1 3x − 2 1 1
= log + C1 + log
17 x+5 17 3
1 3x − 2 1 1
= log + C , where C = C1 + log
17 x+5 17 3
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INTEGRALS 249
dx dx
(iii) We have ∫ 2
5x − 2 x
=∫
2x
5 x2 –
5
1 dx
=
5
∫ 2 2
(completing the square)
1 1
x– –
5 5
1
Put x – = t . Then dx = dt.
5
dx 1 dt
Therefore, ∫ 5x2 − 2 x
=
5
∫ 2
1
t2 –
5
2
1 1
= log t + t 2 – +C [by 7.4 (4)]
5 5
1 1 2x
= log x – + x2 – +C
5 5 5
Solution
(i) Using the formula 7.4 (9), we express
x+2= A
d
dx
( )
2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 + B = A (4 x + 6) + B
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
1 1
4A = 1 and 6A + B = 2 or A= and B = .
4 2
x+2 1 4x + 6 1 dx
Therefore, ∫ 2x2 + 6x + 5 = ∫ 2
4 2x + 6x + 5
dx + ∫ 2
2 2x + 6 x + 5
1 1
= I1 + I2 (say) ... (1)
4 2
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250 MATHEMATICS
= log | 2 x + 6 x + 5 | + C1
2
... (2)
dx 1 dx
and I2 = ∫ 2x2 + 6x + 5 = 2 ∫ 5
x 2 + 3x +
2
1 dx
= ∫
2 2
3 1
2
x + +
2 2
3
Put x + = t , so that dx = dt, we get
2
1 dt 1
I2 =
2 ∫ 1
2 =
1
tan –1 2t + C 2 [by 7.4 (3)]
t2 + 2×
2 2
–1 3
= tan 2 x + + C2 = tan ( 2 x + 3 ) + C 2
–1
... (3)
2
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
x+2 1 1
∫ 2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 dx = 4 log 2 x
2
+ 6x + 5 + tan – 1 ( 2 x + 3) + C
2
C1 C2
where, C=+
4 2
(ii) This integral is of the form given in 7.4 (10). Let us express
d
x+3= A (5 – 4 x – x 2 ) + B = A (– 4 – 2x) + B
dx
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
1
– 2A = 1 and – 4 A + B = 3, i.e., A = – and B = 1
2
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INTEGRALS 251
x+3 1 ( – 4 – 2 x ) dx + dx
Therefore, ∫ dx = –
2 ∫ 5 − 4 x − x2
∫ 5 − 4 x − x2
5 − 4x − x2
1
= – I +I ... (1)
2 1 2
In I1, put 5 – 4x – x2 = t, so that (– 4 – 2x) dx = dt.
( – 4 − 2 x ) dx = dt
Therefore, I1 = ∫ 5 − 4x − x 2 ∫ t
= 2 t + C1
= 2 5 – 4 x – x 2 + C1 ... (2)
dx dx
Now consider I2 = ∫ 5 − 4x − x 2
=∫
9 – (x + 2) 2
Put x + 2 = t, so that dx = dt.
dt t
Therefore, I2 = ∫ 3 −t
2
= sin – 1 + C 2
2 3
[by 7.4 (5)]
x+2
= sin
–1
+ C2 ... (3)
3
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain
x+3 x+2 C
∫ 5 – 4x – x2
= – 5 – 4x – x 2 + sin – 1
3
+ C , where C = C2 – 1
2
EXERCISE 7.4
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23.
3x 2 1 1
1. 2. 3.
x6 + 1 1 + 4x 2
(2 – x)
2
+1
1 3x x2
4. 5. 6.
9 – 25 x 2 1 + 2x4 1 − x6
x –1 x2 sec 2 x
7. 8. 9.
x2 – 1 x6 + a6 tan 2 x + 4
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252 MATHEMATICS
1 1 1
10. 11. 12.
x + 2x + 2
2 9x + 6x + 5
2
7 – 6 x – x2
1 1 1
13. 14. 15.
( x – 1)( x – 2 ) 8 + 3x – x 2
( x – a )( x – b )
4x + 1 x+2 5x − 2
16. 17. 18.
2x + x – 3
2 2
x –1 1 + 2x + 3x2
6x + 7 x+2 x+2
19. 20. 21.
( x – 5 )( x – 4 ) 4x – x 2
x + 2x + 3
2
x+3 5x + 3
22. 23. .
x – 2x − 5
2
x + 4 x + 10
2
1 –1 9 x − 8 1 8x − 9
(A) sin +C (B) sin –1 +C
9 8 2 9
1 –1 9 x − 8 1 9x − 8
(C) sin +C (D) sin –1 +C
3 8 2 9
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INTEGRALS 253
P1 (x)
where T(x) is a polynomial in x and is a proper rational function. As we know
Q(x)
how to integrate polynomials, the integration of any rational function is reduced to the
integration of a proper rational function. The rational functions which we shall consider
here for integration purposes will be those whose denominators can be factorised into
P(x ) P(x)
linear and quadratic factors. Assume that we want to evaluate ∫ Q(x) dx , where Q(x)
is proper rational function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of
simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction decomposition. After this,
the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following
Table 7.2 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with
various kind of rational functions.
Table 7.2
S.No. Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction
px + q A
+
B
1. ,a≠b
(x –a) (x –b) x–a x–b
px + q A B
2. +
(x – a ) 2 x – a ( x – a )2
px 2 + qx + r A B C
3. + +
(x – a) (x – b) (x – c) x –a x –b x –c
px 2 + qx + r A B C
4. + 2
+
(x – a) 2 (x – b) x – a (x – a) x–b
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C ,
5. + 2
(x – a) (x 2 + bx + c) x – a x + bx + c
where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further
In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.
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254 MATHEMATICS
dx
Example 11 Find ∫ (x + 1) (x + 2)
Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Therefore, by using the form of
partial fraction [Table 7.2 (i)], we write
1 A B
= + ... (1)
(x + 1) (x + 2) x +1 x + 2
where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably. This gives
1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1).
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get
A+B=0
and 2A + B = 1
Solving these equations, we get A =1 and B = – 1.
Thus, the integrand is given by
1 1 –1
= +
(x + 1) (x + 2) x +1 x + 2
dx dx dx
Therefore, ∫ (x + 1) (x + 2) = ∫ x + 1 – ∫ x + 2
= log x + 1 − log x + 2 + C
x +1
= log +C
x+2
Remark The equation (1) above is an identity, i.e. a statement true for all (permissible)
values of x. Some authors use the symbol ‘≡’ to indicate that the statement is an
identity and use the symbol ‘=’ to indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e., to
indicate that the statement is true only for certain values of x.
x2 + 1
Example 12 Find ∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 dx
x2 + 1
Solution Here the integrand 2 is not proper rational function, so we divide
x – 5x + 6
x2 + 1 by x2 – 5x + 6 and find that
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INTEGRALS 255
x2 + 1 5x – 5 5x – 5
= 1+ 2 =1+
x – 5x + 6
2 x – 5x + 6 (x – 2) (x – 3)
5x – 5 A B
Let = +
(x – 2) (x – 3) x–2 x–3
So that 5x – 5 = A (x – 3) + B (x – 2)
Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 5
and 3A + 2B = 5. Solving these equations, we get A = – 5 and B = 10
x2 + 1 5 10
Thus, = 1− +
x – 5x + 6
2
x –2 x –3
x2 + 1 1 dx
Therefore, ∫ x 2 – 5 x + 6 dx = ∫ dx − 5 ∫ x – 2 dx + 10∫ x – 3
= x – 5 log | x – 2 | + 10 log | x – 3 | + C.
3x − 2
Example 13 Find ∫ dx
(x + 1)2 (x + 3)
Solution The integrand is of the type as given in Table 7.2 (4). We write
3x – 2 A B C
= + +
(x + 1) (x + 3)
2
x + 1 (x + 1) 2
x+3
So that 3x – 2 = A (x + 1) (x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x + 1)2
= A (x2 + 4x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x2 + 2x + 1 )
Comparing coefficient of x 2 , x and constant term on both sides, we get
A + C = 0, 4A + B + 2C = 3 and 3A + 3B + C = – 2. Solving these equations, we get
11 –5 –11 . Thus the integrand is given by
A= ,B = and C =
4 2 4
3x − 2 11 5 11
= 4 (x + 1) – –
4 (x + 3)
(x + 1) (x + 3)
2
2 (x + 1) 2
3x − 2 11 dx 5 dx 11 dx
Therefore, ∫ (x + 1)2 (x + 3) = ∫ – ∫
4 x + 1 2 (x + 1) 2
− ∫
4 x+3
11 5 11
= log x +1 + − log x + 3 + C
4 2 (x + 1) 4
11 x +1 5
= log + +C
4 x + 3 2 (x + 1)
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256 MATHEMATICS
x2
Example 14 Find ∫ (x2 + 1) (x 2 + 4) dx
x2
Solution Consider 2 and put x2 = y.
( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4)
x2 y
Then =
(x + 1) (x + 4)
2 2
(y + 1) (y + 4)
y A B
Write = +
(y + 1) (y + 4) y +1 y + 4
So that y = A (y + 4) + B (y + 1)
Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 1
and 4A + B = 0, which give
1 4
A= − and B =
3 3
x2 1 4
Thus, = – +
(x + 1) (x + 4)
2 2
3 (x + 1) 3 (x + 4)
2 2
x 2 dx 1 dx 4 dx
Therefore, ∫ (x2 + 1) (x 2 + 4) = – 3 ∫ x 2 + 1 + 3 ∫ x2 + 4
1 –1 4 1 –1 x
= – tan x + × tan +C
3 3 2 2
1 –1 2 –1 x
= – tan x + tan +C
3 3 2
In the above example, the substitution was made only for the partial fraction part
and not for the integration part. Now, we consider an example, where the integration
involves a combination of the substitution method and the partial fraction method.
( 3 sin φ – 2 ) cos φ
Example 15 Find ∫ 5 – cos2 φ – 4 sin φ d φ
Solution Let y = sinφ
Then dy = cosφ dφ
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INTEGRALS 257
1
= 3 log y − 2 + 4 – +C
y−2
4
= 3 log sin φ − 2 + +C
2 – sin φ
4
= 3 log (2 − sin φ) + + C (since, 2 – sin φ is always positive)
2 − sin φ
x 2 + x + 1 dx
Example 16 Find ∫
(x + 2) (x 2 + 1)
Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Decompose the rational function
into partial fraction [Table 2.2(5)]. Write
x2 + x + 1 A Bx + C
= + 2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
2
x + 2 (x + 1)
Therefore, x2 + x + 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2)
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258 MATHEMATICS
Equating the coefficients of x2, x and of constant term of both sides, we get
A + B =1, 2B + C = 1 and A + 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get
3 2 1
A = , B = and C =
5 5 5
Thus, the integrand is given by
2 1
x+
x2 + x + 1 3 3 1 2x + 1
= + 2 5 =
5 + 2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
2
5 (x + 2) x + 1 5 (x + 2) 5 x + 1
x2 + x + 1 3 dx 1 2x 1 1
Therefore, ∫ (x2 +1) (x + 2) dx = 5 ∫ x + 2 + 5 ∫ x2 + 1 dx + 5 ∫ x2 + 1 dx
3 1 1
= log x + 2 + log x 2 + 1 + tan –1 x + C
5 5 5
EXERCISE 7.5
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21.
x 1 3x – 1
1. 2. 3.
(x + 1) (x + 2) 2
x –9 (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)
x 2x 1 – x2
4. 5. 2 6.
(x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) x + 3x + 2 x (1 – 2 x)
x x 3x + 5
7. 8. 9.
(x + 1) (x – 1)
2
(x – 1) (x + 2)
2
x – x2 − x + 1
3
2x − 3 5x x3 + x + 1
10. 11. 12.
(x – 1) (2x + 3)
2
(x + 1) (x 2 − 4) x2 − 1
2 3x – 1 1
13. 14. 15.
(1 − x) (1 + x 2 ) (x + 2) 2 x −1
4
1
16. [Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by x n – 1 and put xn = t ]
x (x n + 1)
cos x
17. [Hint : Put sin x = t]
(1 – sin x) (2 – sin x)
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INTEGRALS 259
(x 2 + 1) (x 2 + 2) 2x 1
18. 19. 20.
(x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 4) (x + 1) (x 2 + 3)
2
x (x 4 – 1)
1
21. x [Hint : Put ex = t]
(e – 1)
Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises 22 and 23.
x dx
22. ∫ equals
( x − 1) ( x − 2)
( x − 1)2 ( x − 2) 2
(A) log +C (B) log +C
x−2 x −1
2
x −1
(C) log +C (D) log ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + C
x−2
dx
23. ∫ x ( x 2 + 1) equals
1 1
(A) log x − log (x +1) + C (B) log x + log (x +1) + C
2 2
2 2
1 1
(D) log x + log (x +1) + C
2
(C) − log x + log (x 2 +1) + C
2 2
7.6 Integration by Parts
In this section, we describe one more method of integration, that is found quite useful in
integrating products of functions.
If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a single variable x (say). Then, by
the product rule of differentiation, we have
d dv du
(uv ) = u + v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides, we get
dv du
uv = ∫ u dx + ∫ v dx
dx dx
dv du
or ∫ u dx dx = uv – ∫ v dx dx ... (1)
dv
Let u = f (x) and = g (x). Then
dx
du
= f ′(x) and v = ∫ g (x ) dx
dx
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260 MATHEMATICS
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INTEGRALS 261
= x (sin x + k ) − ∫ (sin x dx − ∫ k dx
Solution Take first function as x and second function as ex. The integral of the second
function is ex.
∫ x e dx = x e x − ∫1 ⋅ e x dx = xex – ex + C.
x
Therefore,
x sin – 1 x
Example 20 Find ∫ 1 − x2
dx
x
Solution Let first function be sin – 1x and second function be .
1 − x2
x dx
First we find the integral of the second function, i.e., ∫ 1 − x2
.
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262 MATHEMATICS
x dx 1 dt
∫ ∫ = – t = − 1− x
2
Therefore, = –
1− x 2 2 t
Hence, ∫
x sin – 1 x
1− x 2
–1 2
(
dx = (sin x ) – 1 − x − ∫ ) 1
1− x 2
( – 1 − x 2 ) dx
−1 −1
= – 1 − x sin x + x + C = x – 1 − x sin x + C
2 2
Alternatively, this integral can also be worked out by making substitution sin–1 x = θ and
then integrating by parts.
∫e
x
Example 21 Find sin x dx
Solution Take ex as the first function and sin x as second function. Then, integrating
by parts, we have
∫e [ f (x) + f ′ (x )] dx
x
7.6.1 Integral of the type
∫ f ′(x) e dx + C
x
integrating it by parts, we have I1 = f (x) ex –
Substituting I1 in (1), we get
I = e f (x) − ∫ f ′(x) e dx + ∫ e f ′(x) dx + C = ex f (x) + C
x x x
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INTEGRALS 263
∫e [ f ( x ) + f ′( x )] dx = e x f ( x ) + C
x
Thus,
1 (x 2 + 1) e x
Example 22 Find (i) ∫ e x (tan – 1 x +
1 + x2
) dx (ii) ∫ (x + 1)2 dx
Solution
1
(i) We have I = ∫ e (tan x +
x –1
) dx
1 + x2
1
Consider f (x) = tan– 1x, then f ′(x) =
1 + x2
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [ f (x) + f ′(x)].
1
Therefore, I = ∫ e x (tan – 1 x + ) dx = ex tan– 1x + C
1 + x2
(x 2 + 1) e x 2
x x – 1 + 1+1)
(ii) We have I = ∫ dx = ∫ e [ ] dx
(x + 1) 2 (x + 1)2
x2 – 1 2 x –1 2
= ∫ ex [ 2
+ 2
] dx = ∫ e x [ + ] dx
(x + 1) (x +1) x + 1 (x+1) 2
x −1 2
Consider f (x ) = , then f ′(x ) =
x +1 (x + 1) 2
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [f (x) + f ′(x)].
x2 + 1 x x −1 x
Therefore, ∫ (x + 1)2 e dx = x + 1 e + C
EXERCISE 7.6
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 22.
1. x sin x 2. x sin 3x 3. x2 ex 4. x log x
5. x log 2x 6. x2 log x 7. x sin– 1x 8. x tan–1 x
–1 –1 2
x cos−1 x
9. x cos x 10. (sin x) 11. 12. x sec2 x
1 − x2
13. tan –1x 14. x (log x)2 15. (x2 + 1) log x
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264 MATHEMATICS
x ex x 1 + sin x
x
16. e (sinx + cosx) 17. 18. e 1 + cos x
(1 + x) 2
x 1 1 (x − 3) e x
19. e – 2 20. 21. e2x sin x
x x (x − 1)3
– 1 2x
22. sin 2
1+ x
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
∫x e
2 x3
23. dx equals
1 x3 1 x2
(A) e +C (B) e +C
3 3
1 x3 1 x2
(C) e +C (D) e +C
2 2
(i)
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx (ii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx (iii) ∫ a 2 − x2 dx
Let I = ∫ x − a dx
2 2
(i)
Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we
have
1 2x
I = x x −a −∫
2 2
x dx
2 x2 − a 2
x2 x2 − a 2 + a2
dx = x x − a − ∫
2 2
= x x −a −∫
2 2 dx
x2 − a 2 x 2 − a2
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INTEGRALS 265
dx
= x x − a − ∫ x − a dx − a ∫
2 2 2 2 2
x2 − a2
dx
= x x −a −I−a ∫
2 2 2
x2 − a 2
dx
2I = x x − a − a ∫
2 2 2
or
x − a2
2
x a2
∫
2 2
or I= x 2 – a 2 dx =
x – a – log x + x 2 – a 2 + C
2 2
Similarly, integrating other two integrals by parts, taking constant function 1 as the
second function, we get
1 a2
(ii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x x2 + a2 +
2
log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
(iii)
Alternatively, integrals (i), (ii) and (iii) can also be found by making trigonometric
substitution x = a secθ in (i), x = a tanθ in (ii) and x = a sinθ in (iii) respectively.
Example 23 Find ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx
∫ x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx = ∫ (x + 1)2 + 4 dx
Put x + 1 = y, so that dx = dy. Then
∫ x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx = ∫ y 2 + 22 dy
1 4
= y y2 + 4 + log y + y 2 + 4 + C [using 7.6.2 (ii)]
2 2
1
= (x + 1) x 2 + 2 x + 5 + 2 log x + 1 + x 2 + 2 x + 5 + C
2
Example 24 Find ∫ 3 − 2x − x 2 dx
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266 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 7.7
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 9.
1. 4 − x2 2. 1 − 4x 2 3. x2 + 4 x + 6
4. x2 + 4x + 1 5. 1 − 4x − x 2 6. x2 + 4 x − 5
x2
7. 1 + 3x − x 2 8. x + 3x
2 9. 1+
9
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 10 to 11.
10. ∫ 1 + x 2 dx is equal to
(A)
x
2
1
(
1 + x 2 + log x + 1 + x 2
2
) +C
3 3
2 2
(B) (1 + x 2 ) 2 + C (C) x (1 + x 2 ) 2 + C
3 3
x2 1
(D) 1 + x 2 + x 2 log x + 1 + x 2 + C
2 2
11. ∫ x 2 − 8 x + 7 dx is equal to
1
(A) ( x − 4) x 2 − 8 x + 7 + 9log x − 4 + x 2 − 8 x + 7 + C
2
1
(B) ( x + 4) x 2 − 8 x + 7 + 9log x + 4 + x 2 − 8 x + 7 + C
2
1
(C) ( x − 4) x 2 − 8 x + 7 − 3 2 log x − 4 + x 2 − 8 x + 7 + C
2
1 9
(D) ( x − 4) x 2 − 8x + 7 − log x − 4 + x 2 − 8 x + 7 + C
2 2
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INTEGRALS 267
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268 MATHEMATICS
Remarks
b
(i) In words, the Theorem 2 tells us that ∫ a f ( x) dx = (value of the anti derivative F
of f at the upper limit b – value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a).
(ii) This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a method of calculating the
definite integral more easily, without calculating the limit of a sum.
(iii) The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral is that of finding a function
whose derivative is equal to the integrand. This strengthens the relationship
between differentiation and integration.
b
(iv) In ∫ a f ( x) dx , the function f needs to be well defined and continuous in [a, b].
1
3
∫ − 2 x( x
2
For instance, the consideration of definite integral – 1) 2 dx is erroneous
1
2
since the function f expressed by f (x) = x( x – 1) 2 is not defined in a portion
– 1 < x < 1 of the closed interval [– 2, 3].
b
Steps for calculating ∫ a f ( x) dx .
(i) Find the indefinite integral ∫ f ( x ) dx . Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep
integration constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get
b
∫ a f ( x) dx = [F ( x) + C] a = [F(b) + C] – [F(a) + C] = F(b) – F(a) .
b
Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the definite
integral.
b
∫ a f ( x) dx .
b
(ii) Evaluate F(b) – F(a) = [F ( x)] a , which is the value of
We now consider some examples
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INTEGRALS 269
Solution
3 x3
(i) Let I = ∫ 2 x dx . Since ∫ x dx =
= F ( x) ,
2 2
3
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem, we get
27 8 19
I = F (3) – F (2) = – =
3 3 3
9 x
(ii) Let I = ∫ 3
dx . We first find the anti derivative of the integrand.
4
(30 – x 2 )2
3
3 2
Put 30 – x2 = t. Then – x dx = dt or x dx = – dt
2 3
x 2 dt 2 1 2 1
Thus, ∫ dx = – ∫ 2 = = 3
= F ( x)
3
3 t 3 t 3
(30 – x 2 ) 2 (30 – x 2 )
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
9
2 1
I = F(9) – F(4) = 3
3
(30 – x 2 )
4
2 1 1 2 1 1 19
− − =
3 (30 – 27) 30 – 8 3 3 22 99
= =
2 x dx
(iii) Let I = ∫
1 ( x + 1) ( x + 2)
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270 MATHEMATICS
x –1 2
Using partial fraction, we get = +
( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
x dx
So ∫ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) = – log x + 1 + 2log x + 2 = F( x)
1
Put sin 2t = u so that 2 cos 2t dt = du or cos 2t dt = du
2
1 3
2∫
3
So ∫ sin 2t cos 2t dt = u du
1 4 1 4
= [u ] = sin 2t = F (t ) say
8 8
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
π 1 π 1
I = F ( ) – F (0) = [sin 4 – sin 4 0] =
4 8 2 8
EXERCISE 7.8
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20.
1 31 2
∫ −1 ( x + 1) dx ∫ 2 x dx ∫ 1 (4 x – 5 x2 + 6 x + 9) dx
3
1. 2. 3.
π π π
5 x
∫ 0 sin 2 x dx ∫ 0 cos 2 x dx ∫ 4 e dx ∫
4 2 4
4. 5. 6. 7. tan x dx
0
π
1 dx 1 dx 3 dx
8. ∫
4
π
cosec x dx 9. ∫0 10. ∫ 0 1 + x2 11. ∫ 2 x2 − 1
6 1 – x2
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INTEGRALS 271
π 3 x dx 1 2x + 3 1
12. ∫ 2
0
cos 2 x dx 13. ∫ 2 x2 + 1 14. ∫ 0 5 x 2 + 1 dx 15. ∫0x e
x2
dx
π
2 5x 2 π x x
∫1 ∫ x + x 3 + 2) dx ∫ 0 (sin
2
16. 17. 4
(2sec2 18. – cos2 ) dx
x 2 + 4x + 3 0 2 2
2 6x + 3 πx 1
∫ 0 x2 + 4 dx ∫ 0 (x e + sin
x
19. 20. ) dx
4
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
3 dx
21. ∫1 1 + x2
equals
π 2π π π
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 6 12
2
dx
22. ∫ 0
3
4 + 9x2
equals
π π π π
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 12 24 4
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272 MATHEMATICS
2 5
3 3
(
= (1 + 1) 2 – (– 1) + 1 2
3
5
)
2 2
3 3
2 4 2
= 2 − 0 2 = (2 2) =
3 3 3
Alternatively, first we transform the integral and then evaluate the transformed integral
with new limits.
Let t = x5 + 1. Then dt = 5 x4 dx.
Note that, when x = – 1, t = 0 and when x = 1, t = 2
Thus, as x varies from – 1 to 1, t varies from 0 to 2
1 2
∫ −15x x5 + 1 dx = ∫0
4
Therefore t dt
2
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
2 4 2
= t = 2 – 0 2
= (2 2) =
3 3 3 3
0
1 tan – 1 x
Example 27 Evaluate ∫0 1 + x2
dx
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INTEGRALS 273
1
Solution Let t = tan – 1x, then dt = dx . The new limits are, when x = 0, t = 0 and
1 + x2
π π
when x = 1, t = . Thus, as x varies from 0 to 1, t varies from 0 to .
4 4
π
π
1 tan x–1 t2 4 1 π2 π2
Therefore ∫0 1 + x2
dx = ∫ 0
4
t dt =
2
0 2
16
– 0 =
32
EXERCISE 7.9
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 8 using substitution.
π
1x 1 –1 2x
1. ∫ 0 x2 + 1 dx 2. ∫ 0
2
sin φ cos5 φ d φ 3. ∫ 0 sin
1+ x
2 dx
π
2 sin x
4. ∫ 0 x x + 2 (Put x + 2 = t2) 5. ∫ 2
0 1 + cos 2 x
dx
2 dx 1 dx 2 1 1
∫ 0 x + 4 – x2 ∫ −1 x2 + 2 x + 5 ∫ 1 x – 2 x2 e
2x
6. 7. 8. dx
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274 MATHEMATICS
b b
P3 : ∫ a f ( x) dx = ∫ a f (a + b − x) dx
a a
P4 : ∫0 f ( x) dx = ∫ f ( a − x) dx
0
2a a
P6 : ∫0 f ( x) dx = 2 ∫ f ( x) dx, if f (2a − x) = f ( x) and
0
0 if f (2a – x) = – f (x)
a a
P7 : (i) ∫ −a f ( x) dx = 2 ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx , if f is an even function, i.e., if f (– x) = f (x).
a
(ii) ∫ −a f ( x) dx = 0 , if f is an odd function, i.e., if f (– x) = – f (x).
We give the proofs of these properties one by one.
Proof of P0 It follows directly by making the substitution x = t.
Proof of P1 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then, by the second fundamental theorem of
b a
calculus, we have ∫ a f ( x) dx = F (b) – F (a) = – [F (a) − F (b)] = −∫ b f ( x ) dx
a
Here, we observe that, if a = b, then ∫ a f ( x) dx = 0 .
Proof of P2 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then
b
∫ a f ( x) dx = F(b) – F(a) ... (1)
c
∫ a f ( x) dx = F(c) – F(a) ... (2)
b
and ∫c f ( x ) dx = F(b) – F(c) ... (3)
c b b
Adding (2) and (3), we get ∫ a f ( x) dx + ∫ c f ( x ) dx = F(b) – F( a) = ∫ f ( x) dx
a
This proves the property P2.
Proof of P3 Let t = a + b – x. Then dt = – dx. When x = a, t = b and when x = b, t = a.
Therefore
b a
∫a f ( x) dx = − ∫ f ( a + b – t ) dt
b
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INTEGRALS 275
b
= ∫ a f (a + b – t ) dt (by P1)
b
= ∫ a f (a + b – x) dx by P 0
2a a a
Hence ∫0 f ( x) dx = ∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫ f (2a − x) dx
0
2a a a
Proof of P6 Using P5, we have ∫0 f ( x) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f (2a − x) dx
0 0
... (1)
Now, if f (2a – x) = f (x), then (1) becomes
2a a a a
∫0 f ( x) dx = ∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx = 2∫ f ( x) dx,
0 0
a a
= ∫0 f (– x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx
0
(by P0) ... (1)
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276 MATHEMATICS
(i) Now, if f is an even function, then f (–x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes
a a a a
∫ −a f ( x) dx = ∫ 0 f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx = 2 ∫ f ( x ) dx
0 0
2
Example 28 Evaluate ∫ −1 x 3 – x dx
0 1 2
= ∫ −1 ( x 3 – x) dx + ∫ ( x – x 3 ) dx + ∫ ( x 3 – x) dx
0 1
0 1 2
x4 x2 x2 x4 x4 x2
= – + – + –
4 2 – 1 2 4 0 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
= – – + – + ( 4 – 2) – –
4 2 2 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 11
= – + + − +2− + = − +2=
4 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 4
π
∫ sin 2
4
Example 29 Evaluate –π
x dx
4
∫
4
–π
sin 2 x dx = 2 ∫ 4 sin 2 x dx
0
4
π π
(1 − cos 2 x )
= 2∫
0
4
2
dx = ∫ 0
4
(1 − cos 2 x ) dx
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INTEGRALS 277
π
1 4 π 1 π π 1
= x – sin 2 x = – sin – 0 = –
2 0 4 2 2 4 2
π x sin x
Example 30 Evaluate ∫ 0 1 + cos 2 x dx
π x sin x
Solution Let I = ∫ 0 1 + cos2 x dx . Then, by P , we have 4
π (π − x ) sin (π − x) dx
I= ∫0 1 + cos2 (π − x)
π (π − x ) sin x dx π sin x dx
= ∫0 1 + cos x
2 = π∫
0 1 + cos 2 x
−I
π sin x dx
or 2 I = π ∫0
1 + cos2 x
π π sin x dx
or I=
2 ∫ 0 1 + cos 2 x
Put cos x = t so that – sin x dx = dt. When x = 0, t = 1 and when x = π, t = – 1.
Therefore, (by P1) we get
–π −1 dt π 1 dt
I=
2 ∫1 1+ t 2 =
2 ∫ −1 1 + t 2
1 dt 1
= π∫0 2 (by P7,
since is even function)
1+ t 1+ t2
π π
2
–1 1 −1
π tan t = π tan –1
1 – tan 0 = π – 0 =
4 4
= 0
1
∫ −1 sin
5
Example 31 Evaluate x cos 4 x dx
1
∫ −1sin
5
Solution Let I = x cos 4 x dx . Let f(x) = sin5 x cos4 x. Then
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278 MATHEMATICS
π
sin 4 x
Example 32 Evaluate ∫ 0
2
sin 4 x + cos4 x
dx
π
sin 4 x
Solution Let I = ∫ 0
2
sin 4 x + cos4 x
dx ... (1)
Then, by P4
π
π sin 4 ( − x) π
2 cos 4 x
I =∫ ∫
2 2
dx = dx ... (2)
0 π π 0 cos4 x + sin 4 x
sin 4 ( − x ) + cos4 ( − x)
2 2
Adding (1) and (2), we get
π π π
sin 4 x + cos4 x π
2I = ∫ 0
2
sin x + cos x
4 4
dx = ∫ 2 dx = [ x] 2 =
0 0 2
π
Hence I=
4
π
dx
∫
3
Example 33 Evaluate π
6
1 + tan x
π π
dx cos x dx
∫ = ∫ π3
3
Solution Let I = π
... (1)
6
1+ tan x 6
cos x + sin x
π π
π cos + − x dx
3 6
∫
3
Then, by P3 I= π
π π π π
6 cos + − x + sin + − x
3 6 3 6
π
sin x
∫
3
= π
dx ... (2)
6
sin x + cos x
Adding (1) and (2), we get
π π
π π π
2I = ∫
3
π
dx = [ x] =
3
π
− = . Hence I = π
3 6 6 12
6 6
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INTEGRALS 279
π
Example 34 Evaluate ∫ 0
2
log sin x dx
Solution Let I = ∫ 2
log sin x dx
0
Then, by P4
π π
π
∫ log sin 2 − x dx = ∫ 02 log cos x dx
I=
0
2
π
= ∫ ( log sin x cos x + log 2 − log 2) dx (by adding and subtracting log 2)
0
2
π π
= ∫ 0
2
log sin 2 x dx − ∫
0
2
log 2 dx (Why?)
π
Put 2x = t in the first integral. Then 2 dx = dt, when x = 0, t = 0 and when x = ,
2
t = π.
1 π π
Therefore 2I =
2 ∫ 0
log sin t dt − log 2
2
π
2 π
=
2 ∫ 0
2
log sin t dt −
2
log 2 [by P6 as sin (π – t) = sin t)
π
π
= ∫
0
2
log sin x dx −
2
log 2 (by changing variable t to x)
π
= I − log 2
2
π
–π
Hence ∫ 0
2
log sin x dx =
2
log 2 .
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280 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 7.10
By using the properties of definite integrals, evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 19.
3
π π π
sin x sin 2 x dx
1. ∫ 0
2
cos2 x dx 2. ∫ 0
2
sin x + cos x
dx 3. ∫ 0
2
3 3
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
π
cos5 x dx 5 8
4. ∫ 0
2
sin 5 x + cos5 x
5. ∫ −5 | x + 2 | dx 6. ∫2 x − 5 dx
π
1 2
∫ 0 x (1 − x) ∫ ∫0 x
n
7. dx 8. 4
log (1 + tan x ) dx 9. 2 − x dx
0
π π
∫ + x cos x + tan 5 x + 1) dx is
2
20. The value of −π
( x3
2
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INTEGRALS 281
Miscellaneous Examples
x 4 dx
Example 37 Find ∫
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 1)
Solution We have
x4 1
= ( x + 1) + 3
( x − 1) ( x + 1)
2
x − x + x −1
2
1
= ( x + 1) + ... (1)
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 1)
1 A Bx + C
Now express = + 2 ... (2)
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2
( x − 1) ( x + 1)
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282 MATHEMATICS
So 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x – 1)
= (A + B) x2 + (C – B) x + A – C
Equating coefficients on both sides, we get A + B = 0, C – B = 0 and A – C = 1,
1 1
which give A = , B = C = – . Substituting values of A, B and C in (2), we get
2 2
1 1 1 x 1
= − − ... (3)
( x − 1) ( x + 1)
2
2( x − 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2( x + 1)
2 2
Therefore
x4 x2 1 1 1
∫ ( x − 1) ( x 2 + x + 1) dx =
2
+ x + log x − 1 – log ( x 2 + 1) – tan – 1 x + C
2 4 2
1
Example 38 Find ∫ log (log x) + (log x)2 dx
1
Solution Let I = ∫ log (log x) + dx
(log x) 2
1
= ∫ log (log x) dx + ∫ dx
(log x) 2
In the first integral, let us take 1 as the second function. Then integrating it by
parts, we get
1 dx
I = x log (log x ) − ∫ x dx + ∫
x log x (log x ) 2
dx dx
= x log (log x ) − ∫ +∫ ... (1)
log x (log x ) 2
dx
Again, consider ∫ log x , take 1 as the second function and integrate it by parts,
dx x 1 1
we have ∫ log x = log x – ∫ x – (log x)2 x dx ... (2)
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INTEGRALS 283
Solution We have
I= ∫
cot x + tan x dx = ∫ tan x (1 + cot x ) dx
Put tan x = t2, so that sec2 x dx = 2t dt
2t dt
or dx =
1 + t4
1 2t
Then I = ∫ t 1 + 2 dt
t (1 + t )
4
1 1
(t 2 + 1) 1 + 2 dt 1 + 2 dt
dt = 2 ∫
t
=2∫
t
= 2∫
t4 +1 2 1 1
2
t + t − + 2
t2 t
1 1
Put t − = y, so that 1 + 2 dt = dy. Then
t t
1
t −
dy y –1 t
I = 2∫ = 2 tan – 1 + C = 2 tan +C
( 2)
2
y2 + 2 2
t2 −1 – 1 tan x − 1
= 2 tan – 1 + C = 2 tan +C
2t 2 tan x
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
Example 40 Find ∫ 9 – cos 4 (2 x)
sin 2 x cos 2 x
Solution Let I = ∫ dx
9 – cos 4 2 x
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284 MATHEMATICS
1 dt 1 t 1 1
Therefore I=– ∫ =– sin –1 + C = − sin − 1 cos 2 2 x + C
4 9–t 2 4 3 4 3
3
∫ −1 x sin (π x) dx
2
Example 41 Evaluate
x sin π x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Solution Here f (x) = | x sin πx | = 3
− x sin π x for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
3 3
1
Therefore ∫ 2
−1
| x sin π x | dx = ∫ −1 x sin π x dx + ∫ 1
2
− x sin π x dx
3
1
= ∫ −1 x sin π x dx − ∫ 1
2 x sin π x dx
∫ 2
−1
| x sin π x | dx =
2 1 1 3 1
= − − − = +
π π2 π π π2
π x dx
Example 42 Evaluate ∫ 0 a 2 cos 2 x + b2 sin 2 x
π x dx π ( π − x ) dx
Solution Let I = ∫ 0 a 2 cos 2 x + b2 sin 2 x = ∫ 0 a2 cos 2 (π − x) + b2 sin 2 (π − x) (using P4)
π dx π x dx
= π∫ −∫ 2
0 a cos x + b sin x
2 2 22 0 a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2
π dx
= π ∫0 −I
a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2 2
π dx
Thus 2I = π ∫ 0
a cos x + b2 sin 2 x
2 2
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INTEGRALS 285
π
π π dx π dx
or I=
2 ∫0 2 2 2 2
= ⋅2 ∫ 2 2
a cos x + b sin x 2 0 a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2 (using P6)
π π
dx dx
π ∫ 4 2 + ∫ π a2 cos2 x + b2 sin 2 x
2
= 0 a cos2 x + b2 sin 2 x
4
π π
4 sec 2 x dx 2
2 cosec x dx
= π ∫ + ∫ 2
0 a + b tan x π a cot x + b
2 2 2 2 2
4
1 dt 0 du
2 (
= π ∫ 2 − ∫ put tan x = t and cot x = u )
0 a +b t 1 a u +b
2 2 2 2
1 0
π –1 bt π –1 au π –1 b a
+ tan –1 = π
2
= ab tan a – ab tan b = tan
0 1 ab a b 2ab
1 1 1 1
4. 3 5. [Hint: = , put x = t6]
1 1 1 1 1
1
x 2 ( x 4 + 1) 4 x2 + x3 x2 + x3 x3 1 + x 6
x3 ex 1
12. 13. 14.
1 − x8 (1 + e x ) (2 + e x ) ( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4)
2
15. cos3 x elog sinx 16. e3 logx (x4 + 1)– 1 17. f ′ (ax + b) [f (ax + b)]n
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286 MATHEMATICS
1 1− x 2 + sin 2 x x
18. 19. 20. e
sin x sin ( x + α )
3
1+ x 1 + cos 2 x
x2 + x + 1 –1 1− x
21. 22. tan
( x + 1) 2 ( x + 2) 1+ x
x 2 + 1 log ( x 2 + 1) − 2 log x
23.
x4
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 24 to 31.
π π
π 1 − sin x sin x cos x cos 2 x dx
24. ∫π ex dx 25.
1 − cos x ∫ 0
4
cos4 x + sin 4 x
dx 26. ∫ 0
2
cos 2 x + 4 sin 2 x
2
π π
sin x + cos x 1 dx sin x + cos x
27. ∫
3
π
sin 2 x
dx 28. ∫0 1+ x − x
29. ∫ 0
4
9 + 16 sin 2 x
dx
6
π
30. ∫ 2
sin 2 x tan −1 (sin x) dx
0
4
31. ∫ 1 [| x −1| + | x − 2 | + | x − 3 |] dx
Prove the following (Exercises 32 to 37)
3 dx 2 2 1
∫ 1 x 2 ( x + 1) = 3 + log 3 ∫ 0 x e dx = 1
x
32. 33.
1 π
2
∫ −1 x cos 4 x dx = 0
17
34. 35. ∫ 0
2 sin 3 x dx =
3
π
1 −1 π
36. ∫ 0
4
2 tan 3 x dx = 1 − log 2 37. ∫ 0 sin x dx =
2
−1
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INTEGRALS 287
–1
(A) +C (B) log |sin x + cos x | + C
sin x + cos x
1
(C) log |sin x − cos x | + C (D)
(sin x + cos x) 2
b
40. If f (a + b – x) = f (x), then ∫ a x f ( x) dx is equal to
a +b b a +b b
(A)
2 ∫ a f (b − x) dx (B)
2 ∫ a f (b + x) dx
b−a b a +b b
(C)
2 ∫a f ( x ) dx (D)
2 ∫ a f ( x) dx
Summary
® Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. In the differential calculus,
we are given a function and we have to find the derivative or differential of
this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to find a function whose
differential is given. Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of
differentiation.
d
Let F( x) = f ( x ) . Then we write ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + C . These integrals
dx
are called indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of
integration. All these integrals differ by a constant.
® Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:
1. ∫ [ f ( x) + g ( x)] dx = ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ g ( x) dx
2. For any real number k, ∫k f ( x ) dx = k ∫ f ( x) dx
More generally, if f1, f2, f3, ... , fn are functions and k1, k2, ... ,kn are real
numbers. Then
∫ [k1 f1 ( x ) + k 2 f 2 ( x) + ... + k n f n ( x )] dx
= k1 ∫ f1 ( x ) dx + k 2 ∫ f 2 ( x) dx + ... + kn ∫ f n ( x) dx
® Some standard integrals
x n +1
∫ x dx = + C , n ≠ – 1. Particularly, ∫ dx = x + C
n
(i)
n +1
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288 MATHEMATICS
dx dx
∫ = − cos − 1 x + C −1
(ix)
1− x 2 (x) ∫ 1 + x2 = tan x+C
dx −1
(xi) ∫ 1 + x2 = − cot x+C (xii) ∫ e dx = e
x x
+C
ax 1
(xiii) ∫ a dx = +C ∫ x dx = log | x | + C
x
(xiv)
log a
px + q A B
2. = +
( x − a )2 x − a ( x − a) 2
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INTEGRALS 289
px 2 + qx + r A B C
3. = + +
( x − a ) ( x − b ) ( x − c) x − a x −b x −c
px 2 + qx + r A B C
4. = + +
( x − a ) 2 ( x − b) x − a ( x − a) 2
x −b
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
5. = +
( x − a) ( x 2 + bx + c ) x − a x 2 + bx + c
where x2 + bx + c can not be factorised further.
® Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the
fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves
some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the
integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard
integrals.
(i) ∫ tan x dx = log sec x + C (ii) ∫ cot x dx = log sin x + C
dx 1 a+ x dx 1 x
∫ a 2 − x 2 = 2a log
−1
(ii)
a−x
+C (iii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 = a tan a
+C
dx x
dx
∫ = sin − 1 +C
(iv) ∫ x2 − a 2
= log x + x 2 − a 2 + C (v)
a −x
2 2 a
dx
(vi) ∫ x +a
2 2
= log | x + x 2 + a 2 | + C
® Integration by parts
For given functions f1 and f2, we have
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290 MATHEMATICS
, i.e., the
® ∫ e x [ f ( x) + f ′( x)] dx = ∫ e x f ( x) dx + C
® Some special types of integrals
x 2 a2
(i) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a 2 + C
2
x 2 a2
(ii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x + a 2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2
x 2 a2 x
(iii) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = a − x2 + sin −1 + C
2 2 a
dx dx
(iv) Integrals of the types ∫ ax2 + bx + c or ∫ ax + bx + c
2
can be
2 b c b c b2
2
2 a
ax + bx + c = x + x + = a x + + −
a a 2a a 4a 2
px + q dx px + q dx
(v) Integrals of the types ∫ ax2 + bx + c or ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
can be
transformed into standard form by expressing
d
px + q = A ( ax 2 + bx + c) + B = A (2ax + b) + B , where A and B are
dx
determined by comparing coefficients on both sides.
b
® We have defined ∫a f ( x) dx as the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, the x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a
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INTEGRALS 291
x
given point in [a, b]. Then ∫a f ( x ) dx represents the Area function A (x).
This concept of area function leads to the Fundamental Theorems of Integral
Calculus.
® First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
x
Let the area function be defined by A(x) = ∫ a f ( x) dx for all x ≥ a, where
the function f is assumed to be continuous on [a, b]. Then A′ (x) = f (x) for all
x ∈ [a, b].
® Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and
d
let F be another function such that F( x ) = f ( x) for all x in the domain of
dx
—v—
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292 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 8
APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
8.1 Introduction
In geometry, we have learnt formulae to calculate areas
of various geometrical figures including triangles,
rectangles, trapezias and circles. Such formulae are
fundamental in the applications of mathematics to many
real life problems. The formulae of elementary geometry
allow us to calculate areas of many simple figures.
However, they are inadequate for calculating the areas
enclosed by curves. For that we shall need some concepts
of Integral Calculus.
In the previous chapter, we have studied to find the
area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the ordinates x = a,
x = b and x-axis, while calculating definite integral as the
limit of a sum. Here, in this chapter, we shall study a specific
application of integrals to find the area under simple curves, A.L. Cauchy
area between lines and arcs of circles, parabolas and (1789-1857)
ellipses (standard forms only). We shall also deal with finding
the area bounded by the above said curves.
8.2 Area under Simple Curves
In the previous chapter, we have studied
definite integral as the limit of a sum and
how to evaluate definite integral using
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Now,
we consider the easy and intuitive way of
finding the area bounded by the curve
y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and
x = b. From Fig 8.1, we can think of area
under the curve as composed of large
number of very thin vertical strips. Consider
an arbitrary strip of height y and width dx,
then dA (area of the elementary strip) = ydx,
where, y = f (x). Fig 8.1
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APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 293
This area is called the elementary area which is located at an arbitrary position
within the region which is specified by some value of x between a and b. We can think
of the total area A of the region between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b and the curve
y = f (x) as the result of adding up the elementary areas of thin strips across the region
PQRSP. Symbolically, we express
b b b
A= ∫ a
dA = ∫ ydx = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a
Fig 8.3
Generally, it may happen that some portion of the curve is above x-axis and some is
below the x-axis as shown in the Fig 8.4. Here, A1 < 0 and A2 > 0. Therefore, the area
A bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given
by A = | A1 | + A2.
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294 MATHEMATICS
Fig 8.4
As the region AOBA lies in the first quadrant, y is taken as positive. Integrating, we get
the whole area enclosed by the given circle
a
x 2 a2 x
4
= a − x 2
+ sin –1
2 2 a 0
a2 π
= πa
2
= = 4
2 2
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APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 295
Alternatively, considering horizontal strips as shown in Fig 8.6, the whole area of the
region enclosed by circle
a a
= 4 ∫ xdy = 4 ∫ a 2 − y 2 dy (Why?)
0 0
a
y 2 a2 y
= 4 a − y2 + sin −1
2 2 a 0
a2 π
= 4 = πa 2
2 2
Fig 8.6
x2 y2
Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
Solution From Fig 8.7, the area of the region ABA′B′A bounded by the ellipse
area of the region AOBA in the first quadrant bounded
= 4
by the curve, x − axis and the ordinates x = 0, x = a
(as the ellipse is symmetrical about both x-axis and y-axis)
a
= 4 ∫ 0 ydx (taking verticalstrips)
x2 y 2 b 2
Now 2
+ 2 = 1 gives y = ± a − x 2 , but as the region AOBA lies in the first
a b a
quadrant, y is taken as positive. So, the required area is
a b 2
= 4∫ 0 a − x 2 dx
a
a
4b x 2 2 a 2 –1 x
= a − x + sin (Why?)
a 2 2 a 0
4b a a2 −1
= × 0 + sin 1 − 0
a 2 2
4b a 2 π
= = π ab
a 2 2 Fig 8.7
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296 MATHEMATICS
b ∫0
b2 − y 2 dy (Why?)
0
4 a b b2 Fig 8.8
= b 2 × 0 + sin –1 1 − 0
2
4a b 2 π
= = πab
b 2 2
EXERCISE 8.1
x2 y2
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1 .
16 9
x2 y2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1 .
4 9
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises 3 and 4.
3. Area lying in the first quadrant and bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 4 and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2 is
π π π
(A) π (B) (C) (D)
2 3 4
2
4. Area of the region bounded by the curve y = 4x, y-axis and the line y = 3 is
9 9 9
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D)
4 3 2
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 3 Find the area of the region bounded by the line y = 3x + 2, the x-axis and
the ordinates x = –1 and x = 1.
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APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 297
x-axis for .
π 3π
2π
∫ 0 cos x dx + ∫ π cos x dx + ∫ 3π cos x dx
2 2
=
2 2
π 3π
2π
= [sin x ]0 + [sin x ] + [sin x ] 3π
2 2
π
2 2
=1+2+1=4
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298 MATHEMATICS
3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = 2π.
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises from 4 to 5.
4. Area bounded by the curve y = x3, the x-axis and the ordinates x = – 2 and x = 1 is
−15 15 17
(A) – 9 (B) (C) (D)
4 4 4
5. The area bounded by the curve y = x | x | , x-axis and the ordinates x = – 1 and
x = 1 is given by
1 2 4
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D)
3 3 3
[Hint : y = x2 if x > 0 and y = – x2 if x < 0].
Summary
® The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the lines
b b
x = a and x = b (b > a) is given by the formula: Area = ∫ ydx = ∫ f ( x) dx .
a a
® The area of the region bounded by the curve x = φ (y), y-axis and the lines
d d
y = c, y = d is given by the formula: Area = ∫ xdy = ∫ φ ( y)dy .
c c
Historical Note
The origin of the Integral Calculus goes back to the early period of development
of Mathematics and it is related to the method of exhaustion developed by the
mathematicians of ancient Greece. This method arose in the solution of problems
on calculating areas of plane figures, surface areas and volumes of solid bodies
etc. In this sense, the method of exhaustion can be regarded as an early method
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APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 299
—v —
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300 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 9
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
9.1 Introduction
In Class XI and in Chapter 5 of the present book, we
discussed how to differentiate a given function f with respect
to an independent variable, i.e., how to find f ′(x) for a given
function f at each x in its domain of definition. Further, in
the chapter on Integral Calculus, we discussed how to find
a function f whose derivative is the function g, which may
also be formulated as follows:
For a given function g, find a function f such that
dy
= g (x), where y = f (x) ... (1)
dx
An equation of the form (1) is known as a differential Henri Poincare
equation. A formal definition will be given later. (1854-1912 )
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 301
A Note
1. We shall prefer to use the following notations for derivatives:
dy d2y d3y
= y ′ , 2 = y ′′, 3 = y ′′′
dx dx dx
2. For derivatives of higher order, it will be inconvenient to use so many dashes
dn y
as supersuffix therefore, we use the notation yn for nth order derivative .
dx n
9.2.1. Order of a differential equation
Order of a differential equation is defined as the order of the highest order derivative of
the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable involved in the given
differential equation.
Consider the following differential equations:
dy
= ex ... (6)
dx
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302 MATHEMATICS
d2y
+y =0 ... (7)
dx 2
3
d3y 2 d2y
3 + x =0 ... (8)
dx dx 2
The equations (6), (7) and (8) involve the highest derivative of first, second and
third order respectively. Therefore, the order of these equations are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
dy dy
+ sin = 0 ... (11)
dx dx
We observe that equation (9) is a polynomial equation in y″′, y″ and y′, equation (10)
is a polynomial equation in y′ (not a polynomial in y though). Degree of such differential
equations can be defined. But equation (11) is not a polynomial equation in y′ and
degree of such a differential equation can not be defined.
By the degree of a differential equation, when it is a polynomial equation in
derivatives, we mean the highest power (positive integral index) of the highest order
derivative involved in the given differential equation.
In view of the above definition, one may observe that differential equations (6), (7),
(8) and (9) each are of degree one, equation (10) is of degree two while the degree of
differential equation (11) is not defined.
ANote Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always
positive integers.
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 303
Example 1 Find the order and degree, if defined, of each of the following differential
equations:
2
dy d2y dy dy
(i) − cos x = 0 (ii) xy 2 + x − y =0
dx dx dx dx
(iii) y ′′′ + y 2 + e y ′ = 0
Solution
dy
(i) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is , so its
dx
dy
order is one. It is a polynomial equation in y′ and the highest power raised to
dx
is one, so its degree is one.
d2y
(ii) The highest order derivative present in the given differential equation is , so
dx 2
d2y dy
its order is two. It is a polynomial equation in 2 and and the highest
dx dx
d2y
power raised to is one, so its degree is one.
dx 2
(iii) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is y′′′ , so its
order is three. The given differential equation is not a polynomial equation in its
derivatives and so its degree is not defined.
EXERCISE 9.1
Determine order and degree (if defined) of differential equations given in Exercises
1 to 10.
4
d4y ds d 2s
1. + sin( y ′′′) = 0 2. y′ + 5y = 0 3. + 3s 2 = 0
dx4 dt dt
2
d2y dy d2y
4. 2 + cos = 0 5. = cos3x + sin 3x
dx dx dx 2
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 305
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306 MATHEMATICS
d2y
Substituting the values of and y in the given differential equation, we get
dx 2
L.H.S. = (– a cos x – b sin x) + (a cos x + b sin x) = 0 = R.H.S.
Therefore, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
EXERCISE 9.2
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10 verify that the given functions (explicit or implicit) is a
solution of the corresponding differential equation:
1. y = ex + 1 : y″ – y′ = 0
2
2. y = x + 2x + C : y′ – 2x – 2 = 0
3. y = cos x + C : y′ + sin x = 0
xy
4. y = 1 + x2 : y′ =
1 + x2
5. y = Ax : xy′ = y (x ≠ 0)
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 307
1
dy = g (x) dx ... (3)
h( y )
Integrating both sides of (3), we get
1
∫ h( y) dy = ∫ g ( x) dx ... (4)
Thus, (4) provides the solutions of given differential equation in the form
H (y) = G (x) + C
1
Here, H (y) and G (x) are the anti derivatives of h ( y ) and g (x) respectively and
C is the arbitrary constant.
dy x + 1
Example 4 Find the general solution of the differential equation = , (y ≠ 2)
dx 2 − y
Solution We have
dy x +1
= ... (1)
dx 2− y
Separating the variables in equation (1), we get
(2 – y) dy = (x + 1) dx ... (2)
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get
∫ (2 − y) dy = ∫ ( x + 1) dx
y2 x2
or 2y − = + x + C1
2 2
or x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y + 2 C1 = 0
or x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y + C = 0, where C = 2C1
which is the general solution of equation (1).
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308 MATHEMATICS
dy 1 + y 2
Example 5 Find the general solution of the differential equation = .
dx 1 + x 2
Solution Since 1 + y2 ≠ 0, therefore separating the variables, the given differential
equation can be written as
dy dx
2 = ... (1)
1+ y 1 + x2
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get
dy dx
∫ 1 + y2 = ∫ 1 + x2
or tan–1 y = tan–1x + C
which is the general solution of equation (1).
dy
Example 6 Find the particular solution of the differential equation = − 4 xy 2 given
dx
that y = 1, when x = 0.
Solution If y ≠ 0, the given differential equation can be written as
dy
= – 4x dx ... (1)
y2
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get
dy
∫ y2 = − 4∫ x dx
1
or − = – 2x2 + C
y
1
or y= ... (2)
2x − C 2
Example 7 Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1, 1) whose
differential equation is x dy = (2x2 + 1) dx (x ≠ 0).
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 309
dy* =
1
or dy = 2x + dx ... (1)
x
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get
1
∫ dy = ∫ 2x + x dx
or y = x2 + log | x | + C ... (2)
Equation (2) represents the family of solution curves of the given differential equation
but we are interested in finding the equation of a particular member of the family which
passes through the point (1, 1). Therefore substituting x = 1, y = 1 in equation (2), we
get C = 0.
Now substituting the value of C in equation (2) we get the equation of the required
curve as y = x2 + log | x |.
Example 8 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (–2, 3), given that
2x
the slope of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is .
y2
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to a curve is given by .
dx
dy 2x
so, = 2 ... (1)
dx y
Separating the variables, equation (1) can be written as
y2 dy = 2x dx ... (2)
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get
∫y ∫ 2x dx
2
dy =
y3
or = x2 + C ... (3)
3
dy
* The notation due to Leibnitz is extremely flexible and useful in many calculation and formal
dx
transformations, where, we can deal with symbols dy and dx exactly as if they were ordinary numbers. By
treating dx and dy like separate entities, we can give neater expressions to many calculations.
Refer: Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, volume-I page 172, By Richard Courant,
Fritz John Spinger – Verlog New York.
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310 MATHEMATICS
or P= e 20 ⋅ eC1
t
or P = C e 20 (where e C1 = C ) ... (3)
Now P = 1000, when t = 0
Substituting the values of P and t in (3), we get C = 1000. Therefore, equation (3),
gives
t
P = 1000 e 20
Let t years be the time required to double the principal. Then
t
2000 = 1000 e 20 ⇒ t = 20 loge2
EXERCISE 9.3
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 1 to 10, find the general solution:
dy 1 − cos x dy
1. = 2. = 4 − y 2 (−2 < y < 2)
dx 1 + cos x dx
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 311
dy
3. + y = 1 ( y ≠ 1) 4. sec2 x tan y dx + sec2 y tan x dy = 0
dx
dy
5. (ex + e–x) dy – (ex – e–x) dx = 0 6. = (1 + x 2 ) (1 + y 2 )
dx
dy
7. y log y dx – x dy = 0 8. x5 = − y5
dx
dy
9. = sin −1 x 10. ex tan y dx + (1 – ex) sec2 y dy = 0
dx
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 11 to 14, find a particular solution
satisfying the given condition:
dy
11. ( x + x + x + 1)
3 2
= 2x2 + x; y = 1 when x = 0
dx
dy
12. x ( x 2 − 1) = 1 ; y = 0 when x = 2
dx
dy
13. cos = a (a ∈ R); y = 1 when x = 0
dx
dy
14. = y tan x ; y = 1 when x = 0
dx
15. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 0) and whose differential
equation is y′ = ex sin x.
dy
16. For the differential equation xy = ( x + 2) ( y + 2) , find the solution curve
dx
passing through the point (1, –1).
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, –2) given that at any
point (x, y) on the curve, the product of the slope of its tangent and y coordinate
of the point is equal to the x coordinate of the point.
18. At any point (x, y) of a curve, the slope of the tangent is twice the slope of the
line segment joining the point of contact to the point (– 4, –3). Find the equation
of the curve given that it passes through (–2, 1).
19. The volume of spherical balloon being inflated changes at a constant rate. If
initially its radius is 3 units and after 3 seconds it is 6 units. Find the radius of
balloon after t seconds.
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312 MATHEMATICS
20. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of r% per year. Find the
value of r if Rs 100 double itself in 10 years (loge2 = 0.6931).
21. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. An amount
of Rs 1000 is deposited with this bank, how much will it worth after 10 years
(e0.5 = 1.648).
22. In a culture, the bacteria count is 1,00,000. The number is increased by 10% in 2
hours. In how many hours will the count reach 2,00,000, if the rate of growth of
bacteria is proportional to the number present?
dy
23. The general solution of the differential equation = e x + y is
dx
(A) ex + e–y = C (B) ex + ey = C
(C) e–x + ey = C (D) e–x + e–y = C
y
F3 (x, y) = cos , F4 (x, y) = sin x + cos y
x
If we replace x and y by λx and λy respectively in the above functions, for any nonzero
constant λ, we get
F1 (λx, λy) = λ2 (y2 + 2xy) = λ2 F1 (x, y)
F2 (λx, λy) = λ (2x – 3y) = λ F2 (x, y)
λy y
F3 (λx, λy) = cos = cos = λ0 F3 (x, y)
λx x
F4 (λx, λy) = sin λx + cos λy ≠ λn F4 (x, y), for any n ∈ N
Here, we observe that the functions F1, F 2, F 3 can be written in the form
F(λx, λy) = λn F (x, y) but F4 can not be written in this form. This leads to the following
definition:
A function F(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if
F(λx, λy) = λn F(x, y) for any nonzero constant λ.
We note that in the above examples, F1, F2, F3 are homogeneous functions of
degree 2, 1, 0 respectively but F4 is not a homogeneous function.
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 313
3y y
F2(x, y) = x1 2 − = x1h3
x x
1 x x
F2(x, y) = y 2 − 3 = y h4
1
or
y y
y y
F3(x, y) = x cos = x h5
0 0
x x
n y
F4(x, y) ≠ x h6 , for any n ∈ N
x
n x
or F4 (x, y) ≠ y h7 , for any n ∈ N
y
Therefore, a function F (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if
n y x
F (x, y) = x g or ynh
x y
dy
A differential equation of the form = F (x, y) is said to be homogenous if
dx
F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero.
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type
dy y
= F ( x, y ) = g ... (1)
dx x
We make the substitution y = v.x ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get
dy dv
= v+x ... (3)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of from equation (3) in equation (1), we get
dx
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314 MATHEMATICS
dv
v+x = g (v)
dx
dv
or x = g (v) – v ... (4)
dx
Separating the variables in equation (4), we get
dv dx
= ... (5)
g (v ) − v x
Integrating both sides of equation (5), we get
dv 1
∫ g (v) − v = ∫ x dx + C ... (6)
Equation (6) gives general solution (primitive) of the differential equation (1) when
y
we replace v by .
x
dx
ANote If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form = F( x , y )
dy
where, F (x, y) is homogenous function of degree zero, then we make substitution
x
= v i.e., x = vy and we proceed further to find the general solution as discussed
y
dx x
above by writing = F( x, y ) = h .
dy y
dy
Example 10 Show that the differential equation (x – y) = x + 2y is homogeneous
dx
and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be expressed as
dy x + 2y
= ... (1)
dx x− y
x+ 2y
Let F (x, y) =
x−y
λ ( x + 2 y)
Now F (λx, λy) = = λ 0 ⋅ f ( x, y )
λ ( x − y)
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 315
Therefore, F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero. So, the given differential
equation is a homogenous differential equation.
Alternatively,
2y
1+
dy x g y
= = ... (2)
dx y x
1−
x
y
R.H.S. of differential equation (2) is of the form g and so it is a homogeneous
x
function of degree zero. Therefore, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (3)
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to, x we get
dy dv
= v+x ... (4)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of y and in equation (1) we get
dx
dv 1 + 2v
v+x =
dx 1− v
dv 1 + 2v
or x = −v
dx 1− v
dv v2 + v + 1
or x =
dx 1− v
v −1 − dx
or dv =
v + v +1
2
x
Integrating both sides of equation (5), we get
or = – log | x | + C1
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316 MATHEMATICS
or
or
or
or (Why?)
y
Replacing v by , we get
x
or
1 y2 y 2y + x
or log 2 + + 1 x 2 = 3 tan −1 + C1
2 x x 3x
2y + x
or log ( y 2 + xy + x 2 ) = 2 3 tan −1 + 2C1
3x
x + 2y
or log ( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) = 2 3 tan −1 +C
3x
which is the general solution of the differential equation (1)
y dy y
Example 11 Show that the differential equation x cos = y cos + x is
x dx x
homogeneous and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
y
y cos + x
dy x
= ... (1)
dx y
x cos
x
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 317
dy
It is a differential equation of the form = F( x, y ) .
dx
y
y cos + x
x
Here F (x, y) =
y
x cos
x
Replacing x by λx and y by λy, we get
y
λ [ y cos + x]
x = λ 0 [F ( x, y )]
F (λx, λy) =
y
λ x cos
x
Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero.
Therefore, the given differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get
dy dv
= v+x ... (3)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of y and in equation (1), we get
dx
dv v cos v + 1
v+x =
dx cos v
dv v cos v + 1
or x = −v
dx cos v
dv 1
or x =
dx cos v
dx
or cos v dv =
x
1
Therefore ∫ cos v dv = ∫ x dx
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318 MATHEMATICS
x x
Example 12 Show that the differential equation 2 y e dx + y − 2 x e y dy = 0 is
y
dx 2x e − yy
= x ... (1)
dy
2y e y
2 xe − y
y
Let F(x, y) = x
2 ye y
x
λ 2 xe y − y
= λ 0 [F( x, y )]
Then F (λx, λy) =
x
λ 2 ye y
Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero. Therefore, the given
differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it, we make the substitution
x = vy ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to y, we get
dx dv
= v+ y
dy dy
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 319
dx
Substituting the value of x and in equation (1), we get
dy
dv 2v ev − 1
v+ y =
dy 2ev
dv 2v ev − 1
or y = −v
dy 2ev
dv 1
or y = − v
dy 2e
− dy
or 2ev dv =
y
dy
or ∫ 2e
v
⋅ dv = − ∫
y
or 2 ev = – log |y| + C
x
and replacing v by y , we get
x
y
2 e + log | y | = C ... (3)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 1 in equation (3), we get
2 e0 + log | 1| = C ⇒ C = 2
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get
x
y
2 e + log | y | = 2
which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 13 Show that the family of curves for which the slope of the tangent at any
2 xy
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent at any point on a curve is .
dx
dy x2 + y 2
Therefore, =
dx 2 xy
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320 MATHEMATICS
y2
1+
dy x2
or = ... (1)
dx 2y
x
Clearly, (1) is a homogenous differential equation. To solve it we make substitution
y = vx
Differentiating y = vx with respect to x, we get
dy dv
= v+x
dx dx
dv 1 + v 2
or v+x =
dx 2v
dv 1 − v 2
or x =
dx 2v
2v dx
dv =
1− v 2
x
2v dx
or dv = −
v −1
2
x
2v 1
Therefore ∫ v2 − 1 dv = −∫ x dx
or log | v2 – 1 | = – log | x | + log | C1 |
or log | (v2 – 1) (x) | = log |C1|
or (v2 – 1) x = ± C1
y
Replacing v by , we get
x
y2
2 − 1 x = ± C1
x
or (y2 – x2) = ± C1 x or x2 – y2 = Cx
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EXERCISE 9.4
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10, show that the given differential equation is homogeneous
and solve each of them.
x+ y
1. (x2 + xy) dy = (x2 + y2) dx 2. y′ =
x
2 2
3. (x – y) dy – (x + y) dx = 0 4. (x – y ) dx + 2xy dy = 0
dy
5. x2 = x 2 − 2 y 2 + xy 6. x dy – y dx = x 2 + y 2 dx
dx
y y y y
7. x cos + y sin y dx = y sin − x cos x dy
x x x x
dy y y
8. x − y + x sin = 0 9. y dx + x log dy − 2 x dy = 0
dx x x
10.
For each of the differential equations in Exercises from 11 to 15, find the particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
11. (x + y) dy + (x – y) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
12. x2 dy + (xy + y2) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
13. when x = 1
dy y y
14. − + cosec = 0 ; y = 0 when x = 1
dx x x
dy
15. 2 xy + y 2 − 2 x 2 = 0 ; y = 2 when x = 1
dx
dx x
16. A homogeneous differential equation of the from = h can be solved by
dy y
making the substitution.
(A) y = vx (B) v = yx (C) x = vy (D) x = v
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322 MATHEMATICS
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 323
dy dy
or g (x) + P. g (x) y = g (x) + y g′ (x)
dx dx
⇒ P. g (x) = g′ (x)
g ′ ( x)
or P=
g ( x)
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
g ′ ( x)
∫ Pdx = ∫ g ( x) dx
or ∫ P ⋅ dx = log (g (x))
or g (x) = e ∫ P dx
On multiplying the equation (1) by g(x) = e ∫ , the L.H.S. becomes the derivative
P dx
d ∫ Pdx
or ye
=
dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
∫ P dx dx
= ∫ Q.e
. ∫ Q.e ∫ dx + C
− ∫ P dx P dx
or y= e
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324 MATHEMATICS
dx
In case, the first order linear differential equation is in the form + P1 x = Q1 ,
dy
P1 dy
where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Then I.F = e and the
solution of the differential equation is given by
x . (I.F) = ∫ ( Q1 × I.F ) dy + C
dy
Example 14 Find the general solution of the differential equation − y = cos x .
dx
Solution Given differential equation is of the form
dy
+ Py = Q , where P = –1 and Q = cos x
dx
Therefore I.F =
Multiplying both sides of equation by I.F, we get
= e–x cos x
or
dy
( y e− x ) = e–x cos x
dx
On integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
−x
ye– x = ∫e cos x dx + C ... (1)
−x
Let I= ∫e cos x dx
e− x −x
−1 ∫
= cos x − (− sin x ) ( −e ) dx
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 325
−x −x
= − cos x e − ∫ sin x e dx
−x −x −x
= − cos x e + sin x e − ∫ cos x e dx
or I = – e–x cos x + sin x e–x – I
or 2I = (sin x – cos x) e–x
(sin x − cos x) e − x
or I=
2
Substituting the value of I in equation (1), we get
sin x − cos x − x
ye– x = e + C
2
sin x − cos x
+ Ce
x
or y=
2
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
dy
Example 15 Find the general solution of the differential equation x + 2 y = x 2 ( x ≠ 0) .
dx
Solution The given differential equation is
dy
+ 2y = x2
x ... (1)
dx
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by x, we get
dy 2
+ y =x
dx x
dy 2
which is a linear differential equation of the type + Py = Q , where P = and Q = x.
dx x
2 2
So I.F = e ∫ x dx = e2 log x = e
log x
= x 2 [ as elog f ( x ) = f ( x )]
Therefore, solution of the given equation is given by
y . x2 = ∫ ( x) ( x ) dx + C = ∫ x dx + C
2 3
x2
or + C x −2
y=
4
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
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326 MATHEMATICS
dx 1
This is a linear differential equation of the type + P1 x = Q1 , where P1 = − and
dy y
1
∫ − y dy −1 1
Q1 = 2y. Therefore I.F = e = e − log y = elog ( y ) =
y
Hence, the solution of the given differential equation is
1 1
x = ∫ (2 y ) dy + C
y y
x
or = ∫ (2dy ) + C
y
x
or = 2y + C
y
or x = 2y2 + Cy
which is a general solution of the given differential equation.
I.F = e ∫
cot x dx
= e log sin x = sin x
Hence, the solution of the differential equation is given by
y . sin x = ∫ (2x + x2 cot x) sin x dx + C
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 327
− π2
or C=
4
Substituting the value of C in equation (1), we get
π2
y sin x = x sin x −
2
4
π2
y= x − (sin x ≠ 0)
2
or
4 sin x
which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 18 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 1). If the slope
of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the x coordinate
(abscissa) and the product of the x coordinate and y coordinate (ordinate) of that point.
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to the curve is .
dx
dy
Therefore, = x + xy
dx
dy
or − xy = x ... (1)
dx
dy
This is a linear differential equation of the type + Py = Q , where P = – x and Q = x.
dx
− x2
I . F = e∫
− x dx
Therefore, =e 2
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328 MATHEMATICS
= ∫ ( x ) ( e ) dx + C
− x2 − x2
y ⋅e 2 2 ... (2)
− x2
Let I= ∫ ( x) e 2 dx
− x2
Let = t , then – x dx = dt or x dx = – dt.
2
− x2
Therefore, I = − ∫ e dt = −e = –
t t
e 2
Substituting the value of I in equation (2), we get
− x2 − x2
y e 2 = − e2 +C
x2
or y = −1 + C e2 ... (3)
Now (3) represents the equation of family of curves. But we are interested in
finding a particular member of the family passing through (0, 1). Substituting x = 0 and
y = 1 in equation (3) we get
1 = – 1 + C . e0 or C = 2
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get
x2
y= −1 + 2 e 2
which is the equation of the required curve.
EXERCISE 9.5
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 1 to 12, find the general solution:
dy dy dy y
1. + 2 y = sin x 2. + 3 y = e −2 x 3. + = x2
dx dx dx x
dy π dy π
4. + (sec x) y = tan x 0 ≤ x < 2
5. cos x + y = tan x 0 ≤ x <
dx 2 dx 2
dy dy 2
6. x+ 2 y = x 2 log x 7. x log x + y = log x
dx dx x
8. (1 + x ) dy + 2xy dx = cot x dx (x ≠ 0)
2
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 329
dy dy
9. x + y − x + xy cot x = 0 ( x ≠ 0) 10. ( x + y ) = 1
dx dx
dy
12. ( x + 3 y )
= y ( y > 0) .
2
11. y dx + (x – y2) dy = 0
dx
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 13 to 15, find a particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
dy π
13. + 2 y tan x = sin x; y = 0 when x =
dx 3
dy 1
14. (1 + x ) + 2 xy = ; y = 0 when x = 1
2
dx 1 + x2
dy π
15. − 3 y cot x = sin 2 x; y = 2 when x =
dx 2
16. Find the equation of a curve passing through the origin given that the slope of the
tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the coordinates of
the point.
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 2) given that the sum of
the coordinates of any point on the curve exceeds the magnitude of the slope of
the tangent to the curve at that point by 5.
dy
The Integrating Factor of the differential equation x − y = 2 x is
2
18.
dx
1
(A) e –x (B) e –y (C) (D) x
x
19. The Integrating Factor of the differential equation
dx
+ yx = ay ( −1 < y < 1) is
(1 − y 2 )
dy
1 1 1 1
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D)
y −1 y −1
2
1 − y2 1 − y2
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 19 Verify that the function y = c1 eax cos bx + c2 eax sin bx, where c1, c2 are
arbitrary constants is a solution of the differential equation
d2y
− 2a + ( a 2 + b2 ) y = 0
dy
2
dx dx
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330 MATHEMATICS
d2y
= e ax [(b c2 + a c1 ) ( − b sin bx) + ( a c2 − b c1 ) (b cos bx )]
dx 2
d 2 y dy
Substituting the values of , and y in the given differential equation, we get
dx2 dx
e ax
( )
a 2 c2 − 2abc1 − b 2c2 − 2a 2 c2 + 2abc1 + a 2 c2 + b 2c2 sin bx
=
+ (a 2c + 2abc − b 2 c − 2abc − 2a 2 c + a 2 c + b 2 c ) cos bx
1 2 1 2 1 1 1
= e ax [0 × sin bx + 0cos bx ] = eax × 0 = 0 = R.H.S.
Hence, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
dy
Example 20 Find the particular solution of the differential equation log = 3x + 4 y
dx
given that y = 0 when x = 0.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
dy
= e(3x + 4y)
dx
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 331
dy
or = e3x . e4y ... (1)
dx
Separating the variables, we get
dy
= e3x dx
e4 y
−4 y
Therefore ∫e dy = ∫ e3x dx
e− 4 y e3 x
or = +C
−4 3
or 4 e3x + 3 e– 4y + 12 C = 0 ... (2)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in (2), we get
−7
4 + 3 + 12 C = 0 or C =
12
Substituting the value of C in equation (2), we get
4 e3x + 3 e– 4y – 7 = 0,
which is a particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 21 Solve the differential equation
y y
(x dy – y dx) y sin = (y dx + x dy) x cos .
x x
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
y 2 y y y
x y sin x − x cos x dy = xy cos x + y sin x dx
2
y y
xy cos + y 2 sin
dy x x
or =
dx y 2 y
xy sin − x cos
x x
Dividing numerator and denominator on RHS by x2, we get
y y
2
y y
cos + 2 sin
dy x x x x
= ... (1)
dx y y y
sin − cos
x x x
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332 MATHEMATICS
dy y
Clearly, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation of the form = g .
dx x
To solve it, we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
dy dv
or = v+ x
dx dx
dv v cos v + v 2 sin v
or v+x = (using (1) and (2))
dx v sin v − cos v
dv 2v cos v
or x =
dx v sin v − cos v
v sin v − cos v 2 dx
or dv =
v cos v x
v sin v − cos v 1
Therefore ∫ dv = 2 ∫ dx
v cos v x
1 1
or ∫ tan v dv − ∫ v dv = 2 ∫ x dx
or log sec v − log | v | = 2 log | x | + log | C1 |
sec v
or log = log | C1 |
v x2
secv
or = ± C1 ... (3)
v x2
y
Replacing v by in equation (3), we get
x
y
sec
x
= C where, C = ± C1
y 2
( x )
x
y
or sec = C xy
x
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 333
1 tan −1y .
where, P1 = 2 and Q1 =
1+ y 1 + y2
1
Therefore, I . F = ∫ 1+ y 2 dy −1
e = etan y
Thus, the solution of the given differential equation is
tan−1 y tan −1 y
x e tan
−1
y = ∫ 2
e dy + C ... (2)
1+ y
tan −1 y tan −1 y
Let I= ∫ 1 + y 2 e
dy
1
Substituting tan–1 y = t so that dy = dt , we get
1+ y
2
∫ t e dt = t e
t
I= t
– ∫1 . et dt = t et – et = et (t – 1)
−1
or I = etan y (tan–1y –1)
Substituting the value of I in equation (2), we get
−1 −1
x . e tan y
= e tan y
(tan −1 y − 1) + C
−1
or x = (tan −1y − 1) + C e− tan y
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334 MATHEMATICS
2 3 2
d2y dy dy dy
(i) + 5 x − 6 y = log x (ii) − 4 + 7 y = sin x
dx 2
dx dx dx
d4y d3y
(iii) − sin 3 =0
dx 4 dx
2. For each of the exercises given below, verify that the given function (implicit or
explicit) is a solution of the corresponding differential equation.
d2y dy
x –x
(i) xy = a e + b e + x 2
: x 2
+ 2 − xy + x 2 − 2 = 0
dx dx
d2y dy
(ii) y = ex (a cos x + b sin x) : 2
− 2 + 2y = 0
dx dx
d2y
(iii) y = x sin 3x : + 9 y − 6cos3 x = 0
dx 2
dy
: (x + y ) − xy = 0
2 2
(iv) x2 = 2y2 log y
dx
3. Prove that x2 – y2 = c (x2 + y2)2 is the general solution of differential equation
(x3 – 3x y2) dx = (y3 – 3x2y) dy, where c is a parameter.
dy 1 − y2
4. Find the general solution of the differential equation + =0.
dx 1 − x2
dy y 2 + y + 1
5. Show that the general solution of the differential equation + = 0 is
dx x 2 + x + 1
given by (x + y + 1) = A (1 – x – y – 2xy), where A is parameter.
π
6. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point 0, whose differential
4
equation is sin x cos y dx + cos x sin y dy = 0.
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 335
e −2 x y dx
10. Solve the differential equation − = 1 ( x ≠ 0) .
x x dy
dy
11. Find a particular solution of the differential equation + y cot x = 4x cosec x
dx
π.
(x ≠ 0), given that y = 0 when x =
2
dy
12. Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x + 1) = 2 e–y – 1, given
dx
that y = 0 when x = 0.
y dx − x dy
13. The general solution of the differential equation = 0 is
y
(A) xy = C (B) x = Cy2 (C) y = Cx (D) y = Cx2
dx
14. The general solution of a differential equation of the type + P1 x = Q1 is
dy
(A) y e ∫
P1 dy
(
= ∫ Q1e ∫
P1 dy
) dy + C
(B) y . e∫
P1 dx
(
= ∫ Q1e ∫
P1 dx
) dx + C
(C) x e∫
P1 dy
(
= ∫ Q1e∫
P1 dy
) dy + C
(D) x e ∫
P1 dx
(
= ∫ Q1e ∫
P1 dx
) dx + C
15. The general solution of the differential equation ex dy + (y ex + 2x) dx = 0 is
(A) x ey + x2 = C (B) x ey + y2 = C
(C) y ex + x2 = C (D) y ey + x2 = C
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336 MATHEMATICS
Summary
® An equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect to
independent variable (variables) is known as a differential equation.
® Order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative
occurring in the differential equation.
® Degree of a differential equation is defined if it is a polynomial equation in its
derivatives.
® Degree (when defined) of a differential equation is the highest power (positive
integer only) of the highest order derivative in it.
® A function which satisfies the given differential equation is called its solution.
The solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called a general solution and the solution free from
arbitrary constants is called particular solution.
® Variable separable method is used to solve such an equation in which variables
can be separated completely i.e. terms containing y should remain with dy
and terms containing x should remain with dx.
® A differential equation which can be expressed in the form
dy dx
= f ( x, y ) or = g ( x, y ) where, f (x, y) and g(x, y) are homogenous
dx dy
functions of degree zero is called a homogeneous differential equation.
dy
® A differential equation of the form + Py = Q , where P and Q are constants
dx
or functions of x only is called a first order linear differential equation.
Historical Note
One of the principal languages of Science is that of differential equations.
Interestingly, the date of birth of differential equations is taken to be November,
11,1675, when Gottfried Wilthelm Freiherr Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) first put in black
1
∫ y dy = 2 y , thereby introducing both the symbols ∫ and dy.
2
and white the identity
Leibnitz was actually interested in the problem of finding a curve whose tangents
were prescribed. This led him to discover the ‘method of separation of variables’
1691. A year later he formulated the ‘method of solving the homogeneous
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 337
differential equations of the first order’. He went further in a very short time
to the discovery of the ‘method of solving a linear differential equation of the
first-order’. How surprising is it that all these methods came from a single man
and that too within 25 years of the birth of differential equations!
In the old days, what we now call the ‘solution’ of a differential equation, was
used to be referred to as ‘integral’ of the differential equation, the word being
coined by James Bernoulli (1654 - 1705) in 1690. The word ‘solution was first
used by Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1813) in 1774, which was almost hundred
years since the birth of differential equations. It was Jules Henri Poincare
(1854 - 1912) who strongly advocated the use of the word ‘solution’ and thus the
word ‘solution’ has found its deserved place in modern terminology. The name of
the ‘method of separation of variables’ is due to John Bernoulli (1667 - 1748),
a younger brother of James Bernoulli.
Application to geometric problems were also considered. It was again John
Bernoulli who first brought into light the intricate nature of differential equations.
In a letter to Leibnitz, dated May 20, 1715, he revealed the solutions of the
differential equation
x2 y″ = 2y,
which led to three types of curves, viz., parabolas, hyperbolas and a class of
cubic curves. This shows how varied the solutions of such innocent looking
differential equation can be. From the second half of the twentieth century attention
has been drawn to the investigation of this complicated nature of the solutions of
differential equations, under the heading ‘qualitative analysis of differential
equations’. Now-a-days, this has acquired prime importance being absolutely
necessary in almost all investigations.
—v—
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338 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 10
VECTOR ALGEBRA
v In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what
one has established another undoes. In Mathematics alone each generation
builds a new story to the old structure. – HERMAN HANKEL v
10.1 Introduction
In our day to day life, we come across many queries such
as – What is your height? How should a football player hit
the ball to give a pass to another player of his team? Observe
that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters,
a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which
is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called
force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and
direction (in which another player is positioned). Such
quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and
engineering, we frequently come across with both types of
W.R. Hamilton
quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass,
(1805-1865)
time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work,
money, voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various
operations on vectors, and their algebraic and geometric properties. These two type of
properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.
10.2 Some Basic Concepts
Let ‘l’ be any straight line in plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given
two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed
is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 339
Fig 10.1
Now observe that if we restrict the line l to the line segment AB, then a magnitude
is prescribed on the line l with one of the two directions, so that we obtain a directed
line segment (Fig 10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
Definition 1 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector.
Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as or
simply as , and read as ‘vector ’ or ‘vector ’.
The point A from where the vector starts is called its initial point, and the
point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and
terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as
| |, or | |, or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
ANote Since the length is never negative, the notation | | < 0 has no meaning.
Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate system
(Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with respect to
the origin O (0, 0, 0). Then, the vector having O and P as its initial and terminal
points, respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with respect
to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the magnitude of (or ) is given by
| |= x2 + y 2 + z2
In practice, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O
are denoted by , , , etc., respectively (Fig 10.2 (ii)).
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340 MATHEMATICS
Fig 10.2
Direction Cosines
Consider the position vector of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.3. The angles α,
β, γ made by the vector with the positive directions of x, y and z-axes respectively,
are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos α, cos β and
cos γ are called direction cosines of the vector , and usually denoted by l, m and n,
respectively. Z
z P(x,y,z)
r
g
b y
O Y
a B
P
x
A
O a
90°
X
A
Fig 10.3 X
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we
have . Similarly, from the right angled triangles OBP and
y z
OCP, we may write cos β = and cos γ = . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may
r r
also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr). The numbers lr, mr and nr, proportional to the direction
cosines are called as direction ratios of vector , and denoted as a, b and c, respectively.
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342 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) Time-scalar (ii) Volume-scalar (iii) Force-vector
(iv) Speed-scalar (v) Density-scalar (vi) Velocity-vector
Solution
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30° east of north.
2. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors.
(i) 10 kg (ii) 2 meters north-west (iii) 40°
(iv) 40 watt (v) 10–19 coulomb (vi) 20 m/s2
3. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities.
(i) time period (ii) distance (iii) force
(iv) velocity (v) work done
4. In Fig 10.6 (a square), identify the following vectors.
(i) Coinitial (ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
5. Answer the following as true or false.
(i) and – are collinear.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are always equal in
magnitude.
Fig 10.6
(iii) Two vectors having same magnitude are collinear.
(iv) Two collinear vectors having the same magnitude are equal.
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 343
=
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
In general, if we have two vectors and (Fig 10.8 (i)), then to add them, they are
positioned so that the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the other
(Fig 10.8(ii)).
C C
b
+b b b
a
a
A B A B
a a
–b
a –
b
(i) (ii) (iii)
C’
Fig 10.8
For example, in Fig 10.8 (ii), we have shifted vector without changing its magnitude
and direction, so that it’s initial point coincides with the terminal point of . Then, the
vector + , represented by the third side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the sum (or
resultant) of the vectors and i.e., in triangle ABC (Fig 10.8 (ii)), we have
=
Now again, since , from the above equation, we have
This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero
resultant as the initial and terminal points get coincided (Fig 10.8(iii)).
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344 MATHEMATICS
Now, construct a vector so that its magnitude is same as the vector , but the
direction opposite to that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
=
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have
=
The vector is said to represent the difference of .
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a
direction perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity
vectors–one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the
velocity of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two
velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction
(i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have
the following law of vector addition.
If we have two vectors represented
by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
in magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9), then their
sum is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through their common point. This is known as
Fig 10.9
the parallelogram law of vector addition.
ANote From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
=
or = (since )
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector
addition are equivalent to each other.
= (Commutative property)
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 345
Hence =
Property 2 For any three vectors a , b and c
= (Associative property)
Proof Let the vectors be represented by , respectively, as
shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).
Fig 10.11
Then =
and =
So =
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346 MATHEMATICS
and =
Hence =
Remark The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of
three vectors without using brackets.
Note that for any vector a , we have
=
Here, the zero vector is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
Let be a given vector and λ a scalar. Then the product of the vector by the scalar
λ, denoted as λ , is called the multiplication of vector by the scalar λ. Note that, λ
is also a vector, collinear to the vector . The vector λ has the direction same (or
opposite) to that of vector according as the value of λ is positive (or negative). Also,
the magnitude of vector λ is | λ | times the magnitude of the vector , i.e.,
|λ | = |λ | | |
A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given
in Fig 10.12.
a
2a
–2
2 a
2 a
a
1
1
Fig 10.12
When λ = – 1, then λ = – , which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
magnitude of and direction opposite to that of the direction of . The vector – is
called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector and we always have
+ (– ) = (– ) + =
1
Also, if λ = , provided ≠ 0 i.e. is not a null vector, then
|a |
| λ | =| λ | | | =
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 347
Fig 10.14
We, thus, see that P1 P is parallel to z-axis. As iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are the unit vectors along the
x, y and z-axes, respectively, and by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have
. Similarly, and .
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348 MATHEMATICS
=
This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, x, y and z are called
as the scalar components of , and xiˆ, yjˆ and zkˆ are called the vector components
of along the respective axes. Sometimes x, y and z are also termed as rectangular
components.
| | =
If are any two vectors given in the component form a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and
b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , respectively, then
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 349
The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give
the following distributive laws:
Let be any two vectors, and k and m be any scalars. Then
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Remarks
(i) One may observe that whatever be the value of λ, the vector λ is always
collinear to the vector . In fact, two vectors are collinear if and only if
there exists a nonzero scalar λ such that . If the vectors are given
in the component form, i.e. a == a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ and
1 2 3 , then the
two vectors are collinear if and only if
(ii) If a == a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ , then a1, a2, a3 are also called direction ratios of .
(iii) In case if it is given that l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector, then liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ
= (cos α)iˆ + (cos β) ˆj + (cos γ )kˆ is the unit vector in the direction of that vector,
where α, β and γ are the angles which the vector makes with x, y and z axes
respectively.
Solution Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components
are equal. Thus, the given vectors will be equal if and only if
x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
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350 MATHEMATICS
So, . But, the two vectors are not equal since their corresponding components
are distinct.
Example 6 Find unit vector in the direction of vector
Now = 2 2 + 32 + 12 = 14
1 2 ˆ 3 ˆ 1 ˆ
Therefore aˆ = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) = i+ j+ k
14 14 14 14
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ
= (i − 2 ˆj ) = i− j
5 5 5
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of is
∧ 1 ∧ 2 ∧ 7 ˆ 14 ˆ
7a = 7 i− j = i− j
5 5 5 5
Example 8 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,
and .
Solution The sum of the given vectors is
and = 42 + 32 + ( −2)2 = 29
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 351
Example 9 Write the direction ratio’s of the vector and hence calculate
its direction cosines.
Solution Note that the direction ratio’s a, b, c of a vector are just
the respective components x, y and z of the vector. So, for the given vector, we have
a = 1, b = 1 and c = –2. Further, if l, m and n are the direction cosines of the given
vector, then
1 1 2
Thus, the direction cosines are , ,– .
6 6 6
= ( x2 − x1 )iˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ
| |= ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2
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352 MATHEMATICS
Example 10 Find the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 0) and Q(– 1, – 2, – 4) directed
from P to Q.
Solution Since the vector is to be directed from P to Q, clearly P is the initial point
and Q is the terminal point. So, the required vector joining P and Q is the vector ,
given by
where m and n are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides internally in the
ratio of m : n. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
=
and = ,
or = (on simplification)
Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the
ratio of m : n is given by
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 353
= Fig 10.17
Remark If R is the midpoint of PQ , then m = n. And therefore, from Case I, the
midpoint R of , will have its position vector as
=
Example 11 Consider two points P and Q with position vectors and
. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q
in the ratio 2:1, (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution
(i) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q internally in the
ratio 2:1 is
=
(ii) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q externally in the
ratio 2:1 is
Example 12 Show that the points A(2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ), B(iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ), C(3iˆ − 4 j − 4kˆ) are
the vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution We have
= (1 − 2)iˆ + (−3 + 1) ˆj + (−5 − 1)kˆ = −iˆ − 2 ˆj − 6kˆ
= (3 − 1)iˆ + (−4 + 3) ˆj + (−4 + 5) kˆ = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ
and = (2 − 3)iˆ + ( −1 + 4) ˆj + (1 + 4)kˆ = −iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ
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354 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 10.2
1. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
= iˆ + ˆj + k ; = 2iˆ − 7 ˆj − 3kˆ; i+ j−
= k
3 3 3
2. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
3. Write two different vectors having same direction.
4. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors 2iˆ + 3 ˆj and xiˆ + yjˆ are equal.
5. Find the scalar and vector components of the vector with initial point (2, 1) and
terminal point (– 5, 7).
6. Find the sum of the vectors = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ, = −2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ and c =
= iˆ − 6 ˆj – 7 kˆ .
7. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a = iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ .
8. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector , where P and Q are the points
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6), respectively.
9. For given vectors, = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and = −iˆ + ˆj − kˆ , find the unit vector in the
direction of the vector .
10. Find a vector in the direction of vector 5iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ which has magnitude 8 units.
11. Show that the vectors 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ and − 4iˆ + 6 ˆj − 8kˆ are collinear.
12. Find the direction cosines of the vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ .
13. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A (1, 2, –3) and
B (–1, –2, 1), directed from A to B.
14. Show that the vector iˆ + ˆj + kˆ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
15. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points P
and Q whose position vectors are iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ and – iˆ + ˆj + kˆ respectively, in the
ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally (ii) externally
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 355
16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, –2).
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors, = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ,
= 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and = iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ , respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
(A)
(B)
(C)
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356 MATHEMATICS
defined as =
where, θ is the angle between (Fig 10.19).
define
Observations
1. is a real number.
2. Let be two nonzero vectors, then if and only if are
perpendicular to each other. i.e.
3. If θ = 0, then
In particular, as θ in this case is 0.
r r r r
4. If θ = π, then a ⋅ b = − | a | | b |
In particular, , as θ in this case is π.
5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors
iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, we have
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1,
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0
or
(Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 357
= a1b1 (iˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ ⋅ kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj ⋅ iˆ) + a2b2 ( ˆj ⋅ ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj ⋅ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ ⋅ kˆ ) (Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (Using Observation 5)
Thus = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
Suppose a vector makes an angle θ with a given directed line l (say), in the
anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of on l is a vector
(say) with magnitude , and the direction of being the same (or opposite)
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos θ is positive or negative. The vector
B
B
a a
θ
θ l l
A p C C A
p
(0 < θ < 900)
0
(900< θ < 1800)
(i) (ii)
p θ θ p
C l C l
A
A
a a
B B
(1800< θ < 2700) (2700< θ < 3600)
(iii) (iv)
Fig 10.20
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358 MATHEMATICS
is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | | is simply called as the projection
of the vector on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector
of along the line l is vector .
Observations
1. If p̂ is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector on the line
l is given by a ⋅ pˆ .
r
2. Projection of a vector on other vector b , is given by
a ⋅ bˆ, or
Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors with magnitudes 1 and 2
respectively and when =1.
Solution Given . We have
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 359
cosθ =
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360 MATHEMATICS
=
= (2)2 − 2(4) + (3) 2
Therefore = 5
or =8
or
Therefore = 3 (as magnitude of a vector is non negative).
= | cos θ | ≤ 1
Therefore
C
Example 20 For any two vectors , we always b
a +
have (triangle inequality). b
A B
Solution The inequality holds trivially in case either a
=
= (scalar product is commutative)
≤ (since x ≤ | x | ∀ x ∈ R )
≤ (from Example 19)
=
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 361
Hence
Remark If the equality holds in triangle inequality (in the above Example 20), i.e.
= ,
then =
showing that the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 21 Show that the points A ( −2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ ), B( iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) and C(7iˆ − kˆ)
are collinear.
Solution We have
= (1 + 2) iˆ + (2 − 3) ˆj + (3 − 5) kˆ = 3iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ ,
= (7 − 1) iˆ + (0 − 2) ˆj + ( −1 − 3) kˆ = 6iˆ − 2 ˆj − 4kˆ ,
= (7 + 2) iˆ + (0 − 3) ˆj + ( −1 − 5)kˆ = 9iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6kˆ
=
Therefore
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
ANote In Example 21, one may note that although but the
points A, B and C do not form the vertices of a triangle.
EXERCISE 10.3
and 33iˆiˆ−−22ˆjˆj++kˆkˆ
2. Find the angle between the vectors iˆiˆ−−22ˆjˆj++33kˆkˆ and
and
3. Find the projection of the vector iˆ − ˆj on the vector iˆ + ˆj .
4. Find the projection of the vector iˆ + 3 ˆj + 7kˆ on the vector 7iˆ − ˆj + 8kˆ .
5. Show that each of the given three vectors is a unit vector:
1 ˆ 1 1
(2i + 3 ˆj + 6kˆ ), (3iˆ − 6 ˆj + 2kˆ ), (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ)
7 7 7
Also, show that they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
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362 MATHEMATICS
6. Find , if .
7. Evaluate the product .
8. Find the magnitude of two vectors , having the same magnitude and such
1
that the angle between them is 60o and their scalar product is .
2
9. Find , if for a unit vector , .
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 363
into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).
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364 MATHEMATICS
iˆ × iˆ =
iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj Fig 10.24
sin θ =
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 365
Hence =
=
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have
ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ, kˆ × ˆj = − iˆ and iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj.
.
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ⋅ CD.
2
Fig 10.26
But (as given), and CD = sin θ.
by .
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
But (as given), and
.
Thus, Fig 10.27
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366 MATHEMATICS
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Explanation We have
= (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )
= a1b1 (iˆ × iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ × kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj × iˆ)
+ a2 b2 ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ × iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ × ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ × kˆ) (by Property 1)
= a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) − a1b3 (kˆ × iˆ) − a2b1 (iˆ × ˆj )
+ a2 b3 ( ˆj × kˆ ) + a3b1 (kˆ × iˆ) − a3b2 ( ˆj × kˆ)
(as iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 and iˆ × kˆ = −kˆ × iˆ, ˆj × iˆ = −iˆ × ˆj and kˆ × ˆj = − ˆj × kˆ)
= a1b2 kˆ − a1b3 ˆj − a2b1kˆ + a2b3iˆ + a3b1 ˆj − a3b2iˆ
(as iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ and kˆ × iˆ = ˆj )
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 ) ˆj + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) kˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Example 22 Find
Solution We have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= 2 1 3
3 5 −2
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 367
where .
Solution We have
r r
A vector which is perpendicular to both ar + b and ar − b is given by
Now = 4 + 16 + 4 = 24 = 2 6
Therefore, the required unit vector is
r
c −1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
r = i+ j− k
|c | 6 6 6
ANote There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
vector perpendicular to will be i− j+ k . But that will
6 6 6
be a consequence of .
Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.
is .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now, = 0 1 2 = − 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ
1 2 0
Therefore = 16 + 4 + 1 = 21
1
Thus, the required area is 21
2
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368 MATHEMATICS
Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
by the vectors
Solution The area of a parallelogram with as its adjacent sides is given
by .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now = 3 1 4 = 5iˆ + ˆj − 4kˆ
1 −1 1
Therefore = 25 + 1 + 16 = 42
and hence, the required area is 42 .
EXERCISE 10.4
1. Find .
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector , where
.
π π
3. If a unit vector makes angles with iˆ, with ˆj and an acute angle θ with
3 4
k̂ , then find θ and hence, the components of .
4. Show that
5. Find λ and µ if .
6. Given that and . What can you conclude about the vectors
?
7. Let the vectors be given as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ,
c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ . Then show that .
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 369
10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
vectors and .
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
Solution Let be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos θ and y = sin θ (since | | = 1). So, we may write the vector as
= cos θ iˆ + sin θ ˆj ... (1)
Clearly, | |= cos2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
Fig 10.28
Also, as θ varies from 0 to 2π, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x2 + y2 = 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.
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370 MATHEMATICS
Example 27 If iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, 2iˆ + 5 ˆj, 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and iˆ − 6 ˆj − kˆ are the position
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between and .
Deduce that and are collinear.
Solution Note that if θ is the angle between AB and CD, then θ is also the angle
between and .
Now = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
= (2iˆ + 5 ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ
Thus cos θ =
Solution Given
Now
=
+
=
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
Therefore = 50 = 5 2
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 371
=0
or =0
Again, =0
or ... (2)
= – 29
−29
or 2µ = – 29, i.e., µ =
2
Example 30 If with reference to the right handed system of mutually perpendicular
unit vectors , then express in the form
is parallel to is perpendicular to
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372 MATHEMATICS
13. The scalar product of the vector iˆ + ˆj + kˆ with a unit vector along the sum of
vectors 2iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ and λiˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ is equal to one. Find the value of λ.
14. If are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes, show that the
vector is equally inclined to .
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 373
Summary
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374 MATHEMATICS
® For a given vector , the vector gives the unit vector in the direction
of .
® The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points
P and Q whose position vectors are respectively, in the ratio m : n
cos θ =
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VECTOR ALGEBRA 375
iˆ ˆj kˆ
and = a1 b1 c1 .
a2 b2 c2
Historical Note
The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus, which means
“to carry”. The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822) described
that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric interpretation with
the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane. William Rowen Hamilton
(1805-1865) an Irish mathematician was the first to use the term vector for a
directed line segment in his book Lectures on Quaternions (1853). Hamilton’s
method of quaternions (an ordered set of four real numbers given as:
a + biˆ + cjˆ + dkˆ, iˆ, ˆj , kˆ following certain algebraic rules) was a solution to the
problem of multiplying vectors in three dimensional space. Though, we must
mention here that in practice, the idea of vector concept and their addition was
known much earlier ever since the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek
philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-348 B.C.). That time it was supposed to be
known that the combined action of two or more forces could be seen by adding
them according to parallelogram law. The correct law for the composition of
forces, that forces add vectorially, had been discovered in the case of perpendicular
forces by Stevin-Simon (1548-1620). In 1586 A.D., he analysed the principle of
geometric addition of forces in his treatise DeBeghinselen der Weeghconst
(“Principles of the Art of Weighing”), which caused a major breakthrough in the
development of mechanics. But it took another 200 years for the general concept
of vectors to form.
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American physicist and
mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
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376 MATHEMATICS
part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part. In 1881 and 1884, Gibbs
printed a treatise entitled Element of Vector Analysis. This book gave a systematic
and concise account of vectors. However, much of the credit for demonstrating
the applications of vectors is due to the D. Heaviside and P.G. Tait (1831-1901)
who contributed significantly to this subject.
—v—
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 377
Chapter 11
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
11.1 Introduction
In Class XI, while studying Analytical Geometry in two
dimensions, and the introduction to three dimensional
geometry, we confined to the Cartesian methods only. In
the previous chapter of this book, we have studied some
basic concepts of vectors. We will now use vector algebra
to three dimensional geometry. The purpose of this
approach to 3-dimensional geometry is that it makes the
study simple and elegant*.
In this chapter, we shall study the direction cosines
and direction ratios of a line joining two points and also
discuss about the equations of lines and planes in space
under different conditions, angle between two lines, two
Leonhard Euler
planes, a line and a plane, shortest distance between two (1707-1783)
skew lines and distance of a point from a plane. Most of
the above results are obtained in vector form. Nevertheless, we shall also translate
these results in the Cartesian form which, at times, presents a more clear geometric
and analytic picture of the situation.
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
From Chapter 10, recall that if a directed line L passing through the origin makes
angles α, β and γ with x, y and z-axes, respectively, called direction angles, then cosine
of these angles, namely, cos α, cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines of the
directed line L.
If we reverse the direction of L, then the direction angles are replaced by their supplements,
i.e., , and . Thus, the signs of the direction cosines are reversed.
* For various activities in three dimensional geometry, one may refer to the Book
“A Hand Book for designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools”, NCERT, 2005
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378 MATHEMATICS
Fig 11.1
Note that a given line in space can be extended in two opposite directions and so it
has two sets of direction cosines. In order to have a unique set of direction cosines for
a given line in space, we must take the given line as a directed line. These unique
direction cosines are denoted by l, m and n.
Remark If the given line in space does not pass through the origin, then, in order to find
its direction cosines, we draw a line through the origin and parallel to the given line.
Now take one of the directed lines from the origin and find its direction cosines as two
parallel line have same set of direction cosines.
Any three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line are
called the direction ratios of the line. If l, m, n are direction cosines and a, b, c are
direction ratios of a line, then a = λl, b=λm and c = λn, for any nonzero λ ∈ R.
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 379
Fig 11.2
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the line PQ and let it makes angles α, β and γ
with the x, y and z-axis, respectively.
Draw perpendiculars from P and Q to XY-plane to meet at R and S. Draw a
perpendicular from P to QS to meet at N. Now, in right angle triangle PNQ, ∠PQN= γ
(Fig 11.2 (b).
NQ z −z
Therefore, cos γ = = 2 1
PQ PQ
x2 − x1 y −y
Similarly cos α = and cos β = 2 1
PQ PQ
Hence, the direction cosines of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and
Q(x2, y2, z2) are
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380 MATHEMATICS
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z2 − z1 )
2
where PQ =
ANote The direction ratios of the line segment joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2)
may be taken as
x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 or x1 – x2, y1 – y2, z1 – z2
Example 1 If a line makes angle 90°, 60° and 30° with the positive direction of x, y and
z-axis respectively, find its direction cosines.
1
Solution Let the d . c .'s of the lines be l , m, n. Then l = cos 900 = 0, m = cos 600 = ,
2
3
n = cos 300 = .
2
Example 2 If a line has direction ratios 2, – 1, – 2, determine its direction cosines.
Solution Direction cosines are
2 −1 −2
, ,
2 + ( −1) + (−2) 2 + ( −1) + (−2) 2 + (− 1) + (−2) 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 −1 −2
or , ,
3 3 3
Example 3 Find the direction cosines of the line passing through the two points
(– 2, 4, – 5) and (1, 2, 3).
Solution We know the direction cosines of the line passing through two points
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are given by
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + (z 2 − z1 )
2
where PQ =
Here P is (– 2, 4, – 5) and Q is (1, 2, 3).
So PQ = (1 − (−2)) 2 + (2 − 4)2 + (3 − (−5)) 2 = 77
Thus, the direction cosines of the line joining two points is
3 −2 8
, ,
77 77 77
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EXERCISE 11.1
1. If a line makes angles 90°, 135°, 45° with the x, y and z-axes respectively, find its
direction cosines.
2. Find the direction cosines of a line which makes equal angles with the coordinate
axes.
3. If a line has the direction ratios –18, 12, – 4, then what are its direction cosines ?
4. Show that the points (2, 3, 4), (– 1, – 2, 1), (5, 8, 7) are collinear.
5. Find the direction cosines of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
(3, 5, – 4), (– 1, 1, 2) and (– 5, – 5, – 2).
11.3 Equation of a Line in Space
We have studied equation of lines in two dimensions in Class XI, we shall now study
the vector and cartesian equations of a line in space.
A line is uniquely determined if
(i) it passes through a given point and has given direction, or
(ii) it passes through two given points.
11.3.1 Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to given vector
Let be the position vector of the given point A with respect to the origin O of the
rectangular coordinate system. Let l be the line which passes through the point A and
is parallel to a given vector . Let be the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the
line (Fig 11.3).
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382 MATHEMATICS
uuur
Then AP is parallel to the vector , i.e.,
uuur
AP = λ , where λ is some real number.
uuur uuur uuur
But AP = OP – OA
r r
i.e. λ = r −a
Conversely, for each value of the
parameter λ, this equation gives the position
vector of a point P on the line. Hence, the
vector equation of the line is given by Fig 11.3
r r
= a+»b ... (1)
r
Remark If b = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ , then a, b, c are direction ratios of the line and conversely,
r
if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then b = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ will be the parallel to
the line. Here, b should not be confused with | |.
Derivation of cartesian form from vector form
Let the coordinates of the given point A be (x1, y1, z1) and the direction ratios of
the line be a, b, c. Consider the coordinates of any point P be (x, y, z). Then
r r
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ; a = x1 ˆi + y1 ˆj + z1 kˆ
r
and b = a iˆ + b ˆj + c kˆ
Substituting these values in (1) and equating the coefficients of iˆ, ˆj and k̂ , we get
x = x1 + λ a; y = y1 + λ b; z = z1+ λ c ... (2)
These are parametric equations of the line. Eliminating the parameter λ from (2),
we get
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
= = ... (3)
a b c
This is the Cartesian equation of the line.
ANote If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line, the equation of the line is
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
= =
l m n
Example 6 Find the vector and the Cartesian equations of the line through the point
(5, 2, – 4) and which is parallel to the vector 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8 kˆ .
Solution We have
r
= 5 iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4 kˆ and b = 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8 kˆ
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 383
sin θ = 1 − cos2 θ
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384 MATHEMATICS
ANote In case the lines L1 and L2 do not pass through the origin, we may take
lines L′1 and L′2 which are parallel to L1 and L2 respectively and pass through
the origin.
If instead of direction ratios for the lines L1 and L2, direction cosines, namely,
l1, m1, n1 for L1 and l2, m2, n2 for L2 are given, then (1) and (2) takes the following form:
cos θ = | l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 | (as l12 + m12 + n12 =1 = l22 + m22 + n22 ) ... (3)
( l1 m2 − l2 m1 )
2
and sin θ = − (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ) 2 + ( n1 l2 − n2 l1 ) 2 ... (4)
Two lines with direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are
(i) perpendicular i.e. if θ = 90° by (1)
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
(ii) parallel i.e. if θ = 0 by (2)
a1 b1 c1
= =
a2 b2 c2
Now, we find the angle between two lines when their equations are given. If θ is
acute the angle between the lines
r r
= a1 + λ b1 and = a2 + µ b2
r r
b1 ⋅ b 2
then cos θ = r r
b1 b 2
In Cartesian form, if θ is the angle between the lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = ... (1)
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z 2
and = = ... (2)
a2 b2 c2
where, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are the direction ratios of the lines (1) and (2), respectively,
then
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cos θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
Example 7 Find the angle between the pair of lines given by
= 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4 kˆ + λ(iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ)
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 385
and = 5 iˆ − 2 ˆj + µ (3 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 6 kˆ )
r r
Solution Here b1 = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ and b2 = 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 6 kˆ
The angle θ between the two lines is given by
r r
b1 ⋅ b2 (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ) ⋅ (3 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 6 kˆ)
cos θ = r r =
b1 b2 1 + 4 + 4 9 + 4 + 36
3 + 4 + 12 19
= =
3× 7 21
19
Hence θ = cos–1
21
Example 8 Find the angle between the pair of lines
x+3 y −1 z + 3
= =
3 5 4
x +1 y−4 z −5
and = =
1 1 2
Solution The direction ratios of the first line are 3, 5, 4 and the direction ratios of the
second line are 1, 1, 2. If θ is the angle between them, then
3.1 + 5.1 + 4.2 16 16 8 3
cos θ = = = =
3 +5 +4
2 2 2
1 +1 + 2
2 2 2 50 6 5 2 6 15
8 3
Hence, the required angle is cos–1 .
15
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines
If two lines in space intersect at a point,
then the shortest distance between them is
zero. Also, if two lines in space are parallel,
then the shortest distance between them
will be the perpendicular distance, i.e. the
length of the perpendicular drawn from a
point on one line onto the other line.
Further, in a space, there are lines which
are neither intersecting nor parallel. In fact,
such pair of lines are non coplanar and
are called skew lines. For example, let us
consider a room of size 1, 3, 2 units along Fig 11.5
x, y and z-axes respectively Fig 11.5.
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386 MATHEMATICS
The line GE that goes diagonally across the ceiling and the line DB passes through
one corner of the ceiling directly above A and goes diagonally down the wall. These
lines are skew because they are not parallel and also never meet.
By the shortest distance between two lines we mean the join of a point in one line
with one point on the other line so that the length of the segment so obtained is the
smallest.
For skew lines, the line of the shortest distance will be perpendicular to both
the lines.
11.5.1 Distance between two skew lines
We now determine the shortest distance between two skew lines in the following way:
Let l1 and l2 be two skew lines with equations (Fig. 11.6)
r r
= a1 + λ b1 ... (1)
r r
and = a2 + µ b2 ... (2)
r
Take any point S on l1 with position vector ar1 and T on l2, with position vector a 2.
Then the magnitude of the shortest distance vector T
will be equal to that of the projection of ST along the Q
l2
direction of the line of shortest distance (See 10.6.2).
uuur
If PQ is the shortest distance vector between l1
r r
and l2 , then it being perpendicular to both b1 and b2 ,
uuur S P
l1
the unit vector n̂ along PQ would therefore be
Fig 11.6
r r
b1 × b2
n̂ = r r ... (3)
| b1 × b2 |
uuur
Then PQ = d n̂
where, d is the magnitude of the shortest distance vector. Let θ be the angle between
uur uuur
ST and PQ. Then
PQ = ST | cos θ |
uuur uur
PQ ⋅ ST
But cos θ = uuuur uur
| PQ | | ST |
r r uur
d nˆ ⋅ (a2 − a1 ) r r
= (since ST = a2 − a1 )
d ST
r r r r
(b1 × b2 ) ⋅ (a2 − a1)
= r r [From (3)]
ST b1 × b2
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 387
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
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388 MATHEMATICS
d=
Example 9 Find the shortest distance between the lines l1 and l2 whose vector
equations are
= iˆ + ˆj + λ (2 iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ) ... (1)
and = 2 iˆ + ˆj − kˆ + µ (3 iˆ − 5 ˆj + 2 kˆ ) ... (2)
r r r r
Solution Comparing (1) and (2) with = ar1 + λ b1 and r = a 2 + µ b 2 respectively,
r r
we get a1 = iˆ + ˆj , b1 = 2 iˆ − ˆj + kˆ
r r
a 2 = 2 iˆ + ĵ – k̂ and b2 = 3 iˆ – 5 ĵ + 2 k̂
r r
Therefore a2 − a1 = iˆ − kˆ
r r
and b1 × b2 = ( 2 iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ) × ( 3 iˆ − 5 ˆj + 2 kˆ )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= 2 −1 1 = 3 iˆ − ˆj − 7 kˆ
3 −5 2
r r
So |b1 × b2 | = 9 + 1 + 49 = 59
Hence, the shortest distance between the given lines is given by
r r r r
( b1 × b 2 ) . ( a 2 − a1 ) | 3− 0 + 7 | 10
d = r r = =
| b1 × b 2 | 59 59
Example 10 Find the distance between the lines l1 and l2 given by
= iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4 kˆ + λ ( 2 iˆ + 3 ˆj + 6 kˆ )
and = 3 iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5 kˆ + µ ( 2 iˆ + 3 ˆj + 6 kˆ )
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 389
iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r r
b × (a2 − a1 ) 2 3 6
d= r =
|b | 2 1 −1
4 + 9 + 36
| − 9 iˆ + 14 ˆj − 4 kˆ | 293 293
or = = =
49 49 7
EXERCISE 11.2
1. Show that the three lines with direction cosines
12 −3 −4 4 12 3 3 −4 12
, , ; , , ; , , are mutually perpendicular.
13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13
2. Show that the line through the points (1, – 1, 2), (3, 4, – 2) is perpendicular to the
line through the points (0, 3, 2) and (3, 5, 6).
3. Show that the line through the points (4, 7, 8), (2, 3, 4) is parallel to the line
through the points (– 1, – 2, 1), (1, 2, 5).
4. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, 2, 3) and is
parallel to the vector 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2 kˆ .
5. Find the equation of the line in vector and in cartesian form that passes through
the point with position vector 2 iˆ − j + 4 kˆ and is in the direction iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ .
6. Find the cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point (– 2, 4, – 5)
x +3 y −4 z +8
and parallel to the line given by = = .
3 5 6
x −5 y +4 z−6
7. The cartesian equation of a line is = = . Write its vector form.
3 7 2
8. Find the angle between the following pairs of lines:
(i) rr = 2 iˆ − 5 ˆj + kˆ + λ (3 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 6 kˆ) and
r
r = 7 iˆ − 6 kˆ + µ ( iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ)
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390 MATHEMATICS
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 391
x −1 y − 2 z −3 x −1 y − 1 z − 6
3. If the lines = = and = = are perpendicular,
−3 2k 2 3k 1 −5
find the value of k.
r
4. Find the shortest distance between lines r = 6 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ + λ (iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ)
and rr = − 4 iˆ − kˆ + µ (3 iˆ − 2 ˆj − 2 kˆ) .
5. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (1, 2, – 4) and
perpendicular to the two lines:
x − 8 y + 19 z −10 x − 15 y − 29 z − 5 .
= = and = =
3 − 16 7 3 8 −5
Summary
® Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line
with the positive directions of the coordinate axes.
® If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
® Direction cosines of a line joining two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + (z 2 − z1 )
2
where PQ =
® Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the
direction cosines of a line.
® If l, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line
then
a b c
l= ;m= ;n=
a +b +c
2 2 2
a +b +c
2 2 2
a 2 + b2 + c2
® Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting.
They lie in different planes.
® Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines
drawn from any point (preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the
skew lines.
® If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines; and θ is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
cosθ = | l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |
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392 MATHEMATICS
® If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are the direction ratios of two lines and θ is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cosθ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
® Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position
r
vector is and parallel to a given vector is rr = ar + λ b .
® Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having direction cosines l, m, n is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
l m n
® The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position
r r
r r
vectors are and is r = a + λ (b − a ) .
r r r r
® If θ is the acute angle between rr = ar1 + λ b1 and r = a2 + λ b2 , then
r r
b1 ⋅ b2
cos θ = r r
| b1 | | b2 |
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
® If = = and = =
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
are the equations of two lines, then the acute angle between the two lines is
given by cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
® Shortest distance between two skew lines is the line segment perpendicular
to both the lines.
r r r r
® Shortest distance between rr = ar1 + λ b1 and r = a2 + µ b2 is
r r r r
(b1 × b2 ) ⋅ (a2 – a1 )
r r
| b1 × b2 |
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
® Shortest distance between the lines: = = and
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = is
a2 b2 c2
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THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 393
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
(b1c2 − b2c1 ) 2 + (c1a2 − c2 a1 ) 2 + (a1b2 − a2b1 ) 2
r r r r r r
® Distance between parallel lines r = a1 + λ b and r = a2 + µ b is
r r r
b × (a2 − a1 )
r
|b |
—v —
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394 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 12
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
12.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have discussed systems of linear
equations and their applications in day to day problems. In
Class XI, we have studied linear inequalities and systems
of linear inequalities in two variables and their solutions by
graphical method. Many applications in mathematics
involve systems of inequalities/equations. In this chapter,
we shall apply the systems of linear inequalities/equations
to solve some real life problems of the type as given below:
A furniture dealer deals in only two items–tables and
chairs. He has Rs 50,000 to invest and has storage space
of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs 2500 and a chair
Rs 500. He estimates that from the sale of one table, he
can make a profit of Rs 250 and that from the sale of one L. Kantorovich
chair a profit of Rs 75. He wants to know how many tables and chairs he should buy
from the available money so as to maximise his total profit, assuming that he can sell all
the items which he buys.
Such type of problems which seek to maximise (or, minimise) profit (or, cost) form
a general class of problems called optimisation problems. Thus, an optimisation
problem may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of
resources etc.
A special but a very important class of optimisation problems is linear programming
problem. The above stated optimisation problem is an example of linear programming
problem. Linear programming problems are of much interest because of their wide
applicability in industry, commerce, management science etc.
In this chapter, we shall study some linear programming problems and their solutions
by graphical method only, though there are many other methods also to solve such
problems.
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396 MATHEMATICS
The dealer wants to invest in such a way so as to maximise his profit, say, Z which
stated as a function of x and y is given by
Z = 250x + 75y (called objective function) ... (5)
Mathematically, the given problems now reduces to:
Maximise Z = 250x + 75y
subject to the constraints:
5x + y ≤ 100
x + y ≤ 60
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
So, we have to maximise the linear function Z subject to certain conditions determined
by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. There are also some other
problems where we have to minimise a linear function subject to certain conditions
determined by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. Such problems
are called Linear Programming Problems.
Thus, a Linear Programming Problem is one that is concerned with finding the
optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear function (called objective
function) of several variables (say x and y), subject to the conditions that the variables
are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
The term linear implies that all the mathematical relations used in the problem are
linear relations while the term programming refers to the method of determining a
particular programme or plan of action.
Before we proceed further, we now formally define some terms (which have been
used above) which we shall be using in the linear programming problems:
Objective function Linear function Z = ax + by, where a, b are constants, which has
to be maximised or minimized is called a linear objective function.
In the above example, Z = 250x + 75y is a linear objective function. Variables x and
y are called decision variables.
Constraints The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the variables of a
linear programming problem are called constraints. The conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are
called non-negative restrictions. In the above example, the set of inequalities (1) to (4)
are constraints.
Optimisation problem A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear
function (say of two variables x and y) subject to certain constraints as determined by
a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear programming
problems are special type of optimisation problems. The above problem of investing a
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING 397
given sum by the dealer in purchasing chairs and tables is an example of an optimisation
problem as well as of a linear programming problem.
We will now discuss how to find solutions to a linear programming problem. In this
chapter, we will be concerned only with the graphical method.
12.2.2 Graphical method of solving linear programming problems
In Class XI, we have learnt how to graph a system of linear inequalities involving two
variables x and y and to find its solutions graphically. Let us refer to the problem of
investment in tables and chairs discussed in Section 12.2. We will now solve this problem
graphically. Let us graph the constraints stated as linear inequalities:
5x + y ≤ 100 ... (1)
x + y ≤ 60 ... (2)
x≥0 ... (3)
y≥0 ... (4)
The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all half
planes determined by the inequalities (1) to (4) (Fig 12.1). Each point in this region
represents a feasible choice open to the dealer for investing in tables and chairs. The
region, therefore, is called the feasible region for the problem. Every point of this
region is called a feasible solution to the problem. Thus, we have,
Feasible region The common region determined by all the constraints including
non-negative constraints x, y ≥ 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible
region (or solution region) for the problem. In Fig 12.1, the region OABC (shaded) is
the feasible region for the problem. The region other than feasible region is called an
infeasible region.
Feasible solutions Points within and on the
boundary of the feasible region represent
feasible solutions of the constraints. In
Fig 12.1, every point within and on the
boundary of the feasible region OABC
represents feasible solution to the problem.
For example, the point (10, 50) is a feasible
solution of the problem and so are the points
(0, 60), (20, 0) etc.
Any point outside the feasible region is
called an infeasible solution. For example,
the point (25, 40) is an infeasible solution of
the problem. Fig 12.1
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398 MATHEMATICS
Optimal (feasible) solution: Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
Now, we see that every point in the feasible region OABC satisfies all the constraints
as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely many points, it is not evident how
we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value of the objective function
Z = 250x + 75y. To handle this situation, we use the following theorems which are
fundamental in solving linear programming problems. The proofs of these theorems
are beyond the scope of the book.
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming
problem and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value
(maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described
by linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point* (vertex) of the
feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let
Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded**, then the objective function
Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a
corner point (vertex) of R.
* A corner point of a feasible region is a point in the region which is the intersection of two boundary lines.
** A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed within a
circle. Otherwise, it is called unbounded. Unbounded means that the feasible region does extend
indefinitely in any direction.
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING 399
We observe that the maximum profit to the dealer results from the investment
strategy (10, 50), i.e. buying 10 tables and 50 chairs.
This method of solving linear programming problem is referred as Corner Point
Method. The method comprises of the following steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its
corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of
the lines intersecting at that point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m,
respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.
3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and
minimum values of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
4. (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no minimum value.
We will now illustrate these steps of Corner Point Method by considering some
examples:
Example 1 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Maximise Z = 4x + y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
x + y ≤ 50 ... (2)
3x + y ≤ 90 ... (3)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.2 is the feasible region determined by the system
of constraints (2) to (4). We observe that the feasible region OABC is bounded. So,
we now use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum value of Z.
The coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (30, 0), (20, 30) and
(0, 50) respectively. Now we evaluate Z at each corner point.
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400 MATHEMATICS
Fig 12.2
Hence, maximum value of Z is 120 at the point (30, 0).
Example 2 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Minimise Z = 200 x + 500 y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
x + 2y ≥ 10 ... (2)
3x + 4y ≤ 24 ... (3)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.3 is the feasible region ABC determined by the
system of constraints (2) to (4), which is bounded. The coordinates of corner points
Fig 12.3
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING 401
A, B and C are (0,5), (4,3) and (0,6) respectively. Now we evaluate Z = 200x + 500y
at these points.
Hence, minimum value of Z is 2300 attained at the point (4, 3)
Example 3 Solve the following problem graphically:
Minimise and Maximise Z = 3x + 9y ... (1)
subject to the constraints: x + 3y ≤ 60 ... (2)
x + y ≥ 10 ... (3)
x≤y ... (4)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ... (5)
Solution First of all, let us graph the feasible region of the system of linear inequalities
(2) to (5). The feasible region ABCD is shown in the Fig 12.4. Note that the region is
bounded. The coordinates of the corner points A, B, C and D are (0, 10), (5, 5), (15,15)
and (0, 20) respectively.
Fig 12.4
We now find the minimum and maximum value of Z. From the table, we find that
the minimum value of Z is 60 at the point B (5, 5) of the feasible region.
The maximum value of Z on the feasible region occurs at the two corner points
C (15, 15) and D (0, 20) and it is 180 in each case.
Remark Observe that in the above example, the problem has multiple optimal solutions
at the corner points C and D, i.e. the both points produce same maximum value 180. In
such cases, you can see that every point on the line segment CD joining the two corner
points C and D also give the same maximum value. Same is also true in the case if the
two points produce same minimum value.
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402 MATHEMATICS
Fig 12.5
From this table, we find that – 300 is the smallest value of Z at the corner point
(6, 0). Can we say that minimum value of Z is – 300? Note that if the region would
have been bounded, this smallest value of Z is the minimum value of Z (Theorem 2).
But here we see that the feasible region is unbounded. Therefore, – 300 may or may
not be the minimum value of Z. To decide this issue, we graph the inequality
– 50x + 20y < – 300 (see Step 3(ii) of corner Point Method.)
i.e., – 5x + 2y < – 30
and check whether the resulting open half plane has points in common with feasible
region or not. If it has common points, then –300 will not be the minimum value of Z.
Otherwise, –300 will be the minimum value of Z.
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING 403
EXERCISE 12.1
Solve the following Linear Programming Problems graphically:
1. Maximise Z = 3x + 4y
subject to the constraints : x + y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
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404 MATHEMATICS
2. Minimise Z = – 3x + 4 y
subject to x + 2y ≤ 8, 3x + 2y ≤ 12, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
3. Maximise Z = 5x + 3y
subject to 3x + 5y ≤ 15, 5x + 2y ≤ 10, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
4. Minimise Z = 3x + 5y
such that x + 3y ≥ 3, x + y ≥ 2, x, y ≥ 0.
5. Maximise Z = 3x + 2y
subject to x + 2y ≤ 10, 3x + y ≤ 15, x, y ≥ 0.
6. Minimise Z = x + 2y
subject to 2x + y ≥ 3, x + 2y ≥ 6, x, y ≥ 0.
Show that the minimum of Z occurs at more than two points.
7. Minimise and Maximise Z = 5x + 10 y
subject to x + 2y ≤ 120, x + y ≥ 60, x – 2y ≥ 0, x, y ≥ 0.
8. Minimise and Maximise Z = x + 2y
subject to x + 2y ≥ 100, 2x – y ≤ 0, 2x + y ≤ 200; x, y ≥ 0.
9. Maximise Z = – x + 2y, subject to the constraints:
x ≥ 3, x + y ≥ 5, x + 2y ≥ 6, y ≥ 0.
10. Maximise Z = x + y, subject to x – y ≤ –1, –x + y ≤ 0, x, y ≥ 0.
Summary
® A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of a linear function of several variables (called
objective function) subject to the conditions that the variables are
non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
Variables are sometimes called decision variables and are non-negative.
Historical Note
In the World War II, when the war operations had to be planned to economise
expenditure, maximise damage to the enemy, linear programming problems
came to the forefront.
The first problem in linear programming was formulated in 1941 by the Russian
mathematician, L. Kantorovich and the American economist, F. L. Hitchcock,
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LINEAR PROGRAMMING 405
both of whom worked at it independently of each other. This was the well
known transportation problem. In 1945, an English economist, G.Stigler,
described yet another linear programming problem – that of determining an
optimal diet.
In 1947, the American economist, G. B. Dantzig suggested an efficient method
known as the simplex method which is an iterative procedure to solve any
linear programming problem in a finite number of steps.
L. Katorovich and American mathematical economist, T. C. Koopmans were
awarded the nobel prize in the year 1975 in economics for their pioneering
work in linear programming. With the advent of computers and the necessary
softwares, it has become possible to apply linear programming model to
increasingly complex problems in many areas.
—v—
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406 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 13
PROBABILITY
13.1 Introduction
In earlier Classes, we have studied the probability as a
measure of uncertainty of events in a random experiment.
We discussed the axiomatic approach formulated by
Russian Mathematician, A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987)
and treated probability as a function of outcomes of the
experiment. We have also established equivalence between
the axiomatic theory and the classical theory of probability
in case of equally likely outcomes. On the basis of this
relationship, we obtained probabilities of events associated
with discrete sample spaces. We have also studied the
addition rule of probability. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the important concept of conditional probability of an event
given that another event has occurred, which will be helpful
in understanding the Bayes' theorem, multiplication rule of Pierre de Fermat
probability and independence of events. We shall also learn (1601-1665)
an important concept of random variable and its probability
distribution and also the mean and variance of a probability distribution. In the last
section of the chapter, we shall study an important discrete probability distribution
called Binomial distribution. Throughout this chapter, we shall take up the experiments
having equally likely outcomes, unless stated otherwise.
13.2 Conditional Probability
Uptill now in probability, we have discussed the methods of finding the probability of
events. If we have two events from the same sample space, does the information
about the occurrence of one of the events affect the probability of the other event? Let
us try to answer this question by taking up a random experiment in which the outcomes
are equally likely to occur.
Consider the experiment of tossing three fair coins. The sample space of the
experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
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PROBABILITY 407
1
Since the coins are fair, we can assign the probability
to each sample point. Let
8
E be the event ‘at least two heads appear’ and F be the event ‘first coin shows tail’.
Then
E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
and F = {THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Therefore P(E) = P ({HHH}) + P ({HHT}) + P ({HTH}) + P ({THH})
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + = (Why ?)
8 8 8 8 2
and P(F) = P ({THH}) + P ({THT}) + P ({TTH}) + P ({TTT})
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =
8 8 8 8 2
Also E ∩ F = {THH}
1
with P(E ∩ F) = P({THH}) =
8
Now, suppose we are given that the first coin shows tail, i.e. F occurs, then what is
the probability of occurrence of E? With the information of occurrence of F, we are
sure that the cases in which first coin does not result into a tail should not be considered
while finding the probability of E. This information reduces our sample space from the
set S to its subset F for the event E. In other words, the additional information really
amounts to telling us that the situation may be considered as being that of a new
random experiment for which the sample space consists of all those outcomes only
which are favourable to the occurrence of the event F.
Now, the sample point of F which is favourable to event E is THH.
1
Thus, Probability of E considering F as the sample space = ,
4
1
or Probability of E given that the event F has occurred =
4
This probability of the event E is called the conditional probability of E given
that F has already occurred, and is denoted by P (E|F).
1
Thus P(E|F) =
4
Note that the elements of F which favour the event E are the common elements of
E and F, i.e. the sample points of E ∩ F.
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408 MATHEMATICS
Thus, we can also write the conditional probability of E given that F has occurred as
Number of elementary eventsfavourable to E ∩ F
P(E|F) =
Number of elementaryevents which arefavourable to F
n (E ∩ F)
=
n (F)
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by total number of elementary events
of the sample space, we see that P(E|F) can also be written as
n(E ∩ F)
n(S) P(E ∩ F)
P(E|F) = = ... (1)
n(F) P(F)
n(S)
Note that (1) is valid only when P(F) ≠ 0 i.e., F ≠ φ (Why?)
Thus, we can define the conditional probability as follows :
Definition 1 If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a
random experiment, the conditional probability of the event E given that F has occurred,
i.e. P (E|F) is given by
P (E ∩ F)
P(E|F) = provided P(F) ≠ 0
P(F)
P (F ∩ F) P(F)
Also P(F|F) = = =1
P (F) P(F)
Thus P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1
Property 2 If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event
of S such that P(F) ≠ 0, then
P((A ∪ B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F) – P((A ∩ B)|F)
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PROBABILITY 409
P[(A ∩ F) ∪ (B ∩ F)]
=
P (F)
(by distributive law of union of sets over intersection)
P (A ∩ F) + P(B ∩ F) – P(A ∩ B ∩ F)
=
P (F)
P (A ∩ F) P (B ∩ F) P[(A ∩ B) ∩ F]
= + −
P(F) P(F) P(F)
= P (A|F) + P (B|F) – P ((A ∩ B)|F)
When A and B are disjoint events, then
P ((A ∩ B)|F) = 0
⇒ P ((A ∪ B)|F) = P (A|F) + P(B|F)
Property 3 P (E′|F) = 1 − P (E|F)
From Property 1, we know that P(S|F) = 1
⇒ P (E ∪ E′|F) = 1 since S = E ∪ E′
⇒ P(E|F) + P (E′|F) = 1 since E and E′ are disjoint events
Thus, P (E′|F) = 1 − P (E|F)
Let us now take up some examples.
7 9 4
Example 1 If P (A) = , P(B) = and P (A ∩ B) = , evaluate P (A|B).
13 13 13
4
P (A ∩ B) 13 4
Solution We have P(A|B) = = =
P ( B) 9 9
13
Example 2 A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are
boys given that at least one of them is a boy ?
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410 MATHEMATICS
Solution Let b stand for boy and g for girl. The sample space of the experiment is
S = {(b, b), (g, b), (b, g), (g, g)}
Let E and F denote the following events :
E : ‘both the children are boys’
F : ‘at least one of the child is a boy’
Then E = {(b,b)} and F = {(b,b), (g,b), (b,g)}
Now E ∩ F = {(b,b)}
3 1
Thus P (F) = and P (E ∩ F )=
4 4
1
P (E ∩ F) 4 1
Therefore P (E|F) = = =
P ( F) 3 3
4
Example 3 Ten cards numbered 1 to 10 are placed in a box, mixed up thoroughly and
then one card is drawn randomly. If it is known that the number on the drawn card is
more than 3, what is the probability that it is an even number?
Solution Let A be the event ‘the number on the card drawn is even’ and B be the
event ‘the number on the card drawn is greater than 3’. We have to find P(A|B).
Now, the sample space of the experiment is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Then A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
and A ∩ B = {4, 6, 8, 10}
5 7 4
Also P(A) = , P ( B) = and P (A ∩ B) =
10 10 10
4
P (A ∩ B) 10 4
Then P(A|B) = = =
P ( B) 7 7
10
Example 4 In a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. It is known
that out of 430, 10% of the girls study in class XII. What is the probability that a student
chosen randomly studies in Class XII given that the chosen student is a girl?
Solution Let E denote the event that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII
and F be the event that the randomly chosen student is a girl. We have to find P (E|F).
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PROBABILITY 411
430 43
Now P(F) = = 0.43 and P( E ∩ F) = = 0.043 (Why?)
1000 1000
P (E ∩ F) 0.043
Then P(E|F) = = = 0.1
P( F) 0.43
Example 5 A die is thrown three times. Events A and B are defined as below:
A : 4 on the third throw
B : 6 on the first and 5 on the second throw
Find the probability of A given that B has already occurred.
Solution The sample space has 216 outcomes.
1
P (A ∩ B) 216 1
Then P(A|B) = = =
P(B) 6 6
216
Example 6 A die is thrown twice and the sum of the numbers appearing is observed
to be 6. What is the conditional probability that the number 4 has appeared at least
once?
Solution Let E be the event that ‘number 4 appears at least once’ and F be the event
that ‘the sum of the numbers appearing is 6’.
Then, E = {(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (1,4), (2,4), (3,4), (5,4), (6,4)}
and F = {(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)}
11 5
We have P(E) = and P (F) =
36 36
Also E ∩ F = {(2,4), (4,2)}
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412 MATHEMATICS
2
Therefore P(E ∩ F) =
36
Hence, the required probability
2
P (E ∩ F) 36 2
P (E|F) = = =
P (F) 5 5
36
For the conditional probability discussed above, we have considered the elemen-
tary events of the experiment to be equally likely and the corresponding definition of
the probability of an event was used. However, the same definition can also be used in
the general case where the elementary events of the sample space are not equally
likely, the probabilities P (E ∩ F) and P (F) being calculated accordingly. Let us take up
the following example.
Example 7 Consider the experiment of tossing a coin. If the coin shows head, toss it
again but if it shows tail, then throw a die. Find the
conditional probability of the event that ‘the die shows
a number greater than 4’ given that ‘there is at least
one tail’.
Solution The outcomes of the experiment can be
represented in following diagrammatic manner called
the ‘tree diagram’.
The sample space of the experiment may be
Fig 13.1
described as
S = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
where (H, H) denotes that both the tosses result into
head and (T, i) denote the first toss result into a tail and
the number i appeared on the die for i = 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Thus, the probabilities assigned to the 8 elementary
events
(H, H), (H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3) (T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
are , , , , , , , respectively which is
4 4 12 12 12 12 12 12
clear from the Fig 13.2. Fig 13.2
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PROBABILITY 413
Let F be the event that ‘there is at least one tail’ and E be the event ‘the die shows
a number greater than 4’. Then
F = {(H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
E = {(T,5), (T,6)} and E ∩ F = {(T,5), (T,6)}
Now P (F) = P({(H,T)}) + P ({(T,1)}) + P ({(T,2)}) + P ({(T,3)})
+ P ({(T,4)}) + P({(T,5)}) + P({(T,6)})
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= + + + + + + =
4 12 12 12 12 12 12 4
1 1 1
and P (E ∩ F) = P ({(T,5)}) + P ({(T,6)}) = + =
12 12 6
1
P (E ∩ F) 6 2
Hence P(E|F) = = =
P (F) 3 9
4
EXERCISE 13.1
1. Given that E and F are events such that P(E) = 0.6, P(F) = 0.3 and
P(E ∩ F) = 0.2, find P (E|F) and P (F|E)
2. Compute P(A|B), if P(B) = 0.5 and P (A ∩ B) = 0.32
3. If P (A) = 0.8, P (B) = 0.5 and P (B|A) = 0.4, find
(i) P (A ∩ B) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(A ∪ B)
5 2
4. Evaluate P(A ∪ B), if 2P(A) = P(B) = and P(A|B) =
13 5
6 5 7
5. If P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A ∪ B) = , find
11 11 11
(i) P(A∩B) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(B|A)
Determine P(E|F) in Exercises 6 to 9.
6. A coin is tossed three times, where
(i) E : head on third toss , F : heads on first two tosses
(ii) E : at least two heads , F : at most two heads
(iii) E : at most two tails , F : at least one tail
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414 MATHEMATICS
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PROBABILITY 415
P (E ∩ F)
or P (F|E) = (since E ∩ F = F ∩ E)
P(E)
Thus, P(E ∩ F) = P(E). P(F|E) .... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we find that
P (E ∩ F) = P(E) P(F|E)
= P(F) P(E|F) provided P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F) ≠ 0.
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of probability.
Let us now take up an example.
Example 8 An urn contains 10 black and 5 white balls. Two balls are drawn from the
urn one after the other without replacement. What is the probability that both drawn
balls are black?
Solution Let E and F denote respectively the events that first and second ball drawn
are black. We have to find P (E ∩ F) or P (EF).
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416 MATHEMATICS
10
Now P (E) = P (black ball in first draw) =
15
Also given that the first ball drawn is black, i.e., event E has occurred, now there
are 9 black balls and five white balls left in the urn. Therefore, the probability that the
second ball drawn is black, given that the ball in the first draw is black, is nothing but
the conditional probability of F given that E has occurred.
9
i.e. P(F|E) =
14
By multiplication rule of probability, we have
P (E ∩ F) = P (E) P (F|E)
10 9 3
= × =
15 14 7
Multiplication rule of probability for more than two events If E, F and G are
three events of sample space, we have
P (E ∩ F ∩ G) = P (E) P (F|E) P (G|(E ∩ F)) = P (E) P (F|E) P (G|EF)
Similarly, the multiplication rule of probability can be extended for four or
more events.
The following example illustrates the extension of multiplication rule of probability
for three events.
Example 9 Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of
52 well shuffled cards. What is the probability that first two cards are kings and the
third card drawn is an ace?
Solution Let K denote the event that the card drawn is king and A be the event that
the card drawn is an ace. Clearly, we have to find P (KKA)
4
Now P(K) =
52
Also, P (K|K) is the probability of second king with the condition that one king has
already been drawn. Now there are three kings in (52 − 1) = 51 cards.
3
Therefore P(K|K) =
51
Lastly, P(A|KK) is the probability of third drawn card to be an ace, with the condition
that two kings have already been drawn. Now there are four aces in left 50 cards.
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PROBABILITY 417
4
Therefore P (A|KK) =
50
By multiplication law of probability, we have
P (KKA) = P(K) P(K|K) P(A|KK)
4 3 4 2
= × × =
52 51 50 5525
13.4 Independent Events
Consider the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of 52 playing cards, in which
the elementary events are assumed to be equally likely. If E and F denote the events
'the card drawn is a spade' and 'the card drawn is an ace' respectively, then
13 1 4 1
P(E) = = and P(F) = =
52 4 52 13
Also E and F is the event ' the card drawn is the ace of spades' so that
1
P(E ∩ F) =
52
1
P (E ∩ F) 52 1
Hence P(E|F) = = =
P (F) 1 4
13
1
Since P(E) = = P (E|F), we can say that the occurrence of event F has not
4
affected the probability of occurrence of the event E.
We also have
1
P (E ∩ F) 52 1
P(F|E) = = = = P(F)
P(E) 1 13
4
1
Again, P (F) = = P (F|E) shows that occurrence of event E has not affected
13
the probability of occurrence of the event F.
Thus, E and F are two events such that the probability of occurrence of one of
them is not affected by occurrence of the other.
Such events are called independent events.
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418 MATHEMATICS
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PROBABILITY 419
If at least one of the above is not true for three given events, we say that the
events are not independent.
Example 10 A die is thrown. If E is the event ‘the number appearing is a multiple of
3’ and F be the event ‘the number appearing is even’ then find whether E and F are
independent ?
Solution We know that the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Now E = { 3, 6}, F = { 2, 4, 6} and E ∩ F = {6}
2 1 3 1 1
Then P (E) = = , P(F) = = and P (E ∩ F) =
6 3 6 2 6
Clearly P (E ∩ F) = P(E). P (F)
Hence E and F are independent events.
Example 11 An unbiased die is thrown twice. Let the event A be ‘odd number on the
first throw’ and B the event ‘odd number on the second throw’. Check the independence
of the events A and B.
Solution If all the 36 elementary events of the experiment are considered to be equally
likely, we have
18 1 18 1
P(A) = = and P (B) = =
36 2 36 2
Also P (A ∩ B) = P (odd number on both throws)
9 1
= =
36 4
1 1 1
Now P (A) P(B) = × =
2 2 4
Clearly P (A ∩ B) = P (A) × P (B)
Thus, A and B are independent events
Example 12 Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Consider the event E ‘three heads
or three tails’, F ‘at least two heads’ and G ‘at most two heads’. Of the pairs (E,F),
(E,G) and (F,G), which are independent? which are dependent?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is given by
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Clearly E = {HHH, TTT}, F= {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
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420 MATHEMATICS
2 1 4 1 7
Therefore P (E) = = , P (F) = = , P(G) =
8 4 8 2 8
1 1 3
and P (E ∩F) = , P (E ∩ G) = , P(F ∩ G) =
8 8 8
1 1 1 1 7 7
Also P(E) . P (F) = × = , P(E) ⋅ P(G) = × =
4 2 8 4 8 32
1 7 7
and P(F) . P(G) = × =
2 8 16
Thus P (E ∩ F) = P(E) . P(F)
P (E ∩ G) ≠ P(E) . P(G)
and P (F ∩ G) ≠ P (F) . P(G)
Hence, the events (E and F) are independent, and the events (E and G) and
(F and G) are dependent.
Example 13 Prove that if E and F are independent events, then so are the events
E and F′.
Solution Since E and F are independent, we have
P (E ∩ F) = P(E) . P(F) ....(1)
From the venn diagram in Fig 13.3, it is clear
that E ∩ F and E ∩ F ′ are mutually exclusive events (E ’ ∩ F ’ ) S
E F
and also E =(E ∩ F) ∪ (E ∩ F′).
Therefore P (E) = P(E ∩ F) + P(E ∩ F′)
or P (E ∩ F′) = P(E) − P(E ∩ F)
(E ∩ F ’ ) (E ’∩ F)
= P(E) − P(E) . P(F) (E ∩ F)
(by (1)) Fig 13.3
= P(E) (1−P(F))
= P(E). P(F′)
Hence, E and F′ are independent
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PROBABILITY 421
A Note In a similar manner, it can be shown that if the events E and F are
independent, then
(a) E′ and F are independent,
(b) E′ and F′ are independent
Example 14 If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence
of at least one of A and B is given by 1– P(A′) P(B′)
Solution We have
P (at least one of A and B) = P(A ∪ B)
= P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
= P(A) + P(B) − P(A) P(B)
= P(A) + P(B) [1−P(A)]
= P(A) + P(B). P(A′)
= 1− P(A′) + P(B) P(A′)
= 1− P(A′) [1− P(B)]
= 1− P(A′) P (B′)
EXERCISE 13.2
3 1
1. If P(A) = and P (B) = , find P (A ∩ B) if A and B are independent events.
5 5
2. Two cards are drawn at random and without replacement from a pack of 52
playing cards. Find the probability that both the cards are black.
3. A box of oranges is inspected by examining three randomly selected oranges
drawn without replacement. If all the three oranges are good, the box is approved
for sale, otherwise, it is rejected. Find the probability that a box containing 15
oranges out of which 12 are good and 3 are bad ones will be approved for sale.
4. A fair coin and an unbiased die are tossed. Let A be the event ‘head appears on
the coin’ and B be the event ‘3 on the die’. Check whether A and B are
independent events or not.
5. A die marked 1, 2, 3 in red and 4, 5, 6 in green is tossed. Let A be the event,
‘the number is even,’ and B be the event, ‘the number is red’. Are A and B
independent?
3 3 1
6. Let E and F be events with P (E) = , P (F) = and P (E ∩ F) = . Are
5 10 5
E and F independent?
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422 MATHEMATICS
1 3
7. Given that the events A and B are such that P(A) = , P(A ∪ B) = and
2 5
P(B) = p. Find p if they are (i) mutually exclusive (ii) independent.
8. Let A and B be independent events with P (A) = 0.3 and P(B) = 0.4. Find
(i) P (A ∩ B) (ii) P (A ∪ B)
(iii) P (A|B) (iv) P (B|A)
1 1 1
9. If A and B are two events such that P(A) = , P (B) = and P (A ∩ B) = ,
4 2 8
find P (not A and not B).
1 7 1
10. Events A and B are such that P (A) = , P(B) = and P(not A or not B) = .
2 12 4
State whether A and B are independent ?
11. Given two independent events A and B such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.6.
Find
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A and not B)
(iii) P(A or B) (iv) P(neither A nor B)
12. A die is tossed thrice. Find the probability of getting an odd number at least once.
13. Two balls are drawn at random with replacement from a box containing 10 black
and 8 red balls. Find the probability that
(i) both balls are red.
(ii) first ball is black and second is red.
(iii) one of them is black and other is red.
1 1
14. Probability of solving specific problem independently by A and B are and
2 3
respectively. If both try to solve the problem independently, find the probability
that
(i) the problem is solved (ii) exactly one of them solves the problem.
15. One card is drawn at random from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. In which of
the following cases are the events E and F independent ?
(i) E : ‘the card drawn is a spade’
F : ‘the card drawn is an ace’
(ii) E : ‘the card drawn is black’
F : ‘the card drawn is a king’
(iii) E : ‘the card drawn is a king or queen’
F : ‘the card drawn is a queen or jack’.
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PROBABILITY 423
16. In a hostel, 60% of the students read Hindi newspaper, 40% read English
newspaper and 20% read both Hindi and English newspapers. A student is
selected at random.
(a) Find the probability that she reads neither Hindi nor English newspapers.
(b) If she reads Hindi newspaper, find the probability that she reads English
newspaper.
(c) If she reads English newspaper, find the probability that she reads Hindi
newspaper.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 17 and 18.
17. The probability of obtaining an even prime number on each die, when a pair of
dice is rolled is
1 1 1
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D)
3 12 36
18. Two events A and B will be independent, if
(A) A and B are mutually exclusive
(B) P(A′B′) = [1 – P(A)] [1 – P(B)]
(C) P(A) = P(B)
(D) P(A) + P(B) = 1
13.5 Bayes' Theorem
Consider that there are two bags I and II. Bag I contains 2 white and 3 red balls and
Bag II contains 4 white and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the
1
bags. We can find the probability of selecting any of the bags (i.e. ) or probability of
2
drawing a ball of a particular colour (say white) from a particular bag (say Bag I). In
other words, we can find the probability that the ball drawn is of a particular colour, if
we are given the bag from which the ball is drawn. But, can we find the probability that
the ball drawn is from a particular bag (say Bag II), if the colour of the ball drawn is
given? Here, we have to find the reverse probability of Bag II to be selected when an
event occurred after it is known. Famous mathematician, John Bayes' solved the problem
of finding reverse probability by using conditional probability. The formula developed
by him is known as ‘Bayes theorem’ which was published posthumously in 1763.
Before stating and proving the Bayes' theorem, let us first take up a definition and
some preliminary results.
13.5.1 Partition of a sample space
A set of events E1, E2, ..., En is said to represent a partition of the sample space S if
(a) Ei ∩ Ej = φ, i ≠ j, i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
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424 MATHEMATICS
Proof Given that E1, E2,..., En is a partition of the sample space S (Fig 13.4). Therefore,
S = E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En ... (1)
and Ei ∩ Ej = φ, i ≠ j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
Now, we know that for any event A,
A=A∩S
= A ∩ (E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En)
= (A ∩ E1) ∪ (A ∩ E2) ∪ ...∪ (A ∩ En) Fig 13.4
Also A ∩ Ei and A ∩ Ej are respectively the subsets of Ei and Ej . We know that
Ei and Ej are disjoint, for i ≠ j , therefore, A ∩ Ei and A ∩ Ej are also disjoint for all
i ≠ j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Thus, P(A) = P [(A ∩ E1) ∪ (A ∩ E2)∪ .....∪ (A ∩ En)]
= P (A ∩ E1) + P (A ∩ E2) + ... + P (A ∩ En)
Now, by multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(A ∩ Ei) = P(Ei) P(A|Ei) as P (Ei) ≠ 0∀i = 1,2,..., n
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PROBABILITY 425
Example 15 A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65
that there will be strike, 0.80 that the construction job will be completed on time if there
is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time if there is a
strike. Determine the probability that the construction job will be completed on time.
Solution Let A be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B
be the event that there will be a strike. We have to find P(A).
We have
P(B) = 0.65, P(no strike) = P(B′) = 1 − P(B) = 1 − 0.65 = 0.35
P(A|B) = 0.32, P(A|B′) = 0.80
Since events B and B′ form a partition of the sample space S, therefore, by theorem
on total probability, we have
P(A) = P(B) P(A|B) + P(B′) P(A|B′)
= 0.65 × 0.32 + 0.35 × 0.8
= 0.208 + 0.28 = 0.488
Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is 0.488.
We shall now state and prove the Bayes' theorem.
Bayes’ Theorem If E1, E2 ,..., En are n non empty events which constitute a partition
of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2 ,..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1∪ E2∪ ... ∪ En = S and
A is any event of nonzero probability, then
P (Ei ) P (A|E i )
P(Ei|A) = n for any i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
∑ P(E j ) P(A|E j )
j=1
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426 MATHEMATICS
Remark The following terminology is generally used when Bayes' theorem is applied.
The events E1, E2, ..., En are called hypotheses.
The probability P(Ei) is called the priori probability of the hypothesis Ei
The conditional probability P(Ei |A) is called a posteriori probability of the
hypothesis Ei.
Bayes' theorem is also called the formula for the probability of "causes". Since the
Ei's are a partition of the sample space S, one and only one of the events Ei occurs (i.e.
one of the events Ei must occur and only one can occur). Hence, the above formula
gives us the probability of a particular Ei (i.e. a "Cause"), given that the event A has
occurred.
The Bayes' theorem has its applications in variety of situations, few of which are
illustrated in following examples.
Example 16 Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red
and 6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to
be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.
Solution Let E1 be the event of choosing the bag I, E2 the event of choosing the bag II
and A be the event of drawing a red ball.
1
Then P(E1) = P(E2) =
2
3
Also P(A|E1) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag I) =
7
5
and P(A|E2) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag II) =
11
Now, the probability of drawing a ball from Bag II, being given that it is red,
is P(E2|A)
By using Bayes' theorem, we have
1 5
×
P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) 2 11 35
P(E2|A) = = =
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 ) + P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) 1 3 1 5 68
× + ×
2 7 2 11
Example 17 Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In
box I, both coins are gold coins, in box II, both are silver coins and in the box III, there
is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a box at random and takes out a coin.
If the coin is of gold, what is the probability that the other coin in the box is also of gold?
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PROBABILITY 427
Solution Let E1, E2 and E3 be the events that boxes I, II and III are chosen, respectively.
1
Then P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) =
3
Also, let A be the event that ‘the coin drawn is of gold’
2
Then P(A|E1) = P(a gold coin from bag I) = =1
2
P(A|E2) = P(a gold coin from bag II) = 0
1
P(A|E3) = P(a gold coin from bag III) =
2
Now, the probability that the other coin in the box is of gold
= the probability that gold coin is drawn from the box I.
= P(E 1|A)
By Bayes' theorem, we know that
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 )
P(E1|A) =
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 )+ P(E 2 )P(A|E 2 ) + P(E3 )P (A|E3 )
1
×1
3 2
= =
1 1 1 1 3
×1 + × 0 + ×
3 3 3 2
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428 MATHEMATICS
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PROBABILITY 429
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430 MATHEMATICS
Example 21 A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and
reports that it is a six. Find the probability that it is actually a six.
Solution Let E be the event that the man reports that six occurs in the throwing of the
die and let S1 be the event that six occurs and S2 be the event that six does not occur.
1
Then P(S1) = Probability that six occurs =
6
5
P(S2) = Probability that six does not occur =
6
P(E|S1) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
actually occurred on the die
3
= Probability that the man speaks the truth =
4
P(E|S2) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
not actually occurred on the die
3 1
= Probability that the man does not speak the truth = 1 − =
4 4
Thus, by Bayes' theorem, we get
P(S1|E) = Probability that the report of the man that six has occurred is
actually a six
P(S1 ) P(E |S1 )
=
P(S1 ) P(E|S1 ) + P(S2 )P (E|S2 )
1 3
×
6 4 1 24 3
= = × =
1 3 5 1 8 8 8
× + ×
6 4 6 4
3
Hence, the required probability is .
8
Remark A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample
space of a random experiment.
For example, let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times in succession.
The sample space of the experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
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PROBABILITY 431
If X denotes the number of heads obtained, then X is a random variable and for
each outcome, its value is as given below :
X (HH) = 2, X (HT) = 1, X (TH) = 1, X (TT) = 0.
More than one random variables can be defined on the same sample space. For
example, let Y denote the number of heads minus the number of tails for each outcome
of the above sample space S.
Then Y (HH) = 2, Y (HT) = 0, Y (TH) = 0, Y (TT) = – 2.
Thus, X and Y are two different random variables defined on the same sample
space S.
EXERCISE 13.3
1. An urn contains 5 red and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random, its colour is
noted and is returned to the urn. Moreover, 2 additional balls of the colour drawn
are put in the urn and then a ball is drawn at random. What is the probability that
the second ball is red?
2. A bag contains 4 red and 4 black balls, another bag contains 2 red and 6 black
balls. One of the two bags is selected at random and a ball is drawn from the bag
which is found to be red. Find the probability that the ball is drawn from the
first bag.
3. Of the students in a college, it is known that 60% reside in hostel and 40% are
day scholars (not residing in hostel). Previous year results report that 30% of all
students who reside in hostel attain A grade and 20% of day scholars attain A
grade in their annual examination. At the end of the year, one student is chosen
at random from the college and he has an A grade, what is the probability that the
student is a hostlier?
4. In answering a question on a multiple choice test, a student either knows the
3 1
answer or guesses. Let be the probability that he knows the answer and
4 4
be the probability that he guesses. Assuming that a student who guesses at the
1
answer will be correct with probability . What is the probability that the stu-
4
dent knows the answer given that he answered it correctly?
5. A laboratory blood test is 99% effective in detecting a certain disease when it is
in fact, present. However, the test also yields a false positive result for 0.5% of
the healthy person tested (i.e. if a healthy person is tested, then, with probability
0.005, the test will imply he has the disease). If 0.1 percent of the population
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432 MATHEMATICS
actually has the disease, what is the probability that a person has the disease
given that his test result is positive ?
6. There are three coins. One is a two headed coin (having head on both faces),
another is a biased coin that comes up heads 75% of the time and third is an
unbiased coin. One of the three coins is chosen at random and tossed, it shows
heads, what is the probability that it was the two headed coin ?
7. An insurance company insured 2000 scooter drivers, 4000 car drivers and 6000
truck drivers. The probability of an accidents are 0.01, 0.03 and 0.15 respectively.
One of the insured persons meets with an accident. What is the probability that
he is a scooter driver?
8. A factory has two machines A and B. Past record shows that machine A produced
60% of the items of output and machine B produced 40% of the items. Further,
2% of the items produced by machine A and 1% produced by machine B were
defective. All the items are put into one stockpile and then one item is chosen at
random from this and is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was
produced by machine B?
9. Two groups are competing for the position on the Board of directors of a
corporation. The probabilities that the first and the second groups will win are
0.6 and 0.4 respectively. Further, if the first group wins, the probability of
introducing a new product is 0.7 and the corresponding probability is 0.3 if the
second group wins. Find the probability that the new product introduced was by
the second group.
10. Suppose a girl throws a die. If she gets a 5 or 6, she tosses a coin three times and
notes the number of heads. If she gets 1, 2, 3 or 4, she tosses a coin once and
notes whether a head or tail is obtained. If she obtained exactly one head, what
is the probability that she threw 1, 2, 3 or 4 with the die?
11. A manufacturer has three machine operators A, B and C. The first operator A
produces 1% defective items, where as the other two operators B and C pro-
duce 5% and 7% defective items respectively. A is on the job for 50% of the
time, B is on the job for 30% of the time and C is on the job for 20% of the time.
A defective item is produced, what is the probability that it was produced by A?
12. A card from a pack of 52 cards is lost. From the remaining cards of the pack,
two cards are drawn and are found to be both diamonds. Find the probability of
the lost card being a diamond.
4
13. Probability that A speaks truth is . A coin is tossed. A reports that a head
5
appears. The probability that actually there was head is
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PROBABILITY 433
4 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 2 5 5
14. If A and B are two events such that A ⊂ B and P(B) ≠ 0, then which of the
following is correct?
P (B)
(A) P(A | B) = (B) P(A|B) < P(A)
P (A)
(C) P(A|B) ≥ P(A) (D) None of these
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 22 Coloured balls are distributed in four boxes as shown in the following table:
Box Colour
I 3 4 5 6
II 2 2 2 2
III 1 2 3 1
IV 4 3 1 5
A box is selected at random and then a ball is randomly drawn from the selected
box. The colour of the ball is black, what is the probability that ball drawn is from the
box III?
Solution Let A, E1, E2, E3 and E4 be the events as defined below :
A : a black ball is selected E1 : box I is selected
E2 : box II is selected E3 : box III is selected
E4 : box IV is selected
Since the boxes are chosen at random,
1
Therefore P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = P(E4) =
4
3 2 1 4
Also P(A|E1) = , P(A|E2) = , P(A|E3) = and P(A|E4) =
18 8 7 13
P(box III is selected, given that the drawn ball is black) = P(E3|A). By Bayes'
theorem,
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434 MATHEMATICS
P(E 3 ) ⋅ P(A|E 3 )
P(E3|A) =
P(E1 )P(A|E1 ) + P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) + P(E3 ) P(A|E3 ) + P(E 4 ) P(A|E 4 )
1 1
×
4 7
= 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 = 0.165
× + × + × + ×
4 18 4 4 4 7 4 13
Example 23 A and B throw a die alternatively till one of them gets a ‘6’ and wins the
game. Find their respective probabilities of winning, if A starts first.
Solution Let S denote the success (getting a ‘6’) and F denote the failure (not getting
a ‘6’).
1 5
Thus, P(S) = , P(F) =
6 6
1
P(A wins in the first throw) = P(S) =
6
A gets the third throw, when the first throw by A and second throw by B result into
failures.
5 5 1
Therefore, P(A wins in the 3rd throw) = P(FFS) = P(F) P(F)P(S) = × ×
6 6 6
2
5 1
= ×
6 6
4
5 1
P(A wins in the 5th throw) = P (FFFFS) = and so on.
6 6
2 4
1 5 1 5 1
Hence, P(A wins) = + + + ...
6 6 6 6 6
1
6 6
= =
25 11
1−
36
6 5
P(B wins) = 1 – P (A wins) = 1 − =
11 11
Remark If a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 + ..., where | r | < 1, then sum of this infinite G.P.
a .
is given by (Refer A.1.3 of Class XI Text book).
1− r
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PROBABILITY 435
P (B1 ) P (A|B 1 )
Therefore P(B1|A) =
P (B1 ) P(A|B 1 ) + P (B2 ) P(A|B 2 )
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436 MATHEMATICS
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PROBABILITY 437
Summary
The salient features of the chapter are –
® The conditional probability of an event E, given the occurrence of the event F
P (E ∩ F)
is given by P(E | F) = , P(F) ≠ 0
P(F)
® 0 ≤ P (E|F) ≤ 1, P (E′|F) = 1 – P (E|F)
P ((E ∪ F)|G) = P (E|G) + P (F|G) – P ((E ∩ F)|G)
® P (E ∩ F) = P (E) P (F|E), P (E) ≠ 0
P (E ∩ F) = P (F) P (E|F), P (F) ≠ 0
® If E and F are independent, then
P (E ∩ F) = P (E) P (F)
P (E|F) = P (E), P (F) ≠ 0
P (F|E) = P (F), P(E) ≠ 0
® Theorem of total probability
Let {E1, E2, ...,En) be a partition of a sample space and suppose that each of
E1, E2, ..., En has nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
then
P(A) = P(E1) P (A|E1) + P (E2) P (A|E2) + ... + P (En) P(A|En)
® Bayes' theorem If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute a partition of
sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1 4 E2 4 ... 4 En = S
and A be any event with nonzero probability, then
P(E i ) P(A|Ei )
P(E i | A) = n
∑ P(E j ) P (A|E j )
j =1
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438 MATHEMATICS
Historical Note
The earliest indication on measurement of chances in game of dice appeared
in 1477 in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy. A treatise on gambling
named liber de Ludo Alcae, by Geronimo Carden (1501-1576) was published
posthumously in 1663. In this treatise, he gives the number of favourable cases
for each event when two dice are thrown.
Galileo (1564-1642) gave casual remarks concerning the correct evaluation
of chance in a game of three dice. Galileo analysed that when three dice are
thrown, the sum of the number that appear is more likely to be 10 than the sum 9,
because the number of cases favourable to 10 are more than the number of
cases for the appearance of number 9.
Apart from these early contributions, it is generally acknowledged that the
true origin of the science of probability lies in the correspondence between two
great men of the seventeenth century, Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665). A French gambler, Chevalier de Metre asked Pascal to explain
some seeming contradiction between his theoretical reasoning and the
observation gathered from gambling. In a series of letters written around 1654,
Pascal and Fermat laid the first foundation of science of probability. Pascal solved
the problem in algebraic manner while Fermat used the method of combinations.
Great Dutch Scientist, Huygens (1629-1695), became acquainted with the
content of the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat and published a first
book on probability, "De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae" containing solution of many
interesting rather than difficult problems on probability in games of chances.
The next great work on probability theory is by Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705),
in the form of a great book, "Ars Conjectendi" published posthumously in 1713
by his nephew, Nicholes Bernoulli. To him is due the discovery of one of the most
important probability distribution known as Binomial distribution. The next
remarkable work on probability lies in 1993. A. N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) is
credited with the axiomatic theory of probability. His book, ‘Foundations of
probability’ published in 1933, introduces probability as a set function and is
considered a ‘classic!’.
—v—
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