Cec345 Unit 1

CEC345/Optical Communication and Networking Unit 1
UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
Introduction - The General Systems - Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication- Ray Theory
Transmission : Total Internal Reflection, Acceptance Angle, Numerical Aperture, Skew Rays -
Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation: Modes in a Planar Guide, Phase and group
velocity - Cylindrical Fiber: Step index fibers, Graded index fibers - Single mode fibers: Cutoff
wavelength
Introduction
Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to
another. When the information is to be conveyed over any distance a communication system is usually
required.
Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently achieved by
superimposing or modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier
for the information signal. This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination
where it is received and the original information signal is obtained by demodulation.
Sophisticated techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier
waves operating at radio frequencies as well as microwave and millimeter wave frequencies.
However, ‘communication’ may also be achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is selected
from the optical range of frequencies.
Explain in detail about fibre optic communication system and its advantages.
The General System
An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of
communication system. A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in Figure
below, the function of which is to convey the signal from the information source over the transmission
medium to the destination.
The communication system therefore consists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the

information source, the transmission medium, and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point.
In electrical communications the information source provides an electrical signal, usually
derived from a message signal which is not electrical (e.g. sound), to a transmitter comprising
electrical and electronic components which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation
over the transmission medium.
This is often achieved by modulating a carrier, which, as mentioned previously, may be an
electromagnetic wave. The transmission medium can consist of a pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a
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Prepared By Mrs. V.Uvaranjani, AP/ECE/KCET
radio link through free space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver, where it is
transformed into the original electrical information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the
destination.
For optical fiber communications the system shown in Figure (a) may be considered in
slightly greater detail, as given in Figure (b). In this case the information source provides an electrical
signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation
of the lightwave carrier.
The optical source which provides the electrical–optical conversion may be either a
semiconductor laser or light-emitting diode (LED). The transmission medium consists of an optical
fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical detector which drives a further electrical stage and
hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier.
The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information signal.
In the system shown in Figure 1.2(b) analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted
from the optical source in a continuous manner.
Advantages of optical fiber communication
Communication using an optical carrier wave guided along a glass fiber has a number of
extremely attractive features, several of which were apparent when the technique was originally
conceived.
(a) Enormous potential bandwidth.
(b) Small size and weight.
(c) Electrical isolation..
(d) Immunity to interference and crosstalk.
(e) Signal security.
(f) Low transmission loss.
(g) Ruggedness and flexibility.
(h) System reliability and ease of maintenance.
Elaborate in detail about Ray Theory transmission.
Explain about a) Total Internal Reflection b) Acceptance Angle c) Numerical Aperature d)
Skew rays
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Ray theory transmission

The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum
to the velocity of light in the medium. A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense
medium than in one that is less dense, and the refractive index gives a measure of this effect.
When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of differing refractive
indices (e.g. glass–air), refraction occurs, as illustrated in Figure below. It may be observed that
the ray approaching the interface is propagating in a dielectric of refractive index n1 and is at an
angle φ 1 to the normal at the surface of the interface.
Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g. glass–air): (a) refraction;
(b) the limiting case of refraction showing the critical ray at an angle φ c; (c) total internal
reflection where φ > φ c
If the dielectric on the other side of the interface has a refractive index n2 which is less than
n1, then the refraction is such that the ray path in this lower index medium is at an angle φ 2 to the
normal, where φ 2 is greater than φ 1.
The angles of incidence φ 1 and refraction φ 2 are related to each other and to the refractive
indices of the dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction, which states that:
n1 sin φ 1 = n2 sin φ 2 or sin φ1 / sin φ2 = n1/n2
It may also be observed in Figure (a) that a small amount of light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium (partial internal reflection). As n1 is greater than n2, the angle of
refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence.
Thus when the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°. This is the limiting
case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known as the critical angle φ c, as shown in
Figure (b). From the above equation the value of critical angle is given by , sin φ c = n1/n2.
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At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium (total internal reflection) with high efficiency (around 99.9%).
Hence, it may be observed in Figure (c) that total internal reflection occurs at the interface
between two dielectrics of differing refractive indices when light is incident on the dielectric of
lower index from the dielectric of higher index, and the angle of incidence of the ray exceeds the
critical value.
This is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently shallow angle (less than 90° − φ c)
may be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with low loss. The figure below illustrates
the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a series of total internal reflections at the
interface of the silica core and the slightly lower refractive index silica cladding.
The ray has an angle of incidence φ at the interface which is greater than the critical angle
and is reflected at the same angle to the normal. The light ray shown in Figure is known as a
meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber core. This type of ray is the simplest to
describe and is generally used when illustrating the fundamental transmission properties of optical
fibers.
It must also be noted that the light transmission illustrated in Figure assumes a perfect fiber,
and that any discontinuities or imperfections at the core–cladding interface would probably result
in refraction rather than total internal reflection, with the subsequent loss of the light ray into the
cladding.
Acceptance angle
The propagation of light in an optical fiber through total internal reflection at the core–
cladding interface, it is useful to enlarge upon the geometric optics approach with reference to light
rays entering the fiber.
Since only rays with a sufficiently shallow grazing angle (i.e. with an angle to the normal
greater than φ c) at the core–cladding interface are transmitted by total internal reflection, it is clear
that not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
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The geometry concerned with launching a light ray into an optical fiber is shown in Figure
above, which illustrates a meridional ray A at the critical angle φ c within the fiber at the core–
cladding interface.
It may be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an angle θ a to the fiber axis and is
refracted at the air–core interface before transmission to the core–cladding interface at the critical
angle. Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than θ a will be
transmitted to the core–cladding interface at an angle less than φ c, and will not be totally internally
reflected.
This situation is also illustrated in Figure above, where the incident ray B at an angle greater
than θ a is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation. Thus for rays to be
transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be incident on the fiber core
within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle θ a.
Hence θ a is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to
be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle* for the fiber.* θ a is sometimes
referred to as the maximum or total acceptance angle.
Numerical aperture
It is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship between the
acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved, namely the core, cladding
and air. This leads to the definition of a more generally used term, the numerical aperture of the
fiber.
It must be noted that within this analysis, as with the preceding discussion of acceptance
angle, we are concerned with meridional rays within the fiber. Figure below shows a light ray
incident on the fiber core at an angle θ 1 to the fiber axis which is less than the acceptance angle
for the fiber θ a.
The ray enters the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n0, and the fiber core has
a refractive index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2. Assuming the
entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering the refraction at the air–
core interface and using Snell’s law given
n0 sin θ 1 = n1 sin θ2 (1)
Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure above, then:
φ = (π/2 )− θ 2 (2)
where φ is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding interface. Hence Eq. (1) becomes:
n0 sin θ 1 = n1 cos φ (3)
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin φ+ cos φ = 1, Eq. (3) may be written in the form:
2 2
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n0 sin θ 1 = nl(l − sin2φ ) ½ (4)

When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ becomes equal to the critical
angle for the core–cladding interface and is given by Eq. (1). Also in this limiting case θ1 becomes
the acceptance angle for the fiber θ a. Combining these limiting cases into Eq. (4) gives:
Equation (5), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as the basis
for the definition of the important optical fiber parameter, the numerical aperture (NA). Hence the
NA is defined as:
Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity, it is simply equal to sin θ a. It
may also be noted that incident meridional rays over the range 0 ≤ θ 1 ≤ θ a will be propagated
within the fiber. The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference Δ
between the core and the cladding which is defined as:*
Hence combining Eq. (6) with Eq. (7) we can write:
Skew rays
Another category of ray exists which is transmitted without passing through the fiber axis.
These rays, which greatly outnumber the meridional rays, follow a helical path through the fiber,
as illustrated in Figure below and are called skew rays.
The helical path taken by a skew ray in an optical fiber: (a) skew ray path down the fiber;
(b) cross-sectional view of the fiber
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It is not easy to visualize the skew ray paths in two dimensions, but it may be observed
from Figure (b) that the helical path traced through the fiber gives a change in direction of 2 γ at
each reflection, where γ is the angle between the projection of the ray in two dimensions and the
radius of the fiber core at the point of reflection.
Hence, unlike meridional rays, the point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air
will depend upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than the input conditions to the
fiber. When the light input to the fiber is nonuniform, skew rays will therefore tend to have a
smoothing effect on the distribution of the light as it is transmitted, giving a more uniform output.
The amount of smoothing is dependent on the number of reflections encountered by the
skew rays. A further possible advantage of the transmission of skew rays becomes apparent when
their acceptance conditions are considered. In order to calculate the acceptance angle for a skew
ray it is necessary to define the direction of the ray in two perpendicular planes.
The geometry of the situation is illustrated in Figure below, where a skew ray is shown
incident on the fiber core at the point A, at an angle θ s to the normal at the fiber end face. The ray
is refracted at the air–core interface before traveling to the point B in the same plane.
The angles of incidence and reflection at the point B are φ , which is greater than the critical
angle for the core–cladding interface.
Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation
Explain about mode theory for optical propagation.
Modes in a Planar Guide
The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide. We may assume it consists of
a slab of dielectric with refractive index n1 sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive
index n2. In order to obtain an improved model for optical propagation it is useful to consider the
interference of plane wave components within this dielectric waveguide.
The conceptual transition from ray to wave theory may be aided by consideration of a plane
monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the ray path within the guide (see Figure
below (a)). As the refractive index within the guide is n1, the optical wavelength in this region is
reduced to λ /n1, while the vacuum propagation constant is increased to n1k.
When θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the
guide axis, the plane wave can be resolved into two component plane waves propagating in the z
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and x directions, as shown in Figure (a). The component of the phase propagation constant in the
z direction β z is given by:
β z = n1k cos θ
The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction β x is:
β x = n1k sin θ
To visualize the dominant modes propagating in the z direction we may consider plane
waves corresponding to rays at different specific angles in the planar guide. These plane waves
give constructive interference to form standing wave patterns across the guide following a sine or
cosine formula.
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Figure above shows examples of such rays for m = 1, 2, 3, together with the electric field
distributions in the x direction. It may be observed that m denotes the number of zeros in this
transverse field pattern.
In this way m signifies the order of the mode and is known as the mode number. When
light is described as an electromagnetic wave it consists of a periodically varying electric field E
and magnetic field H which are orientated at right angles to each other.
The transverse modes shown in Figure 2.9 illustrate the case when the electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation and hence Ez = 0, but a corresponding component of
the magnetic field H is in the direction of propagation.
In this instance the modes are said to be transverse electric (TE). Alternatively, when a
component of the E field is in the direction of propagation, but Hz = 0, the modes formed are called
transverse magnetic (TM).
The mode numbers are incorporated into this nomenclature by referring to the TEm and
TMm modes, as illustrated for the transverse electric modes shown in Figure above. When the
total field lies in the transverse plane, transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where both
Ez and Hz are zero. However, although TEM waves occur in metallic conductors (e.g. coaxial
cables) they are seldom found in optical waveguides.
Discuss in detail about group velocity.
Explain in detail about phase velocity.
Phase and group velocity
Within all electromagnetic waves, whether plane or otherwise, there are points of constant
phase. For plane waves these constant phase points form a surface which is referred to as a
wavefront. As a monochromatic lightwave propagates along a waveguide in the z direction these
points of constant phase travel at a phase velocity υ p given by:
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave. However, it is impossible in practice to produce
perfectly monochromatic light waves, and light energy is generally composed of a sum of plane
wave components of different frequencies.
Often the situation exists where a group of waves with closely similar frequencies
propagate so that their resultant forms a packet of waves. The formation of such a wave packet
resulting from the combination of two waves of slightly different frequency propagating together
is illustrated in Figure below. This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the
individual waves but is observed to move at a group velocity υ g given by:
The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the transmission characteristics
of optical fibers as it relates to the propagation characteristics of observable wave groups or packets
of light. If propagation in an infinite medium of refractive index n1 is considered, then the
propagation constant may be written as:
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where c is the velocity of light in free space. we assume propagation in the z direction only and
hence cos θ is equal to unity.
Similarly, where in the limit δω / δβ becomes d ω /d β , the group velocity:
The parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide.
Cylindrical Fiber
Define step index fibre. Explain its working in detail.
Step index fibers
The optical fiber considered in the preceding sections with a core of constant refractive
index n1 and a cladding of a slightly lower refractive index n2 is known as step index fiber. This
is because the refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step change at the core–cladding
interface, as indicated in Figure below, which illustrates the two major types of step index fiber.
The refractive index profile may be defined as:
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in both cases. Figure (a) below shows a multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of
around 50 μm or greater, which is large enough to allow the propagation of many modes within
the fiber core.
This is illustrated in Figure (a) by the many different possible ray paths through the fiber.
Figure (b) shows a single-mode or monomode step index fiber which allows the propagation of
only one transverse electromagnetic mode (typically HE11), and hence the core diameter must be
of the order of 2 to 10 μm.
The propagation of a single mode is illustrated in Figure (b) as corresponding to a single

ray path only (usually shown as the axial ray) through the fiber. The single-mode step index fiber
has the distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion (broadening of transmitted light pulses),
as only one mode is transmitted, whereas with multimode step index fiber considerable dispersion
may occur due to the differing group velocities of the propagating modes.
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This in turn restricts the maximum bandwidth attainable with multimode step index fibers,
especially when compared with single-mode fibers. However, for lower bandwidth applications
multimode fibers have several advantages over single-mode fibers. These are:
(a) the use of spatially incoherent optical sources (e.g. most light-emitting diodes) which cannot
be efficiently coupled to single-mode fibers;
(b) larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters, facilitating easier coupling to optical
sources;
(c) lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
Multimode step index fibers allow the propagation of a finite number of guided modes
along the channel. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical parameters (i.e.
relative refractive index difference, core radius) of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted
light which are included in the normalized frequency V for the fiber.
It was indicated in that there is a cutoff value of normalized frequency Vc for guided modes
below which they cannot exist. However, mode propagation does not entirely cease below cutoff.
Modes may propagate as unguided or leaky modes which can travel considerable distances along
the fiber.
Nevertheless, it is the guided modes which are of paramount importance in optical fiber
communications as these are confined to the fiber over its full length. It can be shown that the total
number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index fiber is related to the V value for the
fiber by the approximate expression:
Ms = V2/2
which allows an estimate of the number of guided modes propagating in a particular multimode
step index fiber.
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With neat diagram explain about graded index fibre.

Graded index fibers
Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core* but a decreasing
core index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2
beyond the core radius a in the cladding. This index variation may be represented as:
where Δ is the relative refractive index difference and α is the profile parameter which gives the
characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber core. Equation above which is a convenient
method of expressing the refractive index profile of the fiber core as a variation of α , allows
representation of the step index profile when α =∞, a parabolic profile when α = 2 and a triangular
profile when α = 1. This range of refractive index profiles is illustrated in Figure below.
Graded index fibers are therefore sometimes referred to as inhomogeneous core fibers. with
such core index profiles are well established and consequently when the term ‘graded index’ is
used without qualification it usually refers to a fiber with this profile.
For this reason in this section we consider the waveguiding properties of graded index fiber
with a parabolic refractive index profile core.
A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core is illustrated in Figure
below. It may be observed that the meridional rays shown appear to follow curved paths through
the fiber core.
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Using the concepts of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in refractive index from the
center of the core creates many refractions of the rays as they are effectively incident on a large
number or high to low index interfaces.
This mechanism is illustrated in Figure below where a ray is shown to be gradually curved,
with an ever increasing angle of incidence, until the conditions for total internal reflection are met,
and the ray travels back towards the core axis, again being continuously refracted.
Multimode graded index fibers exhibit far less intermodal dispersion than multimode step
index fibers due to their refractive index profile. Although many different modes are excited in the
graded index fiber, the different group velocities of the modes tend to be normalized by the index
grading.
Again considering ray theory, the rays traveling close to the fiber axis have shorter paths
when compared with rays which travel into the outer regions of the core. However, the near axial
rays are transmitted through a region of higher refractive index and therefore travel with a lower
velocity than the more extreme rays.
This compensates for the shorter path lengths and reduces dispersion in the fiber. A similar
situation exists for skew rays which follow longer helical paths, as illustrated in Figure below.
These travel for the most part in the lower index region at greater speeds, thus giving the same
mechanism of mode transit time equalization.
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Hence, multimode graded index fibers with parabolic or near-parabolic index profile cores
have transmission bandwidths which may be orders of magnitude greater than multimode step
index fiber bandwidths.
Consequently, although they are not capable of the bandwidths attainable with single-mode
fibers, such multimode graded index fibers have the advantage of large core diameters (greater
than 30 μm) coupled with bandwidths suitable for long distance communication.
The parameters defined for step index fibers (i.e. NA, Δ, V) may be applied to graded index
fibers and give a comparison between the two fiber types. However, it must be noted that for graded
index fibers the situation is more complicated since the numerical aperture is a function of the
radial distance from the fiber axis. Graded index fibers, therefore, accept less light than
corresponding step index fibers with the same relative refractive index difference.
Discuss in detail about single mode fibres.
Single-mode fibers
The advantage of the propagation of a single mode within an optical fiber is that the signal
dispersion caused by the delay differences between different modes in a multimode fiber may be
avoided (see Section 3.10).
Multimode step index fibers do not lend themselves to the propagation of a single mode
due to the difficulties of maintaining single-mode operation within the fiber when mode conversion
(i.e. coupling) to other guided modes takes place at both input mismatches and fiber imperfections.
Hence, for the transmission of a single mode the fiber must be designed to allow
propagation of only one mode, while all other modes are attenuated by leakage or absorption.
Following the preceding discussion of multimode fibers, this may be achieved through choice of a
suitable normalized frequency for the fiber.
For single-mode operation, only the fundamental LP01 mode can exist. Hence the limit of
single-mode operation depends on the lower limit of guided propagation for the LP11 mode.
The cutoff normalized frequency for the LP11 mode in step index fibers occurs at Vc =
2.405. Thus single-mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fibers is possible over the
range: 0 ≤ V < 2.405 as there is no cutoff for the fundamental mode.
It must be noted that there are in fact two modes with orthogonal polarization over this
range, and the term single-mode applies to propagation of light of a particular polarization.
Also, it is apparent that the normalized frequency for the fiber may be adjusted to within
the range given above by reduction of the core radius, and possibly the relative refractive index
difference which, for single-mode fibers, is usually less than 1%.
It may be noted that the critical value of normalized frequency for the parabolic profile
graded index fiber is increased by a factor of √2 on the step index case. This gives a core diameter
increased by a similar factor for the graded index fiber over a step index fiber with the equivalent
core refractive index (equivalent to the core axis index) and the same relative refractive index
difference.
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The maximum V number which permits single-mode operation can be increased still
further when a graded index fiber with a triangular profile is employed. It is apparent from Equation
that the increase in this case is by a factor of √3 over a comparable step index fiber.
Hence, significantly larger core diameter single-mode fibers may be produced utilizing this
index profile. Such advanced refractive index profiles, which came under serious investigation in
the early 1980s, have now been adopted, particularly in the area of dispersion modified fiber
design.
Following the emergence of single-mode fibers as a viable communication medium in

1983, they quickly became the dominant and the most widely used fiber type within
telecommunications. Major reasons for this situation are as follows:
1. They exhibit the greatest transmission bandwidths and the lowest losses of the fiber transmission
media (see Chapter 3).
2. They have a superior transmission quality over other fiber types because of the absence of modal
noise (see Section 3.10.3).
3. They offer a substantial upgrade capability (i.e. future proofing) for future widebandwidth
services using either faster optical transmitters and receivers or advanced transmission techniques
(e.g. coherent technology).
4. They are compatible with the developing integrated optics technology
5. The above reasons 1 to 4 provide confidence that the installation of single-mode fiber will
provide a transmission medium which will have adequate performance such that it will not require
replacement over its anticipated lifetime of more than 20 years.
Widely deployed single-mode fibers employ a step index (or near step index) profile design
and are dispersion optimized (referred to as standard single-mode fibers,) for operation in the 1.3
μm wavelength region. These fibers are either of a matched cladding (MC) or a depressed-cladding
(DC) design, as illustrated in Figure below.
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Single-mode fiber step index profiles optimized for operation at a wavelength of 1.3 μm: (a)
conventional matched-cladding design; (b) segmented core matched-cladding design; (c)
depressed-cladding design; (d) profile specifications of a depressed-cladding fiber
In the conventional MC fibers, the region external to the core has a constant uniform
refractive index which is slightly lower than the core region, typically consisting of pure silica.
What is cutoff wavelength? Explain it for single mode fibres.

Cutoff wavelength
It may be noted that single-mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength λ c
given by:
where Vc is the cutoff normalized frequency.

Hence λ c is the wavelength above which a particular fiber becomes single-moded.
Dividing above Equation by Equation below for the same fiber we obtain the inverse relationship:
Thus for step index fiber where Vc = 2.405, the cutoff wavelength is given by
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An effective cutoff wavelength has been defined by the ITU-T [Ref. 44] which is obtained
from a 2 m length of fiber containing a single 14 cm radius loop. This definition was produced
because the first higher order LP11 mode is strongly affected by fiber length and curvature near
cutoff.
Recommended cutoff wavelength values for primary coated fiber range from 1.1 to 1.28
μm for single-mode fiber designed for operation in the 1.3 μm wavelength region in order to avoid
modal noise and dispersion problems.
Moreover, practical transmission systems are generally operated close to the effective
cutoff wavelength in order to enhance the fundamental mode confinement, but sufficiently distant
from cutoff so that no power is transmitted in the second-order LP11 mode.
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Part B Questions
1. Explain in detail about fibre optic communication system and its advantages.
2. Elaborate in detail about Ray Theory transmission.
3. Define step index fibre. Explain its working in detail.
4. With neat diagram explain about graded index fibre.
5. Discuss in detail about single mode fibres.
6. Explain in detail about phase velocity.
7. Explain about mode theory for optical propagation.
8. What is cutoff wavelength? Explain it for single mode fibres.
9. Discuss in detail about group velocity.
Part A Questions
1. What are the limitations of optical fiber communication systems?
• Optical fiber is made up of glass. Because of the impurities present with the fiber It results
in absorption, which leads to loss of light in the optical fiber.
• It is costly.
• Maximum limitation of the bandwidth of the signals can be carried by the fiber due to
spreading of pulse.
2. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?
The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is
• To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
• To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
• To protect core from scratches and other mechanical damages.
3. List the advantages of mono-mode fiber.
The advantages of mono-mode fiber are
• No internal dispersion
• Information capacity of single mode fiber is large.
4. Define - Acceptance Angle
The maximum angle Фmax with which a ray of light can enter rough the entrance end of the fibre
and still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
5. List the uses of optical fiber.
The uses of optical fibers are as follows
• To act as light source at the inaccessible places
• To transmit the optical images. (example: endoscopy)
• To act as sensors to do mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements
• To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the telephone
communications, computer data etc
6. List the disadvantages of mono-mode fiber.
The disadvantages of mono-mode fiber are
• Launching of light into single mode and joining of two fibers are very difficult.
• Fabrication is very difficult and so that fiber is so costly.
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7. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?

The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the optical fiber. To get
total reflection, the ray should travel from denser region rarer region i.e. from core to clad region.
Of the fiber and the angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical
angle of that medium.
8. Define- Refraction
When light travels from air medium to glass medium, bending of light may occur. This is called
refraction.
9. What is critical angle?
When we increase the incident angle with respect to normal, at some incident angle, the dielectric
of surface and φ2 becomes 90 and such incident angle is called critical angle.
10. What is Snell’s law?
The relationship at the interface is called Snell’s Law. It is given by the equation n1sinφ1 =
n2sinφ2
11. What is meant by mode coupling?
The effect of coupling energy from one mode to another mode is known as mode coupling. The
cause of mode coupling is due to waveguide perturbations such as deviations Of the fiber axis
from straightness variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the Core- cladding interface and
refractive index variations.
12. What is V number of a fiber?
Normalized frequency or V number is a dimensionless parameter and represent the relationship
among three design parameters variables of the fiber viz core radius a, relative refractive index Δ
and the operating wavelength λ. It is expressed as V = (2*π* Numerical aperture(a)) / λ
15. What is meant by linearly polarized mode?
The field components HE, EH, TE, TM forms linearly polarized modes. Linearly polarized Modes
are labeled LPjm where j and m are integers designation mode solutions.
16. What are the three windows of optical communications?
The three wavelengths 850nm, 1300nm, and 1500nm are three optical windows of optical
communication system. Since only at this wavelength silica fiber loss is minimum.
17. Define – Fiber Optic system
Fiber optic system is nothing but a fiber-optic cable is essentially light pipe that is used to carry a
light beam from one place to another.
18. What are the advantages of graded index fiber?
The advantages of graded index fiber are
• It provides higher bandwidth.
• It exhibits less intermodal dispersion because the different group velocities of the mode
tend to be normalized by the index grading.
19. What is step index fiber?
Step index fiber is a cylindrical waveguide that has the central core with uniform refractive index
n1 surrounded by outer cladding with refractive index of n2. The refractive index of the core is
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constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding. It makes a step change at the core
cladding interface.
20. Why step index single mode fiber preferred for long distance communication?
The step index single mode fiber is preferred for long distance communication because
• They exhibit higher transmission bandwidth because of low fiber losses.
• They have superior transmission quality because of the absence of the model noise.
• The installation of single mode fiber is easy and will not require any fiber replacement over
twenty plus years.
21. Define- Birefringence
Manufactured optical fibers have imperfections such as asymmetrical lateral stresses, non - circular
cores and variations in refractive index profiles. These imperfections break the circular symmetry
of the ideal fiber and lift the degeneracy of the two modes. These modes propagate with different
phase velocity and it is called as fiber birefringence.
22. What types of fibers are used commonly?
Based on refractive index profile- step index fiber, graded index fiber.
Based on propagation – Mono mode or single mode fiber, multi -mode fiber.
23. Define – Wavefront
For plane waves, some constant phase points from a surface which is referred to as wavefront.
24. What is an index profile?
The index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical representation of the magnitude of the refractive
index across the fiber.
25. What are leaky modes in optical fibers?
In leaky modes, the fields are confined partially in the fiber core and attenuated as they
propagate along the fiber length, due to radiation and tunnel effect.
26. What is the purpose of cladding?
Cladding provides mechanical strength, reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric
discontinuities at the core surface and protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with
which it could come into contact.
27. What are leaky rays?
The leaky rays are only partially confined to the core of the circular optical fiber and attenuate as
the light travels along the optical waveguide.
28. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
The conditions for total internal reflections are:
• The ray should travel from denser to rarer medium. i.e. from core to clad region of the
optical fiber.
• The angle of incidence in the denser should greater than the critical angle of that medium.
29. What are guided modes?
Guided modes are a pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions that is repeated along the
fiber at equal intervals.
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30. Define- Mode

Mode is the pattern of distribution of electric and magnetic fields. Transverse- Electric mode
(TE) Transverse Magnetic mode ( TM)
31. Define - Mode-Field Diameter
The fundamental parameter of a single mode fibre is said to be the mode field diameter. It is
possible to determine the mode-field diameter with the help of the fundamental LPo1 mode.
32. What are meridional rays?
Meridonal rays are the rays which follows zig -zag path when they travel through fiber and for
every reflection it will cross the fiber axis.
33. When do you have phase shift during total internal reflection of light?
When the light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium, if the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle of Core medium, then there is a phase shift for both TE and TM waves.
34. State Goes- Haenchen effect.

Goes- Haenchen effect states that, there is a lateral shift of the reflected ray at the point of
incidence and at the core-cladding interface. This lateral shift is called the Goes- Haenchen
effect.
35. Differentiate between meridional rays and skew rays.
A meridional ray is a ray that passes through the axis of an optical fiber. A skew ray is a ray that
travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of an optical fiber.
36. What do you mean by RAY?
• In optics a ray is an idealized model of light, obtained by choosing a line that is
perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light, and that points in the direction of energy
flow.
• Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the
real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the
system by the techniques of ray tracing.
37. What are skew rays?
A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of an
optical fiber.
38. What are the advantages of optical network?
The advantages of optical network are as follows:
• Low signal attenuation (as low as 0.2 dB/km),
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• High security of signal because of no electromagnetic radiation,
• Huge bandwidth
• Low signal distortion, suitable for carrying digital information,
• Low power requirement
• No crosstalk and interferences between fibers in the same cable,
• Low material usage, small space requirement, light weight, non- flammable, cost-
effective and high electrical resistance
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39. What is optical network?

An optical network is not necessarily all-optical: the transmission is certainly optical, but the
switching could be optical, or electrical, or hybrid Also, an optical is not necessarily packet-
switched.
40. What are the advantages of optical communication?
The advantages of optical communication are
• Low transmission losses
• Electrical isolation
• Small size and weight
• No electromagnetic interference
41. Define – Longitudinal modes
Longitudinal modes are associated with the length of the cavity and determine the typical spectrum
of the emitted radiation.
42. Define – Transverse Modes
Transverse modes are associated with the electromagnetic field and beam profile in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of PN junction. They determine the Laser characteristics as the radiation
pattern and the threshold current density.
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CEC345/Optical Communication and Networking Unit 1

The communication system therefore consists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the

Ray theory transmission

n0 sin θ 1 = nl(l − sin2φ ) ½ (4)

Hence combining Eq. (6) with Eq. (7) we can write:

Similarly, where in the limit δω / δβ becomes d ω /d β , the group velocity:

The parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide.

The propagation of a single mode is illustrated in Figure (b) as corresponding to a single

With neat diagram explain about graded index fibre.

Following the emergence of single-mode ﬁbers as a viable communication medium in

What is cutoff wavelength? Explain it for single mode fibres.

where Vc is the cutoff normalized frequency.

7. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?

30. Define- Mode

34. State Goes- Haenchen effect.

39. What is optical network?

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