REVIEW PAPERS

SIMULATION AS A CLASSROOM TEACHING METHOD

By

JERRY DALE JONES * CATHERINE ELISE BARRETT **

* Faculty in Leadership Studies, Fayetteville State University, North Carolina, USA.
** Associate Professor, Department of Middle Grades, Secondary, and Specialized Subjects, Fayetteville State University,
Fayetteville, North Carolina, USA.

Date Received: 04/05/2017 Date Revised: 28/06/2017 Date Accepted: 26/07/2017

ABSTRACT
Simulation is an experiential instructional method that teachers create to imitate or replicate actual events, problems,
procedures, or skills to achieve the desired instructional results. Students experience the situation and apply learned skills
and knowledge, think critically, and gather meaning from the practice. Simulation as a teaching strategy aligns well
with the principles of constructivist teaching and learning theory and can be designed for social and physical learning
experiences to fit the needs of all learners. This paper supports and explores simulation through the cognitivist's belief that
people learn in whole conditions, not by isolated incidences, and considers the human factor that may influence a
given situation.
Keywords: Simulation, Teaching Method, Instruction, Constructivist, Student-centered, Social and Physical Learning
Experiences.

INTRODUCTION of wide-spread, high-stakes testing, and it would appear,

Simulation had its beginning about 1500 years ago in the that little has changed in terms of conditioning and
game of chess. Two players attempted to simulate a battle regurgitation.
between opposing forces. War games eventually 1. Purpose
developed from this early form of chess. Even though war What has changed more recently in public education is the
games have long enjoyed popularity, it was not until the goal to create meaningful learning experiences that result
nineteen fifties and sixties that simulation began to be in long-term retention of knowledge and skills for all
applied to other areas such as business and economics students. In addition to simulating historical events such as
initially, with social sciences following a little later (Maidment debates and mock trials, current technology has the
and Bronstein, 1973). One would think that with such a long potential to further change the way teachers simulate
history of use with war games, simulation would have been learning experiences across all disciplines, and when
applied to other disciplines much earlier. However, this aligned with a constructivist approach, technology can
method of teaching was not used in public school closely simulate reality and to build rich classroom learning
classrooms until the late 1950s. This was probably due to experiences (Hunter, 2015). In 1993, Cunningham, Duffy,
the long reign of the traditional “rote-memory” methods and Knuth (1993) saw the potential of coupling a
that persisted into modern times. The behavioralists did little constructivist approach with the developing technology of
to alleviate the situation by luring students into responding the time:
correctly to a given stimulus on the promise of a reward. In
The use of multimedia and virtual reality software allows
the early days of education, who cared if a student
teachers to create (or select) cases that have the feel of
understood what he was learning or why?. The importance
reality. The creation of online learning “adventures” (e.g.,
of an education was to condition a person to regurgitate
Second Life activities, web scavenger hunts, online
information when called upon to do so. Fast forward to age
simulations) make it possible to explore real-life learning

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that is occurring in online environments. the real penalties to create more tangible learning
Therefore, it could be argued that as a teaching method, experience for young students (Spurgeon, 1974).
simulation is perhaps best adapted to the cognitive school Over time, various researchers have distinguished between
of psychology where social and physical learning different types of simulations. For example, Maidment and
experiences can be designed to fit the needs of all Bronstein (1973), classify simulation games according to
learners. their purpose or mode of operation. Hyland (2009) states
For practical purposes, simulation can be simply defined that, “a simulation is a problem-driven event that occurs in
as an experiential instructional method that teachers a clearly described realistic situation” (p. 10). Maxson
create to imitate or replicate actual events, problems, (1974), does not categorize different types of simulations,
procedures, or skills to achieve the desired instructional but instead says that simulation is, “one type of game that is
outcome (Sabus & Macauley, 2016). Students may be not a technique for creating a comparative atmosphere
given a role to play or asked to complete a task in a for content master y ” (p. 48). Probably, Adams'
simulated environment. In any case, the goal is for students categorization makes the clearest distinction between the
to experience the situation from a realistic perspective, differences. Adams (1973) divides simulation games into
apply or practice new skills and knowledge, think critically, two types:
and gather meaning from the scenario. In this paper, 1. Those that concentrate on how humans function in the
simulation is both supported and explored through the social environment.
cognitivist's belief that people learn in whole conditions, not 2. Those that concentrate on how humans function in the
by isolated incidences, and therefore, as a teaching physical environment.
method, simulation has the potential to further extend
The first type requires that students or groups of students
learning through the human factor where an individual's
interact with one another. Rules are based on the social
experiences and perspectives have the potential to
reality that is being studied (i.e., in Legislature); students
influence a given situation or outcome in the classroom
have to use persuasion tactics within the guidelines of what
setting.
they have learned about government. They cannot bribe a
2. Review of the Literature fellow student with the promise to buy him ice cream later
Exploring the many ways simulation can be used in the on. Whether a student is successful in obtaining what he
classroom, consider the perspective of international sets out to depends on how he interacts with other players,
teachers of English language, Sharifi, Ghanizadeh, and negotiation skills, and other social factors. This kind of
Jahedizadeh (2017): simulation seeks to have participants relate what they learn
It [simulation] is the act of stimulating the behavior of a in school with how society will affect their decisions in the
situation or a process by the use of a suitably analogous real world.
phenomenon. Simulation is a teaching technique in which A good example of how simulation is applied to
the behavior is not controlled and participants can bring demonstrate the human factor in structured academic
their own experience, knowledge, and skills to the situation social situations can be seen within STEM fields as
and consequently enrich the learning process, change educators consistently seek innovative ways to teach ethics
the academic setting to a real life situation, and provide in science, technology, engineering, and math. State and
an effective and efficient language learning experience. national standards directly address ethics as they relate to
Simulation can also be considered as a problem-solving the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of
activity to which learners bring their own distinct opinions, decision-making within STEM careers. According to
feelings, and personalities. Weidman and Coombs (2016),
Simulation gives educators the opportunity to create …teaching ethics in STEM courses proves challenging
controlled circumstances that imitate life without some of because the focus is often on prescriptive ethics (what

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should be done) versus the descriptive side (what is being Clinical education cannot be scripted to present the
done). Using a fun simulation …can help students realize range of situations that prompt the safe execution of skills
what decisions they are making and let them observe their and decision-making that [for example] a Physical
own actions as well as the actions of others in a low-risk Therapist (PT) must possess. Simulation can introduce the
setting. It also allows STEM students to plan, adjust their high risk/low frequency clinical events or highly sensitive
plans to solve problems, and learn the importance of patient interactions that have low tolerance for error within
effective communication, which supports standards… (p. a learning experience that does not impose risk to actual
14). patients. Furthermore, simulation allows feedback and
As a teaching method, simulation can be particularly repetition of events to achieve mastery (p. 3).
powerful when used in social environments to build Just as in clinical settings, middle and secondary
students' understanding of the role that ethics play in every- educators can apply aspects of physical environment
day life (Weidman & Coombs, 2016). Integrating structured simulations through technology and other means to enrich
simulations, students are required to apply and practice learning experiences in the classroom that provide
essential 21st century skills, such as negotiation and students opportunities for experiential learning.
compromise, and collaboration and collective problem- In either the social or physical environment, teachers can
solving. Students can also learn to respect differing points of “flip” lessons to introduce new material, associated
view, practice taking different roles on a team, and learn to academic language, and facts on the topic via an online
listen to other team members. Perhaps the most powerful platform; then, class time could be used to carry out
aspect according to Weidman and Coombs (2016) is, simulations, games, and scenarios; after the simulation,
“simulations allow teachers to make abstract ideas real” (p. discussion follows where students can relate the outcome
15). of the simulation to the information provided (Brame,
Physical environment simulations are easier to develop 2013). Simulation is a natural fit with many of the tools
(Sabus & Macauley, 2016). A student does not have to technology provides to the learning environment.
always interact with fellow students or function within a 3. Implications
group. Rules are based on exact sciences and nature. A
As with any teaching method, simulation has its proponents
good example of this type of simulation is experimenting
and critics. Among advantages pointed out by Sharifi,
with various factors that influence the growth of a given
Ghanizadeh, Jahedizadeh, (2017) and other simulation
plant. There are few variables in this kind of simulation, and
supporters, mostly agree on the following:
the student's success depends largely on how the student
·Simulation increases students' interest and motivation
applies what has been learned or observed in class.
in the topic being studied.
Applicable examples of physical environment simulations
·It makes the material more realistic and relevant when
are integral to aviation, military, health care, medical, and
compared to the traditional approach to education.
nursing training (Sabus & Macauley, 2016). In Physical
Therapy, medical, and health care training, simulation has ·Students can experiment with ideas without having to
become an essential aspect of teaching, “driven by the worry about actual consequences. They receive
increasing sensitivity and attention to inherent risk to immediate feedback so that they can change their
patients posed by novice and inexperienced health care course of action.
providers” (Sabus & Macauley, 2016, p. 3). Further, Sabus Other advantages that researchers such as Weidman and
and Macauley (2016) show that, simulations in the physical Coombs (2016) also support are:
environment are essential in providing students with a ·The teacher has a non-authoritarian role in the learning
broad array of experiences not often possible in clinical process.
settings:
·It can help build communication skills, persuasion, and

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influence-resisting techniques. …practice context. Simulation opens the door for rich
·Teacher and/or participants control what they will deal learning experiences that have potential to achieve the
with if they help design the simulation. This ensures that highest quality, safe, and inter-professional practice...
the simulation is meaningful to the students and relates (Sabus and Macauley, 2016, p. 3).
to their level of development and environmental One solution is for teachers to collectively contribute as a
background. team to purchase games or materials needed for a
·A decision making process develops from the simulation or request that it be included in the department
decisions that the students have to make in the game budget (Sharifi, Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh, 2017).
and carries over to real life. Another solution to this problem is for teachers to design a
game or plan a teacher-created simulation, although
Critics commonly attack the very basis of simulation citing
abundant planning time is required. In the 1970s, the
that, because the activities only imitate reality, it gives a
Foreign Policy Association established six guidelines for
distorted picture of what life is, and as a direct
teachers to develop their own simulation activities and
consequence, what students learn through games and
games:
activities may not carry over to real-life (Abrudan, Saveanu,
& Saveanu, 2016). With games, winning strategies 1. Identify the goals to be achieved.
sometimes obscure other objects of the game, such as 2. Construct a simplified model of the activity or game.
social interaction, relating classroom material to the real 3. Identify the roles of individuals and groups who will be
world, etc. In some cases, students may use dishonest participants.
practices, such as lying, back-scratching, and logrolling as
4. Set the conditions for the players/students being
in Legislature, and students may carry these practices over
certain to set up specified guidelines regarding
to real life. Finally, a game or activity can be designed or
procedures, resources, personnel, etc.
the rules can be interpreted so as to support a teacher's
5. Develop specific objectives or goals for the actors.
own prejudices, which leads back to the need for strategic
incorporation of the role ethics play within simulations 6. Set the limits and overall rules that will govern
(Weidman & Coombs, 2016). permissible behavior (Maxson, 1974).

4. Summary Currently, similar guidelines have been established on a

national level for teaching in various disciplines such as
Whether one is for or against simulation as a teaching
Nursing for example (Nel & Stellenberg, 2015). Simulation
method, there are some disadvantages that educators
games and activities can be constructed with students'
should consider. Simulation activities and games are often
assistance and input (Abrudan, Saveanu, & Saveanu,
very time consuming, and some are designed to take
2016). The design aspect can provide an educational
place over several class periods (Sharifi, Ghanizadeh &
opportunity for all as well as the acting out or experiential
Jahedizadeh, 2017). A teacher pushed for time may not
part of the situation (Nel & Stellenberg, 2015). Games and
be able to spend several hours of class time enacting a
activities do not have to be elaborate or involve
game, flipping the classroom, or structured activity. One of
technology; however, new technologies such as virtual
the greatest drawbacks can be the cost. The initial
reality can enhance the learning experience (Weidman &
investment can be more than a teacher can afford, and
Coombs, 2016). Pencil-paper games can be easy to carry
due to use, parts will have to be replaced. Researchers also
out and inexpensive. Adams (1973) has an entire chapter
agree that,
that lists and describes various commercially produced
Simulation can be a highly effective instruction tool, but it is
games and teacher-made, non-competitive games.
resource and time consuming. To realize positive,
Conclusion
experiential learning through simulation, proven,
evidence-based strategies can be tailored to the Simulation as an effective teaching method could work

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well in a school system with block or flexible scheduling, as [6]. Hyland, K. (2009). Language-Learning Simulations: A
simulation offers unlimited possibilities for classroom Practical Guide. English Teaching Forum, 31(4).
application from “flipping” the classroom to virtual reality [7]. Maidment, R, & Bronstein, R. (1973). Simulation
and replicated experiences. Simulation as a teaching Games; Design and Implementation. Merrill Publishing,
method holds extraordinary potential for a fresh approach Ann Arbor, 9-10.
to teaching and learning and has the potential to provide
[8]. Maxson, R.C. (1974). Simulation: A method that can
deeper, more meaningful learning experiences that
make a difference. Educational Digest, 39, 48.
inspire, motivate, and prepare students for life.
[9]. Nel, N., & Stellenberg, E.L. (2015). Nursing students'
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jerry Dale Jones is presently Faculty in Leadership Studies at Fayetteville State University, North Carolina, USA. He is a Former
Superintendent of Schools in Roane and Morgan County in West Virginia, USA. He is a veteran of the United States Navy and
taught school in Guatemala, Central America. His latest book: A view from the Bleachers hast been adapted into a play titled:
NOT YET HERE.

Dr. Catherine Elise Barrett is an Associate Professor in the Department of Middle Grades, Secondary, and Specialized Subjects at
Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, North Carolina, USA.

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