Care and Maintenance of Textile Products Including Apparel and Protective Clothing (PDFDrive)

Care and Maintenance
of Textile Products
Including Apparel and
Protective Clothing
TEXTILE INSTITUTE PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
PUBLISHED TITLES
Care and Maintenance of Textile Products Including Apparel and Protective Clothing
Rajkishore Nayak and Saminathan Ratnapandian
Care and Maintenance
of Textile Products
Including Apparel and
Protective Clothing
Rajkishore Nayak and

Saminathan Ratnapandian
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents
Series preface......................................................................................................ix
Authors................................................................................................................xi
List of abbreviations....................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 Cleaning of textile materials..................................................... 3

2.1 Wet cleaning (using water)...................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Washing with a machine........................................................... 5
2.1.2 Washing by hand........................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Washing chemicals................................................................... 10
2.1.4 Other washing aids.................................................................. 14
2.2 Dry cleaning............................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Dry cleaning solvents............................................................... 17
2.2.2 Other chemicals........................................................................ 18
2.3 Dry cleaning versus wet cleaning........................................................ 19
2.3.1 Benefits of wet cleaning........................................................... 19
2.3.2 Limitations of wet cleaning..................................................... 19
2.3.3 Benefits of dry cleaning........................................................... 20
2.3.4 Limitations of dry cleaning..................................................... 20
2.4 Drying...................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Pressing.................................................................................................... 23
2.6 Cleaning of protective textiles.............................................................. 24
2.6.1 Cleaning of firefighter’s clothing............................................ 28
2.6.2 Cleaning of body armour........................................................ 34
2.6.3 Cleaning of chemical-protective clothing............................. 37
2.6.4 Cleaning of other protective clothing.................................... 40
2.7 Effects of cleaning on clothing properties.......................................... 46
2.7.1 Effects of wet cleaning............................................................. 46
2.7.2 Effects of dry cleaning............................................................. 56
2.7.3 Precautions during dry cleaning........................................... 57
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Equipment for the care of textiles........................................... 59

3.1 Washing equipment............................................................................... 59
3.1.1 Top-loading washing machines............................................. 59
3.1.2 Front-loading washing machines........................................... 62
3.1.3 Top- versus front-loading washing machines...................... 62
3.1.4 Other designs............................................................................ 66
3.1.5 Dry cleaning machines............................................................ 67
3.2 Drying equipment.................................................................................. 68
3.3 Equipment used for pressing................................................................ 69
3.4 Other equipment..................................................................................... 71
Chapter 4 Care labelling.............................................................................. 73

4.1 Definition of a care label........................................................................ 74
4.2 Terminologies used in care labelling................................................... 75
4.3 Care label requirements........................................................................ 78
4.4 Mandatory regulations.......................................................................... 81
4.5 Processes described by care labels....................................................... 85
4.5.1 Laundering�� 86
4.5.2 Bleaching�� 86
4.5.3 Dry cleaning�� 86
4.5.4 Tumble drying........................................................................... 87
4.5.5 Ironing or pressing................................................................... 87
4.6 Care labelling systems........................................................................... 87
4.6.1 International (ISO) care labelling system.............................. 88
4.6.2 ASTM care labelling system................................................... 90
4.6.3 Canadian care labelling system.............................................. 92
4.6.4 British care labelling system................................................... 93
4.6.5 Australian/New Zealand care labelling system.................. 95
4.6.6 Japanese care labelling system............................................... 98
4.7 Example of care labels............................................................................ 99
4.8 Electronic care labels.............................................................................. 99
4.9 Issues related to care labelling............................................................ 101
Chapter 5 Care instructions for specialty textile items....................... 103

5.1 Carpet and rugs.................................................................................... 104
5.2 Curtains and upholstery material...................................................... 104
5.3 Bed linen................................................................................................ 105
5.4 Other items............................................................................................ 106
5.4.1 Blinds, shutters and awnings................................................ 106
5.4.2 Blankets�� 107
5.4.3 Leather goods.......................................................................... 107
5.5 Care based on fibre type...................................................................... 108
5.5.1 Cotton items��110
5.5.2 Woollen items...........................................................................111
Contents vii
5.5.3 Silk items��115

5.5.4 Nylon items��116
5.6 Problems during laundering and dry cleaning with solutions......117
Chapter 6 Stains.......................................................................................... 123

6.1 Types of stains....................................................................................... 123
6.2 Removal of stains.................................................................................. 123
6.3 Impact of stain removal on clothing properties............................... 124
Chapter 7 Storage of clothing................................................................... 125

7.1 Apparel textiles..................................................................................... 125
7.2 Storage of personal protection equipment (PPE)............................. 126
Chapter 8 The environmental impact and health hazards of

cleaning...................................................................................... 129
8.1 Environmental impacts....................................................................... 129
8.1.1 Chemicals with potential hazards....................................... 130
8.1.2 Recent innovations in laundering........................................ 131
8.1.3 Green cleaning........................................................................ 132
8.1.3.1 Ozone laundering.................................................. 134
8.1.3.2 Ultrasonic cleaning................................................ 135
8.1.3.3 Eco-friendly chemicals for laundering............... 137
8.1.3.4 Eco-friendly chemicals for dry cleaning............ 137
8.2 Health hazards...................................................................................... 139
8.2.1 During laundering or dry cleaning..................................... 139
8.2.2 Residual amount left in the clothing................................... 140
8.2.3 Cross-contamination of diseases...........................................141
Chapter 9 Future trends............................................................................. 143
Chapter 10 Conclusions............................................................................... 147
References........................................................................................................ 149
Index�� 171
Series preface
Textile Institute Professional Publications
The aim of the Textile Institute Professional Publications is to provide
support to textile professionals in their work and to help emerging profes-
sionals, such as final year or masters students, by providing the informa-
tion needed to gain a sound understanding of key and emerging topics
relating to textile, clothing and footwear technology, textile chemistry,
materials science and engineering. The books are written by experi-
enced authors with expertise in the topic and all texts are independently
reviewed by textile professionals or textile academics.
The textile industry has a history of being both an innovator and an
early adopter of a wide variety of technologies. There are textile busi-
nesses of some kind operating across the world. At any one time, there
is an enormous breadth of sophistication in how such companies might
function. In some places where the industry serves only its own local mar-
ket, design, development and production may continue to be based on
traditional techniques; but companies that aspire to operate globally find
themselves in an intensely competitive environment, some driven by the
need to appeal to followers of fast-moving fashion, others by demands for
high performance and unprecedented levels of reliability. Textile profes-
sionals working within such organisations are subjected to a continued
pressing need to introduce new materials and technologies, not only to
improve production efficiency and reduce costs, but also to enhance the
attractiveness and performance of their existing products and to bring
new products into being. As a consequence, textile academics and pro-
fessionals find themselves having to continuously improve their under-
standing of a wide range of new materials and emerging technologies to
keep pace with their competitors.
The Textile Institute was formed in 1910 to provide professional sup-
port to textile practitioners and academics undertaking research and
teaching in the field of textiles. The Institute quickly established itself as
the professional body for textiles worldwide and now has individual and
corporate members in over 80 countries. The Institute works to provide
ix
x Series preface
sources of reliable and up-to-date information to support textile profes-

sionals through its research journals, the Journal of the Textile Institute [1]
and Textile Progress [2], definitive descriptions of textiles and their compo-
nents through its online publication Textile Terms and Definitions [3] and
contextual treatments of important topics within the field of textiles in
the form of self-contained books such as the Textile Institute Professional
Publications.
References
1. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope
&journalCode=tjti20
2. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope
&journalCode=ttpr20
3. http://www.ttandd.org
Authors
Dr. Rajkishore Nayak is currently working as a senior lecturer at the
School of Communication and Design, RMIT University, Vietnam. He com-
pleted his PhD from the School of Fashion and Textiles, RMIT University,
Australia. He has 15 years of experience in teaching and research related
to fashion and textiles. He has published about 100 peer-reviewed papers
in national and international journals. Rajkishore was awarded with the
2015 RMIT University Research Excellence Award. He also received the
2012 RMIT University Teaching and Research Excellence Award and 2008
RMIT University International Scholarship. He worked with the School
of Fashion and Textiles, RMIT University, Australia from 2012–2016 in
teaching and research.
Dr. Saminathan Ratnapandian is a professor at the Ethiopian Institute

of Textile and Fashion Technology, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He
earned his PhD from the School of Fashion and Textiles, RMIT University,
Australia in 2013. He was a research fellow at TRI/Princeton (masters
degree) and RMIT University (doctoral degree). His publications are
available in a broad spectrum of reputed journals related to fashion and
textiles. He has served the sector for nearly 25 years.
xi
List of abbreviations
AATCC American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
AOX adsorbable organo-halogen
AS/NZS Australia and New Zealand standard
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BOD biochemical-oxygen demand
CARB California Air Resources Board
CEN Comite Europeen de normalization
COD chemical-oxygen demand
DfE Design for the Environment
DFE directional frictional effect
DP durable press
DPTB dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl ether
DWR durable water repellent
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FFPPC firefighter’s personal protective clothing
FR flame retardant
FRPPC flame retardant personal protective clothing
FSP fragment simulating projectile
FTC Federal Trade Commission
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared
GEC GreenEarth Cleaning
ISO International Organization for Standardization
JIS Japan Industrial Standard
LAS linear alkyl benzene sulfonates
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NIJ National Institute of Justice
NPE nonylphenol ethoxylates
OBA optical brightening agents
P/C polyester/cotton
PAC polyacrylic
PBO piperonyl butoxide
PCE (perc) perchloroethylene
xiii
xiv List of abbreviations
PET polyethylene terephthalate

PLA polylactic acid
PLC programmed logic circuit
PPC personal protective clothing
PU polyurethane
PVC polyvinyl chloride
REACH
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals
RFID radio frequency identification
RH relative humidity
SPF sun protection factor
UBACS Under Body Armor Combat Shirt
UHMWPE ultra-high molecular weight poly ethylene
UV ultraviolet
VOC volatile organic compound
chapter one
Introduction
Textile products get soiled, stained, dirty and even worn during their
use, and may not be usable after a certain period [1,2]. Hence, they need
regular care and maintenance, which helps to extend the durability
of the clothing and ensures that fresh clothing is ready to wear when
needed [3]. However, this is one of the most neglected aspects by many
consumers. Most garments cannot be put into the washing machine
straight and come out perfect after washing. Hence, proper care is neces-
sary to retain the original properties. Proper care and maintenance helps
to reduce the budget allocated to purchasing clothes and improve the
wearability. Furthermore, this can reduce the environmental impact by
the reduction in the usage of raw materials, processing chemicals and
power consumption [4].
On one hand, the technological developments in the washing machine
and detergency have reduced the total environmental impact per wash.
On the other hand, the amount of clothing owned by individuals has gone
up, which has also lead to the increased frequency of washing. It is worth
mentioning that during the use of a specific garment, the most energy is
consumed in its cleaning and maintenance [5]. Hence, the cleaning and
maintenance of the textiles in the right time with appropriate chemicals
and protocols cannot only reduce their environmental impact but also
improve their durability [6].
A care label carries instructions for the cleaning of a textile product
[2,4,7–9]. Care labels contain a series of directions describing procedures
for refurbishing a product without adverse effects. Care labelling for
garments is essential to identify the product, to assist the consumer in
product selection and the retailer in selling the product, and to help the
consumer in effective care of the garment [10]. The information on care
labels is strongly emphasised as most consumer complaints and claims
against apparel products concern colour change, deformation and dam-
age during laundering.
Manufacturers of textile items provide proper care instructions in
the clothing. However, the inability to follow the instructions, to select
appropriate chemicals or washing cycles lead to permanent damage
to the clothing [11,12]. It is the consumer’s responsibility to take proper
care of the textiles [13]. Most consumers who take care of the textiles
might have experienced one or more problems such as colour fading,
1
2 Care and Maintenance of Textile Products
shrinkage, wrinkling and damage to the buttons, bids and sequins or

other m echanical damage [14–20].
Several factors such as the type of fibre, type of detergent or chemicals
used, temperature, agitation and duration affect the clothing properties
after washing or dry cleaning [21–23]. The wrong selection of any of these
parameters or in combination can damage the whole garment. Hence,
the care labels need to always be followed before selecting any washing
cycle or chemicals for the cleaning of the clothes.
This book covers the methods of cleaning clothes, namely wet clean-
ing or laundering and dry cleaning, which are most commonly used for
the care of clothing items. The chemicals and types of machines used for
these processes will also be discussed along with their ecological con-
cerns. In addition, the potential new eco-friendly chemicals currently
being used in these processes will be highlighted. Furthermore, the types
of stains, their removal and impact of stain removal on clothing proper-
ties will be covered. The care and maintenance of woollen clothing items
will also be discussed.
chapter two
Cleaning of textile materials

The history of cleaning of clothes or laundering dates back to 2500 BC,
when soap was used in washing around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
(now southern Iraq) [24]. Laundering is the process of removing stains,
dirt, bad smells and microbes from clothes usually using water as a sol-
vent, containing detergents or other chemicals accompanied by agitation,
heat and rinsing. In some instances, cleaning uses solvents other than
water and other specialty chemicals and equipment. The former process
using water is known as washing and the latter process using chemical
solvents is called dry cleaning.
The effectiveness of laundering clothes depends on the kind, amount
and temperature of water; soaps, laundry aids and detergents [25–29]. The
hardness of water, turbidity, colour, dissolved salts and metals may also
affect the laundering [30–32]. The degree of soil removal in the cleaning
process depends on the fabric substrate, fibre geometry, yarn and fabric
structure, type of soil, chemical finish, cleaning method and interaction
among all these factors [33–36]. Fibres with polar surfaces such as cotton
and rayon can interact very strongly with water, whereas hydrophobic
fibres such as polyester have been shown to interact with water slowly by
dispersion forces, which may affect the cleaning efficiency.
Fibre geometry such as fibre diameter, cross-section, surface contour
and crimp can affect the soil-retention property [37]. Fibres with a larger
diameter, circular cross-section and smooth surface are not easily soiled.
The presence of surface irregularities in the fibre acts as a sink for depo-
sition of soil. During laundering, soil release from these sinks is a much
slower process compared to a smooth surface. Increased mechanical
action and/or increased detergent concentration can improve the soil
removal from these areas.
The yarn structure involves staple or filament yarn, yarn fineness
(coarse and fine) and amount of twist in the yarn [38,39]. High twist and
staple yarns may prevent soil removal during laundering. Fabric struc-
ture involves woven, knits, nonwovens and composites, which may also
vary in tightness, weight and thickness [40]. Open structures can offer less
resistance to soil removal compared to tight structures. Similarly, light-
weight fabrics can be cleaned more easily than their heavier counterparts.
The presence of various functional finishes in the fabric can alter the
soil-removal efficiency from clothing. For example, the durable press (DP)
3
finish can reduce the soil removal from cotton fabric. Similarly, the appli-
cation of soil-release or soil-repellent finishes to fabric can improve the
efficiency of cleaning. Other finishes such as flame retardant, hydrophilic/
hydrophobic, antimicrobial [41,42], finishes to improve the handle and
comfort can alter the cleaning efficiency depending on the nature of both
the finish and the substrate.
Soil release from a textile material can involve three consecutive steps
such as: (1) the induction phase, when the water and surfactant get dif-
fused into the soil-fibre interface and into the soil, (2) separation of soil
from the fabric and (3) final phase (leveling), when the soil removal is very
slow [43–45]. The constituent of soils may involve solid particles; liquids
such as oils; and mixtures of both solids and liquids. The surface tension
of oily soils is significantly lower, which can penetrate fibres more readily
than water-based soils. The viscosity of the oil is a deciding factor in soil
release. The higher the viscosity, the harder it is to remove from the sub-
strate. Oily soils can be more easily removed from synthetic fibres such as
polyester than from cotton.
Clay soils adhere firmly to textile fibres as they are small, have an
active surface, behave as colloids and have a large surface area in propor-
tion to mass. Soil particles are more deposited at sites where a geometric
bond is formed either in a fibre crevice or an interstitial void between fibres
and yarns. The ease of their removal depends on the nature of the washing
solution and the mechanical energy during the laundering process.
2.1 Wet cleaning (using water)

Wet cleaning or washing is the method of cleaning clothes that is usually
done with water, often in the presence of a soap or detergent. Soaps and
detergents are used for the emulsification of oils and dirt particles so that
they can be easily washed away [46,47]. The washing will often be done
at a temperature above room temperature to increase the activities of any
chemicals used and the solubility of stains. In addition, high temperature
kills microbes that may be present on the fabric.
Laundering is a complex process as an improper selection of param-
eters such as temperature, agitation, time and chemicals can permanently
damage the fabric [48]. Furthermore, if the fabric is being treated with
any of the functional finishes such as waterproofing, flame retardant,
permanent press, deodorizing, antibacterial, soil release and pest control,
the washing behaviour will be different. Special techniques should be
adopted to improve the durability of the finishes.
Laundering is an exercise to decontaminate clothes that were in con-
tact with the body, as the body is a source of contaminating the clothes
[49]. This helps in clothing care and restores the clothing attributes such
as style, feel and appearance. The laundering process provides freshness
Chapter two: Cleaning of textile materials 5
to the clothing items that are soiled, stained and musty, which make
them ready to wear [50]. Laundering is always considered as an assem-
bly of mechanisms consisting of textiles, detergents, washing machines
and skills. The recent trend in laundering is more frequent washing at
lower temperatures as compared to the less-frequent washing discussed
earlier.
In addition to the factors related to the machine and chemicals, the
hardness of the water can also affect the quality of washing [30,31,51,52].
The soaps and detergents are less effective in hard water. To avoid this
problem, approaches such as the use of more soap or detergent, a longer
washing cycle or higher temperature is necessary. Washing parameters
such as frequency, washing temperature, type of detergent, use of a tum-
ble dryer and ironing conditions are often related to the culture [53,54].
For example, cotton T-shirts are washed in cold water by Spanish consum-
ers (48%), whereas Norwegians (48%) prefer to wash the same products at
60°C [53]. Similarly, the average washing temperature in Europe is about
45.8°C [55].
A comparative study of energy and water consumption of automated
laundering around the globe showed that the energy use per wash cycle
mainly depends on the average washing temperature [54]. An estimated
value for lowering the washing temperature and eliminating both tumble-
drying and ironing of a cotton T-shirt can lead to around a 50% reduction
in global climate impact [56].
2.1.1 Washing with a machine

While laundering in a machine, it is essential to understand the nature
of clothing, equipment to be used, chemicals used and when to laun-
der [57]. Two important things, namely the colour of the clothes and the
material they are made of, should always be considered while washing.
Generally, for washing purposes, the colour of the clothes can be consid-
ered as ‘light’ or ‘white’ and ‘dark’, which should not be washed together.
The material specification of textile items is mostly indicated on the care
label. It is essential to consider the material type before washing as the
washing protocols and laundering chemicals can permanently damage
the cloth.
Light- and dark-coloured items should always be separated during
washing. Light-coloured items should not be washed with dark-coloured
items to avoid the risk of cross staining [58,59]. While washing new
clothes, the dyes can leach from the fabric and stain other clothes in the
load. Hence, the new clothes should always be washed alone if a machine
is used or washed separately by hand. Colours such as white, cream or a
pale pastel shade should be considered as ‘whites’ and should be washed
separately from the other dark colours.
The care instructions should be always followed while washing, dry-

ing and pressing the clothes [60]. Some clothes need to be only washed by
hand or dry-cleaned and dried flat or dried under shade. Deviation from
these specifications may cause colour fading or the change of the size and
shape. Hence, following the care instructions can help to clean the clothes
appropriately, to retain the aesthetics, dimensions and to increase the
wearability.
All fabrics cannot be washed with the same washing and tumbling
conditions. For example, denim fabrics or terry towels need to be washed
in a heavier cycle than the inner clothing or delicate clothing items. Hence,
these items should be separated and washed in different loads to avoid
any potential damage to the cloth. This will also ensure that all the clothes
in a particular laundry load are properly cleaned.
The types of washing machines (i.e., top-and front-loading) are
described in Section 3.1. The top-loading machine is better for the thicker
fabrics, whereas the front-loading machine is preferred for thinner and
delicate fabrics as it is less harsh [54]. Hot water should be used for light
colours of cellulosic fabrics and their blends that are comparatively dirtier
or stained, and can help in the easy removal of dirt and stains. However,
if the cloth looks cleaner, cold water can be used. Similarly, dark-coloured
items should be washed with cold to lukewarm water, which helps to retain
the original shade. Hot water can remove the colour from these items.
While selecting the washing cycle in a washing machine, it is essen-
tial to understand the parameters such as time, temperature and agitation
for each cycle. Different kinds of clothing need different washing cycles.
The regular or normal cycle is selected for light colours, which will help
the whites to retain their original colour and crispness. The delicate cycle
can be used for washing relatively delicate clothing such as woollens,
knits, silk items, bras, cotton sweaters and shirts. Delicate items should be
always checked and confirmed that they are not meant for hand cleaning
or dry cleaning. Permanent press should be selected for dark colours as
it uses warmer water initially and cooler water at the end, which helps to
retain the brightness of colours.
The selected washing load should be small, medium or large depend-
ing on the amount of clothes and the machine capacity. For example, a
load that occupies about one-third of the space is considered as small; a
two-thirds load is considered as medium; and a full load is considered as
large. It is imperative to go for another washing cycle if the load exceeds
the maximum capacity of the washing machine. Otherwise, it can lead to
the risk of damaging or jamming the washing machine and/or improper
cleaning with residual chemicals.
Washing chemicals and other washing aids, e.g., bleaches and soft-
eners (see Sections 2.1.3 and 2.1.4), should also be selected appropriately.
The amount of detergent should be selected on the basis of the load
and degree of the soiling of clothes. The use of excessive chemicals can
leave traces even after a complete washing cycle. This may be proven to
be detrimental to the fabric or can cause irritations to the skin of some
wearers [61–64]. The strength or concentration and nature of detergents
commercially available vary a lot. Hence, the instructions on the deter-
gent package and the nature of the cloth should always be considered
before washing. Generally, softeners are added during the rinsing cycle.
Washing machines have dispensers to add the softener at the start of the
cycle, which is automatically added to the clothes during the appropriate
rinse cycle.
While using a dryer for drying the clothes, the items specifying ‘do
not tumble dry’ should be dried in shade or sunlight. The drying temper-
ature and time are the parameters that need to be selected carefully. The
drying cycle can be classified as regular, permanent press and delicate.
The regular cycle should be selected for whites as they can handle heat
better than the coloured items. The permanent press is less severe than
the regular and should be used for coloured clothes. The clothes washed
in the delicate cycle of the washing machine should be dried in the deli-
cate cycle of the drier as well. The delicate cycle uses air at near room
temperature and a slow cycle to prevent damage to the clothes.
While drying the clothes in sunlight or shade, good and strong hang-
ers are essential to support the garments during drying. As the weight
of a garment increases after washing, the hangers may break or bend. If
unnoticed, the garment can lose its shape during drying. Some clothing,
especially knits, can change dimension if hang dried. These items should
be dried flat as described in the care label.
2.1.2 Washing by hand
The clothes labelled as ‘Hand wash only’ should be washed by hand. A
bucket or a plugged sink can be used for hand washing. Cold or lukewarm
water should be added first to the bucket followed by adding the suit-
able detergent [65]. The detergent should be mixed thoroughly by stirring
by hand. The detergents used for hand washing are generally different
from the detergents used in machine washings [66]. These detergents also
vary in the concentration and nature, hence, should be carefully selected.
The clothes should be dipped into the bucket and swished so that they
are completely soaked with water. The bucket should be left for about
30 minutes so that the clothes are saturated with the detergent. Then the
clothes should be rinsed with lukewarm and clean water at least twice or
more so that the detergent is completely removed from the clothes. The
items hand washed should not be hang dried as it can cause stretching of
the fabrics. They should be dried flat to retain the shape and minimise the
amount of wrinkles formed during the drying process.
The care labels work as a major source of information on the clothing

type, type of washing and drying and nature of chemicals suitable for the
same [67–69]. Hence, they should be always referred to before the clothes
are washed. The care instructions are generally provided by symbols or
words or by the combination of both. If it is hard to understand them, the
commercial organisation or the manufacturer or seller can be contacted
for getting the appropriate information. The following section (Figure 2.1
and Table 2.1) briefly describes the information on the care instructions
Guide to apparel/textile care symbols
Warning
Machine symbols for
laundering
wash
cycles
Normal Permanent Delicate/ Hand wash

press gentle
Do not wash
Wash Water (Maximum) (200°F) (160°F) (140°F) (120°F) (105°F) (65°F-85°F)

temperatures
95°C 70°C 60°C 50°C 40°C 30°C
Symbol(a)
Do not bleach
Do not dry
(used with
do not wash)
Any bleach Only non-chlorine bleach

Bleach when needed when needed
Do not iron
Additional
instructions
Tumble dry (in symbols
cycles or words)
Line dry/
Normal Permanent Delicate/ hang to dry
press gentle
Do not wring
Dry Drip dry

Tumble heat
settings
Do not
Any heat High Medium Low No heat/air tumble dry
Dry flat
Iron-dry or steam In the shade

(added to lines dry
drip dry or dry flat)
200°C 150°C 110°C

Maximum
(300°F) (300°F) (230°F)
Iron temperature
High Medium Low No steam
(addded to iron)
Dryclean-normal cycle Dryclean-additional instructions
A P F
Any Any solvent Petroleum Short Reduced Low No
Do not
Dryclean solvent except
trichloroethylene
solvent
only
dryclean cycle moisture heat steam
finishing
Figure 2.1 ASTM care instructions used for apparel (symbols).

Table 2.1 Care instructions used in apparel (words)

Specification on the care label Instruction for proper care
Machine washing
Machine wash Washing by machine in lukewarm water.
May be bleached but no dry cleaning.
Home wash only Same as above, but no commercial
laundering.
Cold wash/rinse Wash and rinse with cold water from the tap.
Warm wash/rinse Wash and rinse with warm water from the
tap.
Hot wash Use hot water machine setting.
No bleach Avoid the use of bleach.
No starch Avoid the use of starch.
Delicate/gentle cycle Wash with appropriate conditions or wash
by hand.
Durable/permanent press cycle Wash with appropriate conditions for
washing; otherwise use medium wash, cold
rinse and short spin cycle.
Wash separately Wash alone or with similar colours.
No spin Do not apply the spin cycle after washing.
Hand washing
Hand wash Wash by hand using cold or lukewarm water.
May be dry cleaned or bleached.
Hand wash only Wash by hand in lukewarm water. May be
bleached but no dry cleaning.
Hand wash separately Wash by hand alone or with similar colours.
Damp wipe Surface clean only with a damp cloth or
sponge.
No bleach Avoid the use of bleach.
Home drying
Tumble dry Tumble dry with no, low, medium or high
heat.
Tumble dry/remove promptly Same as above. Remove the clothes promptly
when the tumbling stops.
Dry flat Dry on a flat surface.
Line dry Hang damp for drying.
Drip dry Hang wet for drying with hand-shaping only.
No wring/no twist Avoid wringing. Hang dry, drip dry or dry
flat only. Handle carefully to avoid wrinkles
or distortion.
Block to dry Maintain original shape and size during
drying.
(Continued)
Table 2.1 (Continued) Care instructions used in apparel (words)

Specification on the care label Instruction for proper care
Ironing/pressing
Do not iron Avoid ironing.
Cool iron Set iron at the lowest temperature.
Warm iron Set iron at the medium temperature.
Hot iron Set iron at the hot temperature.
Iron damp Dampen clothes before ironing.
Steam iron Iron or press with steam.
Miscellaneous
Dry clean only The garment should be dry cleaned only,
including the self service.
Professional dry clean only Avoid dry cleaning by self service.
No dry clean Do not dry clean or use dry cleaning
chemicals. Follow the care instructions.
Source: Kefgen, M. and Touchie-Specht, P., Individuality in Clothing Selection and Personal
Appearance, A Guide for the Consumer, 3rd edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York, 1981.
mainly used in apparel clothing both for machine and hand washing. The
detailed care labelling instructions are given in Chapter 4.
2.1.3 Washing chemicals
Laundering chemicals (soaps and detergents) are added to water to lower
the surface tension for the ease of cleaning [46,70–72]. The laundering
chemicals are available as powder, liquid, spray or granules. Soaps are
metallic salts (aluminium, sodium, potassium) of fatty acids and are
soluble in water. The soap molecule has two distinct parts: a carboxylate
group (attracted to water) and a hydrocarbon chain (repelled by water).
On the other hand, a detergent is a chemical composition that removes
soiling and is produced by chemical synthesis.
Although both soaps and detergents are surfactants (or surface-active
agents), they are not the same [73–75]. Soaps are usually manufactured
from natural materials while detergents are made from synthetic mate-
rials [76]. Although soaps were the first detergents, they are now being
replaced by synthetic detergents. Soap is highly deactivated by hard
water. At the early stage of development of non-soap surfactants, the term
syndet (short for synthetic detergent) was used to indicate the distinction
from natural soap [77].
Synthetic detergents may be classified as anionic, cationic and non-
ionic [78]. Anionic detergents are so-called because the detergent portion
of the molecule is an anion (negative ion) and the water-soluble portion is
a cation (positive ion). Most of the synthetic detergents commonly used

in laundering are of the anionic type in which linear alkyl benzene sul-
fonates (LAS) are the main anionic compounds [79,80]. In cationic deter-
gents, the detergent portion is cationic and the water-soluble portion is
anionic. The cleansing action of cationic detergents is weaker than that of
most anionic detergents. They are used as domestic germicides and fabric
softeners. Non-ionic detergents are electrically neutral, having a neutral
pH and are not affected by acids, alkalis or hard water. These detergents
are very similar to other detergents in having one part of their molecule
water-soluble and another part solvent-soluble. Some non-ionic detergents
clean well and have very little lathering action in water. All three types of
detergent molecules are explained in Figure 2.2.
Synthetic detergents consist of different components perform differ-
ent functions. The two major components of detergents are surfactant
and builder [81–83]. The active ingredients of a detergent are known as
‘surfactants’. Builders are as equally important as surfactants. Their main
function is to form metal complexes with divalent calcium and magne-
sium ions making them less available, and thus not interfere with the sur-
factant action [84]. The other ingredients include fluorescent whitening
agents, enzymes and antiredeposition agents [85–87]. The components
and functions of a typical synthetic detergent are described in Table 2.2.
Surfactant is a general term for substances such as soluble detergents
in a liquid medium, dispersing agents, emulsifying agents, foaming
(a)
Water soluble Solvent soluble
No charge
(b)
+ – Anion
(c)
– + Cation
Figure 2.2 Three types of detergent molecules: (a) nonionic, (b) anionic and (c)
cationic.
Table 2.2 Components and functions of a synthetic detergent

Percentage (%)
Components (approx.) Functions
Surfactant 5–15 Loosen and disperse the soil, provide or
control suds; basic ‘cleaning’ ingredients.
Builder 15–30 Soften water, aid surfactant in the
dispersion of soil, buffer the detergent
solution in the alkaline region.
Fluorescent <5 Overcome yellowness on the fabric and
whitening agents provide whiteness of blue-white hue.
Enzymes Added as per the Catalyse the breakdown of protein- or
requirement carbohydrate-based stains to facilitate
the removal by the surfactant and
builder.
Antiredeposition Up to 50 Prevent removed soil from redepositing
agents on the fabric.
Sodium silicate, Carries free-flowing powder.
sodium sulphate,
water
Table 2.3 Functions of various components of a surfactant

Name Function
Dispersing agent Increases the stability of a suspension of particles in a
liquid medium.
Emulsifying agent Increases the stability of a dispersion of one liquid in
another.
Foaming agent Increases the stability of a suspension of gas bubbles in
a liquid medium.
Penetrating agent Increases the penetration of a liquid medium into a
porous material.
Wetting agent Increases the spreading of a liquid medium on a surface.
Source: Lyle, D. S., Performance of Textiles, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1977.
agents, penetrating agents and wetting agents [79]. All these ingredients
are necessary in a good detergent. The functions of various ingredients
in a surfactant are described in Table 2.3. The laundering process largely
depends on the nature of the soiling material as well as the nature of the
surfactant. Both alkalinity and temperature are important factors in con-
serving colours of the textile products.
Carbonates, phosphates, zeolites (aluminosilicates) and citrates are
the most common builders used in laundry detergents [89,90]. Although
the effectiveness of carbonates is debated, they are environmentally safe

[91]. A drawback of carbonates is that they do not suspend soils in solu-
tion. Hence, the soils can be redeposited on the fabric surface leading to
harshness and greying [92]. Phosphates are extremely effective but are
banned in many countries as they are supposed to cause eutrophication
of water systems. Zeolites and citrates are becoming important in recent
detergents [93]. Zeolites can be used as a substitute or partial replacement
for phosphates in areas where phosphates are banned. Citrates are becom-
ing increasingly more important in liquid detergents [94].
Generally, laundry detergents come in two forms such as heavy-duty
and light-duty. Heavy-duty (all-purpose) products are used for general
laundry, whereas light-duty products are designed for hand washing deli-
cate items or lightly soiled clothing [95]. In addition to soaps and deter-
gents, alkaline salts or combinations of these are used for cleaning. These
cleaning agents remove soil by one of the following mechanisms:
• Lowering surface and interfacial tension,

• Solubilisation of soil,
• Suspension and/or emulsification of removed soil, and
• Inactivation of water hardness, and
• Neutralisation of acid soil, particularly the saponification of fatty
acids (soap formation).
Low-temperature and warm-water washing is a common practice

nowadays compared to hot-water washing that was used previously [96].
The manufacturers of detergents suggest their use at a range of tempera-
tures. However, specific soaps and detergents are more effective within a
narrow range of temperature.
The effectiveness of a washing process depends on a range of variables
related to the washing machine and nature of the detergent. The range
of variables involved during washing includes: (1) washing conditions –
washing time, temperature, rinsing time, agitation, temperature and vol-
ume of water; and (2) detergent type – nature of detergent, concentration,
electrolyte and redeposition inhibitor [97].
Bruce et al. [98] evaluated the effectiveness of liquid detergents of
varying formulations (unbuilt and built) in cleaning a standard soiled fab-
ric in soft water (5 ppm). It was found that under the standard conditions,
although not significant, the unbuilt liquid detergents produced better
results in both warm and hot water. While washing in soft water, liquid
detergents are not as temperature-dependent as powdered detergents in
their ability to clean the samples.
The detergents used today have undergone several changes.
Manufacturers are attempting to make sustainable products wholly or in
part of natural raw materials such as oils from plant sources (i.e., palm,
corn) or alcohols [99–101]. These new detergents perform effectively in

cold water and produce better results compared to earlier detergents.
These new detergents consists of builders, bleach activators and enzymes
that work well at low temperatures. Table 2.4 compares traditional deter-
gents with the contemporary detergent formulations.
2.1.4 Other washing aids

Laundering aids include bleaches, disinfectants, softeners and starch [2].
Bleaches are used to aid detergents in producing a cleaner and brighter
fabric appearance [102]. The laundering bleaches most commonly used
are liquid chlorine (strong), powdered chlorine (mild) and oxygen (weak)
[102–104]. Chlorine bleaches can help to improve the whiteness of white
clothing if used in a washing cycle [105]. However, they should not be
used for coloured items. The hypochlorite ion, which is an oxidising
agent, is the chemically active ingredient in liquid chlorine bleach [106].
These bleaches are the most effective stain removers but present a higher
risk of damaging clothes. They should not be used for wool, silk, spandex,
acetate fibres or their blends. Bleaches should be used in accordance with
the care instructions to prevent damage to fabric dyes and finishes.
The action of powdered chlorine bleach is similar to that of liquid,
but is gentler in action. The group of chemicals in these bleaches are
N-chloro compounds, which release bleaching ingredients more slowly.
Powdered chlorine bleaches should never be sprinkled directly on clothes
as they can cause damage. Oxygen bleaches are the safest and maintain
the brightness of white and coloured items if used regularly.
Disinfectants are used to reduce the amount of bacteria surviving in
hot water and laundry detergents [107,108]. Bacteria may be spread by laun-
dering if they are not killed by home laundry methods [97]. Quaternary
ammonium, phenolic and pine oil disinfectants are commonly used laun-
dry disinfectants [109]. Quaternary ammonium disinfectants should be
added to the rinse water and phenolic disinfectants can be added either
to the rinse or wash cycles. Pine oil disinfectants and chlorine bleaches
should be added to the wash cycle. Liquid chlorine bleaches can also act
as a disinfectant for fibres on which chlorine can be used. A very small
amount of hypochlorite (about 20 ppm) in the washing liquid can destroy
the bacteria present in a normal family wash load.
Softeners are used to reduce or eliminate the static charge in synthetic
fibres, to make fabric softer, fluffier, and easier to iron, to minimise wrin-
kling and to help in preventing lint sticking to garments [3,110]. Softeners
are also used to retain or improve the softness of the clothing such as towels,
clothes with a velvet effect. A lubricating film is created on the fibres by the
application of softeners, which allows them to move more readily against
each other, thus making the fabric softer and fluffier [111–113]. In synthetic
Table 2.4 Comparison of detergents – traditional and contemporary alternatives
Chapter two:
Component Traditional Contemporary
Surfactants Anionic: soap, fatty alcohol sulfates, linear alkyl Anionic: Methyl ester sulfonate (MES)
benzene sulfonate Nonionic: methyl ester ethoxylates alkyl polyethoxide
Non-ionic: alcohol ethoxylates, alkylphenol (APE)
Cleaning of textile materials

ethoxylates; e.g., nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE), Blends: Alcohol ethoxylates/ethanol amines
ethylene oxide/propylene oxide, alkylpolyethers
Builders Tripolyphosphates, carbonates, silicates, zeolites, Polycarboxylates, soda ash/silicate, polyacrylates,
citrates, organophosphonates silicate/carbonate cogranule,
hydroxyethyliminodiacetic acid (CEN 08)
Foam depressants — Silicones, soap for high-efficiency (HE) detergents
Anti-redeposition Carboxymethyl cellulose Acrylate polymers, carboxymethylinulin from chicory
agents root, amylases for startch-based stains, cellulases for
cotton fuzz removal, proteases to break down protein,
stains, lipases for oil-based soils, mannases for
carbohydrates of the mannan family (e.g., guar gum)
Bleach Perborates, percarbonates + activator Perborate + cold-water activator tetraacetyl ethylene,
percarbonate with manganese-based activator
Colour protection Polyvinylpyrrolidone Dye transfer inhibitor-imidazole derivatives
Optical brighteners Stilbene, azole, coumarin, pyrazoline derivatives 0.05–0.3% fluorescent shitening agents (FWA)in most
commercial detergents
Soil-release agents — Soil-release polymers (SRP), delivered by the detergent
coat low polarity fibre surfaces with a very thin layer of
amphiphilic (hydrophilic) polymer
Filler Sodium sulfate Reduced amount of filler
Miscellaneous Fragrance, colour beads, opacifiers, anti-caking Many are fragrance free and/or have no colour beads
agents to improve flow of powders
15
fibres, the lubricating film absorbs moisture from the air, which helps to
reduce the generation of static. Fabric softeners can be added to the wash,
rinse or drying cycle. Some softeners are manufactured to be compatible
with detergents and other laundering aids. Softeners should be added in
the approved concentrations and at the appropriate time of the cycle.
One of the oldest laundering aids is starch, which is still used in
home laundering [114,115]. Starch is used to: (1) obtain a crisp, stiff and
shiny fabric appearance, (2) help to keep a garment clean for a longer time,
(3) replace the original finish applied to the fabric by the manufacturer
and (4) facilitate stain removal as soiling is removed with the starch dur-
ing washing. Starches may be classified as precooked vegetable starches,
starch substitutes and aerosol starches [116].
2.2 Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning is the process of cleaning clothing items and other textiles
using a chemical solvent other than water [117,118]. Dry cleaning is used
to remove soil and stains from delicate fabrics, which cannot withstand
the conditions used in the washing machine and dryer. As the name indi-
cates, dry cleaning is not completely dry, rather it is performed with the
use of various solvents and/or other chemicals instead of water.
In the majority of the cases, the solvent used is perchloroethylene or
tetrachloroethylene. Perchloroethylene, or simply the ‘perc’ or ‘PCE’, has
excellent cleaning abilities, is non-flammable, gentle to most garments and
stable at the dry cleaning conditions [119–122]. However, perc was the first
chemical to be classified as a carcinogen by the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (a classification later withdrawn) [123]. In the year 1993, the
California Air Resources Board (CARB) adopted regulations to reduce the
emissions of perc from dry cleaning operations. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) also followed suit in the same year. The EPA
updated this regulation in 2006 to reflect the availability of improved
emission controls.
If a care label in the clothing indicates ‘Dry clean only’, it should be
taken to the commercial dry cleaner to avoid any physical damage and for
the best results. Otherwise, the clothing can be hand washed. However,
the clothing should not be machine washed, which may result in shrink-
age, colour loss, other damage and/or the fabric may lose its softness. Dry
cleaning cannot remove all the stains and soiling from the garment. In
some cases, the stains have the tendency to be permanently set in the fibre
and the fabric, or the buttons and decorative beads can be permanently
damaged due to dry cleaning. Hence, it is essential that consumers as well
as the dry cleaners understand the care instructions before the dry clean-
ing process. The process has to be performed in accordance with the care
instructions indicated by the textile manufacturers on the products.
A combination of lye, water, ammonia and a kind of clay was initially

used to remove oil stains on the garments. All discussions on the origin of
dry cleaning agree that it was the surprising removal of stains after pouring
and the evaporation of a petrol-based liquid on a greasy fabric. Thus, ‘dry
cleaning’ is a cleaning process that uses solvents to remove soils and stains
on the articles. The misnomer arises from the avoidance of water for cleaning.
Textile products and garments received at the dry cleaning store
should first be categorised by their colour. Light- and dark-coloured items
should never be cleaned together as mentioned in the laundering section.
Light colours should be cleaned using fresh chemicals to avoid colour
weakness. Dark colours can be cleaned by previously used chemicals that
have been thoroughly distilled and filtered.
The products received for dry cleaning are kept subject to the clean-
ing operation according to the symbols on the care labels and grouping.
Owners of the product should be informed if the product is, or suspected
to be, not suitable for dry cleaning operations, and the cleaning method of
the product should be determined according to this notification.
2.2.1 Dry cleaning solvents

Fluids other than water are used in the dry cleaning process. In the early
days, garment scourers and dryers identified several fluids that could be
used as dry cleaning solvents. These included camphene, benzene, ker-
osene and gasoline, all of which are dangerously flammable [124–127].
Hence, dry cleaning was a hazardous business until safer solvents were
developed. In the 1930s, perc (a non-flammable, synthetic solvent) was
introduced and is still used today in many dry cleaning plants.
Perc has been widely used in dry cleaning since the 1940s and until
today, it is the most common solvent. Other cleaning solvents such as
hydrocarbons, modified hydrocarbon blends, glycol ethers, liquid silicone,
liquid carbon dioxide (CO2), brominated solvents and siloxanes are also
being used for dry cleaning, which are considered as eco-friendly or green
solvents [128–131]. In addition to these solvents, some other solvents used
include camphor oil, turpentine spirits, benzene, kerosene, white gasoline,
petroleum solvents (primarily petroleum naphtha blends), chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane and
1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, these solvents are not in commercial use
due to the environmental impacts, cost and other factors.
Generally, the dry cleaning solvents are used at the ambient tempera-
ture (about 20°C). Unlike the laundering, the solvent used in dry cleaning
is not heated during the cleaning cycle. The heat is used only in the dry-
ing process to remove the excessive solvent from the garments. Later on,
these solvents can be recycled by appropriate processes for reuse in the
subsequent dry cleaning cycles.
2.2.2 Other chemicals
Other chemicals used during dry cleaning include detergents, chemicals
for size retention and other speciality chemicals. The detergents perform
the following functions during dry cleaning:
1. Help in the removal of water-soluble soils as they carry moisture,

2. Help in the suspension of soil after the soil is being removed from
the fabric, and
3. Act as a spotting agent to penetrate into the fabric so that the stains
are easily removed.
The detergents can be introduced into the dry cleaning machines by

two different systems, namely: the charged systems and injection sys-
tems [132]. In the charged systems, the detergent is added to the solvent
or ‘charged’ at a certain percentage on the weight of the solvent (1–2%).
These systems use anionic detergents. In commercial operations, solvents
containing anionic detergent or pre-charged solvents are being used.
In injection systems, the solvent is added to the wheel of the dry clean-
ing machine saturating the garments, and the detergent is injected into
the flow line or into the drum of the dry cleaning machine by a pump.
Cationic detergents are appropriate for these systems.
Sizing chemicals are used during dry cleaning for retaining the
size, shape, body and texture of the fabric. These chemicals are based on
hydrocarbon resins such as alpha methyl styrene and styrene. The chemi-
cals can be used either in the solid (powder) form or in the liquid form.
The solid form is used with perc dry cleaning. The majority of the liquid
sizing chemicals has a petroleum-solvent carrier even up to a volume per-
centage of 50. The sizing chemicals can be added in three different ways
to a dry cleaning machine such as by a continuous bath in the machine,
by dipping clothes in a tank of sizing chemicals and by spraying the aero-
sol form of the sizing chemicals on the garments after they have been
dry cleaned. In the continuous bath process, 0.5–1.5 wt% sizing chemical
is added to the dry cleaning machine, whereas, in the dipping process,
1–4 wt% is being used.
In addition, the liquid sizing chemicals carry optical brightening
agents (OBAs) and antistatic agents [133]. OBAs have been widely used
in laundry detergents for several years. Recently, they have been used in
dry cleaning as well. The OBAs are used to improve the whiteness of the
fabric after dry cleaning. The OBAs are normally added to the dry clean-
ing detergents or the sizing chemicals. Some other speciality chemicals
such as bactericides and fabric conditioners are also used during dry
cleaning to achieve some specific functions. In addition, antistatic and
antilint agents (to prevent the build-up and retention of lint) are being
used during dry cleaning. Some of the antistatic agents are based on the
chemicals such as sulphonated polystyrene or sulphonated polystyrene/
maleic anhydride polymers. In some instances, fabric conditioners are
being used during the dry cleaning to condition or restore the lustre and
shine of clothing made of leather, suede and silk. These conditioners are
based on petroleum naphtha or a perc-based solvent.
2.3 Dry cleaning versus wet cleaning

There is a fundamental difference between the wet cleaning and dry
cleaning operations, which the consumers should thoroughly under-
stand. The garment should be treated by a professional organisation (wet/
dry cleaning if they are labelled so). For several years the dry cleaners
have wet cleaned a small percentage of their wash load either by hand
or small washers. However, dry cleaning and wet cleaning differ in the
use of solvents and other washing aids. In addition, they also differ in the
degree of cleaning and effectiveness in removing special stains [134]. Each
process has its own benefits and limitations as described below.
2.3.1 Benefits of wet cleaning

• No hazardous chemicals are used, hence no air pollution and lower
water pollution [135].
• Easy removal of water-based stains; whites look whiter and better
soil removal from some garments.
• A wide range of fibre types such as wool, silk, linen, cotton, leather/
suede, wedding gowns and garments decorated with beads can be
wet cleaned.
• Wet cleaning much cheaper compared to dry cleaning as solvents
are used in the latter process, which are more expensive than water.
• Wet cleaned clothes are free from chemical odor unlike dry cleaned
clothes, which can retain strong odor after dry cleaning. Softening
agents used give a pleasant smell to the clothes.
• Wet cleaning consumes about 50% less energy than dry cleaning,
hence, is energy efficient.
2.3.2 Limitations of wet cleaning

In spite of these advantages, the wet cleaning suffers from certain disad-
vantages such as [1,17,136,137]:
• Shrinkage, wrinkling, surface changes, felting, loss of lustre and

dye-bleeding problems can occur, which need special care to avoid
the problems.
• The clothes may undergo change in the dimensions leading to

shrinkage or stretching and improper fit.
• Although there are no organic solvents used, a large amount of water
is used in wet cleaning leading to large quantities of contaminated
wastewater.
• Unable to remove some hard grease, oils and wax-based stains.
• Can cause additional ergonomic risks to workers as it is labor
intensive.
2.3.3 Benefits of dry cleaning

• Better cleaning efficiency compared to wet cleaning to effectively
remove some stains, oil marks and greases.
• Reduces shrinkage, wrinkling, colour fading and distortion of the
fabric.
• The original properties of the material are better retained.
• Protects texture and increases the durability of clothes.
• Dry cleaning facilities have started to use eco-friendly solvents and
chemicals that disintegrate easily and are less harmful. These chem-
icals do not produces odor, or produce reduced odor, and clothes
smell fresher and feel better.
2.3.4 Limitations of dry cleaning

The dry cleaning process has the following limitations [138,139]:
• People with sensitive skin may have negative reactions to the chemi-
cals used in the dry cleaning process.
• The use of perc can enter the body through dermal and respiratory
exposure leading to irritations of the eye, nose and throat; damage
to the liver and kidneys; impaired memory; confusion; dizziness;
headache; and drowsiness. Repeated dermal exposure can lead to
dermatitis [140–142].
• Only skilled people can perform this as a higher health risk is asso-
ciated with dry cleaning.
2.4 Drying
The process of removing excess water from clothes after washing or the
final rinse is known as drying. Generally, the dry fabric is not free from
moisture, but is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the ambient atmo-
sphere. The dynamic equilibrium represents a state of constant mois-
ture content where the rate of moisture lost equals the rate of moisture
absorbed. While drying the clothes, it is important to read the care labels
and understand the conditions the fabric can withstand while drying.
Inappropriate conditions can lead to the shrinkage of clothes or damage
to the fabric. The clothes can be dried in shade or sunlight or by using a
dryer. Drying the clothes in a dryer saves time and is essential when the
climatic conditions do not allow the clothes to be dried outside. The fol-
lowing instructions can help to dry the clothes properly during drying.
Various types of drying are discussed below [143,144].
Line drying: This is the simplest method of drying and requires the
garment to be hung on a clothesline so that it can attain equilibrium with
the ambient atmosphere. This is generally used in geographical areas
where the ambient temperature is high enough so that the drying occurs
in a reasonable time period. The time also depends on the amount of
moisture to be removed, the material type, the wind speed and the rela-
tive humidity [111].
Spin drying or hydroextraction: This is done by subjecting the wet
clothes to a centrifugal force [145,146]. The major concern in spin drying is
that the applied force can result in crease formation and in certain cases
result in permanent creases. Some delicate fabrics like silk can be dam-
aged by this process. Spin drying has been found to be more effective in
removing water and produces more consistent results. However, heat-set
and wrinkle-resist garments are best candidates for this treatment.
Tumble drying: The residual liquid water after the clothes are spun
dried in a washer is generally removed by turning the water into steam
by heating and then extracting the steam [147,148]. Heating for a specific
amount of time can convert the liquid water into vapour and can make the
clothes completely dry. This principle is used in drying the clothes using
equipment known as a tumble dryer. While drying, a massive amount of
hot, humid air is generated, which needs to be effectively extracted from
the drying chamber [149]. A huge amount of electrical energy is needed to
produce steam from water.
While using a tumble dryer, the lint trap (or the lint screen) should be
always cleaned before the start of the drying cycle. This helps the dryer
to work more efficiently, and any chance of fire is reduced as dryer lint
is very combustible. While adding the load to a dryer, shaking out the
clothes before putting them into the dryer helps to prevent wrinkles and
reduces drying time. The dryer should never be overloaded in an idea of
saving time as it will have the opposite effect [150]. The overloaded clothes
will take longer to dry and get more wrinkled as enough room is not
available in the dryer for the clothes to fluff out.
A dryer sheet can be added to the dryer, if liquid fabric softener is not
used during the wash cycle. The dryer sheet helps to soften the clothes,
as well as reduce the static cling. The correct cycle should be selected for
the clothes depending on the fibre type such as: (1) air dry cycle: should
be selected for fluffing pillows or refreshing clothes as the heating is the
minimum; (2) gentle cycle: for delicate items like lingerie and workout
clothes; (3) permanent press cycle: for synthetic fabrics; and (4) cotton
cycle: for towels, jeans, sweats and other heavy fabrics as the heat is at the
maximum in this cycle. When the drying cycle is completed, the clothes
should be removed from the dryer as soon as possible to prevent wrinkles.
The clothes should be neatly folded or hung to avoid wrinkles.
Outdoor drying: The earliest method of drying clothes, still used
today, is outdoor drying [144]. Outdoor drying or air drying of clothes
has several advantages such as: (1) no electrical energy is used, hence it
is ecofriendly; (2) it generally leaves the clothes fresh; and (3) the house is
free from being damp. The disadvantages of outdoor drying include: (1)
a longer time taken to dry, which can range from a few hours to several
hours or even a day or more; (2) the chances of rain water wetting the
clothes; (3) the risk of theft; and (4) the possibility of air pollution making
the clothes dirty again.
Clothing can be dried at any temperature above the freezing tempera-
ture, which is accentuated by dry air. The best conditions for outdoor dry-
ing include warm, windy conditions, when the humidity is relatively low.
Hence, summer days are more efficient in drying the clothes than the win-
ter days. Outdoor drying in winter may instead cool down the water and
turn to ice, which in turn slows down the drying process. Hang drying
the clothes helps the air to move faster around the clothes as compared to
flat drying.
Indoor drying: The indoor drying of clothes is still widely used in
many places. However, this method of drying has several disadvantages
rather than advantages, which are discussed below:
• Drying clothes indoors takes more time than outdoor drying.

• Energy is needed to dry the clothes indoors, which should be
derived from some sources. The energy needed to evaporate water
from the clothes is derived from the ambient air, which results in
cooling down slightly [151,152]. This in turn results in more cost of
heating the room in cold.
• The water vapour that evaporates from the clothes condensates as
damp or mould on the walls. This can be avoided by opening the
windows, which in turn causes more expense because of the loss of
heat energy.
People are encouraged to dry more clothes indoors during prolonged wet
weather to reduce the fuel bills involved in using tumble dryers. This
could pose health risks especially in people prone to asthma, by increas-
ing moisture inside the living area that encourages moulds and dust
mites. The indoor drying of clothes that contain fabric conditioner is likely
to increase the amount of cancer-causing chemicals in the air.
Indoor drying can also lead to increased energy usage as radiators are
often turned up to help the drying process, which in turn worsens the fuel
consumption. It is a good practice to dry the laundry outdoors whenever
possible, or to use energy-efficient, condensing tumble dryers when out-
door drying is not possible. If the clothes need to be dried indoors, they
should be placed in ventilated areas where an abundance of natural light
is available and, if possible, heat is also available.
2.5 Pressing
Garments are pressed to remove any creases and present the garment in
an attractive condition suitable for sale. Garment presentation to the con-
sumer is a vital step in the finishing of a product [153]. The opinion of
the customer is an integral step in brand recognition. A poorly presented
product will have a detrimental effect on the brand’s quality and therefore
product saleability. A badly creased garment will lower its retail value and
thus the manufacturer’s sale margin. Pressing therefore is an important
step in the production process. Pressing should accomplish the following:
• Removal of all manufacturing creases and wrinkles.

• Clarity of pleats if there are pleats present (such as in skirts and
trousers).
• Uniformity of collars and cuffs if present.
• Stabilising the garment, particularly in the case of wool knitwear, to
retain the desired shape.
• Relaxation of any stresses induced during the garment manufacture.
In order to achieve good pressing quality, there are four basic parameters
that need to be controlled to meet optimum performance, which include
heat, moisture, pressure and finally cooling with a vacuum. The impor-
tance of each parameter is discussed as below.
Heat is required in most pressing operations to enable the fibres to
soften and thus stabilise the garment shape. Temperature selection is of
utmost importance as an incorrect temperature setting can cause damage
to fibres and yarns.
Moisture is introduced by the use of steam. Steam at different
pressures has different moisture contents. The higher the steam pres-
sure, the lower the moisture in the steam. The presence of moisture
is required to aid in fibre swelling and thus shape stabilisation [154].
Different fibres require different amounts of moisture. For example,
natural fibres, such as cotton and wool, and regenerated cellulose fibres,
such as bamboo viscose and viscose rayon, require the presence of mois-
ture in the steam and therefore, steaming tables are usually preferred.
On the other hand, synthetic fibres require heat to promote swelling
and therefore relaxation of the structure. Excessive moisture may cause

fabric shrinkage and colour bleeding.
Pressure is applied to the garment during pressing to give good
crease retention and permanency [154,155]. Excessive pressure may result
in garment or crease distortion.
Vacuum is applied at the completion of the pressing operation. This
draws cool air through the garment, reducing the garment temperature,
lowering the moisture content and increases shape retention. Particularly
for garments made from wool and wool blends, this also applies to cotton
and viscose blends with synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon.
2.6 Cleaning of protective textiles

The technological developments have helped to achieve improved perfor-
mance of the technical textiles by the use of advanced materials, finishes
and techniques. However, the method of care and maintenance of these
protective textiles, which greatly influences the protective performance,
has not changed much. The severity of the laundering processes, washing
parameters and the chemicals used should be carefully decided to retain
the properties. In many cases, the use of high wash temperatures, exces-
sive detergent, chlorine bleach and other attempts to remove soil, stains
and odours can deteriorate fabric properties.
Appropriate care and maintenance of personal protective clothing
(PPC) is important to the manufacturer, supplier and critical to the user.
The safety of the user depends on the performance of the PPC to a great
extent. In addition to proper cleaning, the care and maintenance proce-
dure should remove the contaminants from the PPC that may affect the
performance. This is essential to maintain the performance throughout
the life of the PPC. Hence, to achieve this, the selection process for any
PPC should consider the nature of contaminants and soiling, including
their care and maintenance procedure.
Depending on the nature of the protective textile, the method of
cleaning varies. The protective textiles might include a care label describ-
ing the methods of cleaning and things to be avoided [156]. Following the
care instructions will help in retaining the properties of the protective
textiles. Commercial detergents contain brighteners, fragrances, softeners
and other additives, which may leave residues, leading to clogged pores
in the fabric. Hence, specially formulated detergents that help to maintain
the performance should be used.
Some of the protective textiles are coated with specialty coatings to
improve the performance and/or comfort [157]. These items can be cleaned
by general laundering or dry cleaning as per the instructions on the care
label. However, in many cases, special care is needed during these pro-
cesses as the coating is sensitive to temperature, chemicals and mechanical
action. Furthermore, ironing is not possible in these coated materials, as

it may negatively affect the coating. The traditional detergents used for
apparel fabrics contain softeners, fragrances and brighteners that may not
be appropriate for PPCs as they can leave residues, leading to clogged
fabric pores. The washing chemicals and other aids that may otherwise
deteriorate the properties of the finishing should be properly removed
from the clothing. The detergents specially formulated or recommended
for the PPCs should be used so that functionality is maintained.
The presence of sweat, food, chemicals and blood stains is obvious
due to the protective function of the PPCs. Any attempts to remove these
by laundering or dry cleaning using inappropriate chemicals or methods
can ruin the performance. The other problem associated with cleaning
of the PPCs is the unknown chemical formulation. In several cases, the
composition of the detergent or solvent and additives are not known to the
user, which can cause serious concern about the clothing.
Another important consideration while cleaning the protective cloth-
ing is retaining the comfort properties in addition to the performance [158].
The cleaning methods adopted can change the dimensions, shape, physi-
cal properties or the texture of the fabrics, which may impair the comfort
features of the clothing. The protective clothing may become uncomfort-
able to wear for extended periods, which may lead to the rejection of the
same during the intended work. This increases the risk of hazards dur-
ing the regular work. Hence, the personal protective clothing should be
cleaned in such a way that it retains its: (1) protection level, (2) shape and
dimensions and (3) comfort features.
The application of various functional finishes to protective textiles
can alter their wicking behaviour and wettability, which in turn can affect
the launderability of these items. The changes in the surface properties
and pore volume are the major causes of the change in the properties. The
nature and concentration of the finishes applied to the fabric affects the
degree of change. For example, Rhee et al. [159] investigated the effect of a
durable-press finish, stain-repellent finish and an antistatic finish on the
laundering performance.
Apparel textiles are often rejected due to their change in appear-
ance during wear, cleaning and storage [159,160]. However, for protective
clothing, more than appearance, protection is the main requirement. The
rejection of these garments is based on the amount of loss of the protec-
tion level or failure to meet the standard specification. Improper cleaning
methods may not properly clean the items, which may affect the perfor-
mance. For example, residual oil in a PPC worn by an oilfield worker may
make the PPC flammable and fail to meet the specifications.
In several instances, the PPCs are rejected on the basis of general
observation rather than performance evaluation as performance evalua-
tion involves destructive objective tests. Hence, subjective observations by
experts decide the future fate of the PPC, which depends on the interpreta-
tion of the change in appearance. Therefore, a PPC approved as usable by
the expert may fail to meet the specification or an unapproved PPC may be
suitable for usage. For the protective clothing with multiple layers such as
firefighter’s PPC, or PPC for cold weather protection, this subjective method
is problematic as the observation of the internal layer(s) is very difficult.
The PPCs should be regularly cleaned before they are very dirty or
heavily contaminated, otherwise it will be very hard to clean them. If
embedded particulate matter or oily stains are not promptly removed, oxi-
dation of the oils will make them less soluble and very hard to remove [161].
The protective clothing with oil stains may not fulfill the flame resistance
[162]. Almost all the protective clothing should be regularly cleaned and
stored in a ventilated area away from heat. They should never be stored
without cleaning.
The PPCs can be cleaned by domestic or industrial laundering pro-
cesses. For achieving the best results, the parameters used for launder-
ing and drying should be established experimentally. These parameters
are essential for certification of the protective clothing. The establishment
of a care and maintenance procedure for various PPCs is a tedious pro-
cess. The steps involved are: (1) analysing the requirements of the PPC, (2)
identification and selection of the right PPC to provide the required pro-
tection and (3) the establishment of the right protocol for the care and
maintenance of the care procedure. The first two steps are accomplished
by reviewing the standards, Internet searches, legal requirements, peers
in the groups and industrial practices based on the nature of the hazard.
For the final step, it is essential to have the knowledge of the fibres, fabrics,
other materials, garments and finishes used to prepare the PPC.
Many organisations dealing with PPC consider care and maintenance
procedure as one of the key criteria when purchasing a PPC. It is essential
to understand the types of soils that will be coming in contact with the
PPC during the work and the cleaning process for the same. It is always
imperative to select industrial laundering for the PPC as these facilities
use detergents and equipment that are not used in home laundering. In
addition, industrial laundering facilities provide repair and inspection
services that can cover repairing of minor damages such as tears, holes
and cuts. These processes can increase the serviceability of the PPC.
Industrial laundering facilities can deal with almost any types of
stains and soiling deposited in the PPC. It is essential for these facilities to
understand the type of the soil in the PPC for effective removal, to avoid
any possible damage to the fabric and health hazards to the personnel.
These laundries should collect the care and maintenance instructions
from the manufacturer in order to prevent any damage to the protection
performance of the PPC. Furthermore, they can also assist in the testing
and evaluation of the PPC to monitor the performance over their life cycle.
In several instances it may be possible that the grease or oil stains or

other contaminants are not sufficiently removed from the PPC. Hence,
commercial dry cleaning facilities should be used for the effective removal.
If home laundering by the employees is selected for care and main-
tenance, it is essential for the employees to completely understand the
process and parameters for the same. Initially, discussions should be
organised with the manufacturer or supplier for a thorough understand-
ing of the care instructions. In addition to the care instructions on the
PPC, the employees should be provided with written instructions. This
will help other people in cleaning the PPC instead of the employee. The
restrictions on the PPC, such as to avoid bleach or high heat, should be
fully understood by them. For any hard to remove soil or stains, the spe-
cial process to be followed should be explained to the employees.
The number of laundering cycles has a direct impact on the per-
formance of the PPC. Hence, the launderer should keep a record of the
number of cycles. Some of the manufacturers provide a guarantee of the
serviceability to a specific number of washing cycles. Once these numbers
of cycles are reached, the PPC should be removed from service as they may
not be able to render the desired protection. However, suitable inspection
methods should be established to find out the end of life of PPCs.
The users of PPC can check the general features such as the working
of zippers, snap fasteners, buttons, opening of seams, presence of cuts or
tears and the presence of stains or other chemicals (from odour). This self-
inspection can be performed on a regular basis such as weekly or monthly,
or the PPC can be inspected by the qualified people in the organisation. If
during an inspection it is found that repairing is needed, it should be done
using the right material and method so that the performance is not dete-
riorated. It is a good habit to keep the details of the repairs of each PPC so
that the performance can be detected throughout its lifetime.
Each organisation should establish their care and maintenance pro-
tocols for PPC. They should also keep a record of the new, in service and
used PPCs. It is essential that the PPCs returned for storage should be
cleaned and the storage area must be dry, clean and away from direct
sunlight.
In many instances there may be remaining marks of stains still pres-
ent on the PPC or a discolouration of the PPC. This does not indicate the
PPC has met its end of life. A proper quantitative evaluation is essential
for the same. The end of life of a PPC can also be set by the organisation
by fixing a retirement date from the service date or the conditions the gar-
ment needs to be removed from service. After removal from service, the
PPCs should be disposed or destroyed in an appropriate manner to avoid
disposal and sensitivity issues.
There are several standards that cover the care and maintenance
procedures used for different types of PPC. Some of the standards cannot
be used as standalone for the PPC. They have to be used in combina-

tion with other standards. For example, EN 340 used for the ageing and
other selection criteria of PPC is used in combination with International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 11612 for heat and flame protec-
tion. The following section describes the care and maintenance procedures
to be followed for PPCs used for ballistic, stab, chemical and antibacterial
protection.
2.6.1 Cleaning of firefighter’s clothing

The useful life of a firefighter’s personal protective clothing (FFPPC) is the
time for which the FFPPC provides acceptable protection. Factors such as
material, design, degree of exposure and intensity of flame, the mainte-
nance and storage procedures affect the useful life of FFPPC. The frequent
use of the FFPPC makes it soiled with contaminants and body excretions.
This in turn can reduce the protection needed leading to flame resistance
failure. Hence, proper care and maintenance is needed for FFPPC to
remove the contaminants. This section will deal with the care and main-
tenance of the FFPPC and its influence on its performance.
The FFPPC may consist of multiple layers with different functions.
The washing protocols used for one layer may not be appropriate for the
other layers. In some instances these layers are detachable, and can be
washed separately. However, in an integrated FFPPC with multiple layers,
appropriate protocols are necessary.
The firefighter’s clothing may be either home or industrial laundered
to successfully remove most types of flammable and non-flammable soils
[163]. However, home laundry detergents may not always be successful
in removing some types of soiling such as heavy greases and oily soils.
If flammable soils are not completely removed, the flame resistance of
the garment may be compromised. The thermal protection of the flame-
resistant clothing can be compromised by the contaminants on the surface.
Although the fabrics may satisfy the requirements of flame protection as
evaluated by the standard test, the presence of flammable contaminants
in the uniform can burn easily, until consumed, leading to inadequate
protection to the wearer. Hence, it is necessary to clean these flammable
contaminants by appropriate methods prior to reuse. Laundering and
scrubbing are the major maintenance procedures for firefighter’s protec-
tive clothing. It is to be emphasised that laundering affects the ageing pro-
cess chemically and mechanically to a significant level.
The fabrics selected for the preparation of the FFPPC should be able
to withstand the protocols used for washing and dry cleaning [158,163].
In addition, the finishes applied should also withstand these processes.
Washing detergent, the load, temperature and rinsing cycle should be
carefully selected. The use of softeners, starch, bleach and other washing
aids should be carefully considered as they can alter the performance of

flame protection. Softeners and starches can deposit on the surface of the
fabric altering the performance, whereas exposure to bleach can destroy
the luminescence of the surface. Heavily soiled ensembles with particu-
late or abrasive soils should be pre-washed at 40°C initially, which will
help to reduce abrasion in the wash wheel.
There are a gamut of detergents designed to be used in a range of
washing temperatures with no adverse effect on the FFPPC. The deter-
gents and washing protocols should be carefully selected to clean the
soiled garment thoroughly, even considering a supplemental alkalinity
and higher wash temperature. Light and dark colours in the load should
be isolated as well as heavy- and light-soiled items. Loading the washer
lower than the maximum capacity will provide the best results. The wash
temperature is selected depending on the degree of soiling and the nature
of the material used in the FFPPC. Although, a higher temperature is bet-
ter for heavily soiled FFPPC, the care instructions and the compatibility
with the washing chemical should be checked. In some instances, a higher
temperature may cause problems of shrinkage, colour loss or change in
the appearance.
A majority of the detergents commercially available are alkaline
with a pH value ranging from 9 to 13, which effectively remove the
soil and other contaminants in the fabric. A higher temperature, longer
cycle and supplemental alkalinity can be used to remove more aggres-
sive soil and oil marks from the FFPPC. The use of soft water is recom-
mended for FFPPC [52,164]. The use of soaps can form insoluble scrums
with hard water, which gets deposited on the fabric. These scrums can
adversely affect the flame protection of the flame retardant (FR) cloth-
ing, as they are flammable. The protective clothing should be washed
and dried inside out, which will help in retaining the properties of the
outer layer. While laundering, the wash formulas and load sizes should
be established to minimise redeposition and fabric abrasion. Short
extract time can prevent wrinkle formation.
Residual alkalinity in the garments can cause skin irritation and
other problems [53]. Hence, it should be neutralised by the use of sour
in the final rinse cycle. The washed load should be thoroughly rinsed
to remove the washing chemicals. The combination of thorough sour-
ing and good rinsing will reduce the chances of dermatological reactions
from higher pH. In addition, if there is chemical residue in the FFPPC,
the FFPPC can be tested for FR as mentioned in the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) D6413, the standard test method for flame
resistance of textiles (vertical test). This test is performed in an enclosed
cabinet, where a controlled flame is exposed to the cut edge of fabrics
for 12 seconds. Five specimens are selected for each length and width
direction, which are mounted in metallic frames covered in three sides.
Parameters such as char length, afterglow and after flame are measured
to describe the FR performance.
ASTM 6413 is helpful to find out the performance of a single FFPPC or
even a group of aftercare producers. However, if the service history of the
group differs, each garment should be tested separately.
The tumble drying conditions should also be carefully selected.
Overdrying in many instances leads to shrinkage and hence should be
avoided. Overloading of the tumble dryer can reduce the drying efficiency
and result in improper drying. The removal of the FFPPCs while they
are slightly damp (5–10% moisture) and hang drying will produce good
results. The dried load should be instantly removed after the cycle is com-
pleted. Similarly, the pressing conditions should also be carefully selected
to retain the appearance and protection performance of the FFPPC. There
are several standards for the care and maintenance of the firefighter’s pro-
tective clothing followed around the globe as described in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Various standards for care and maintenance of firefighter’s

protective clothing [158]
Standard Purpose
ASTM F1449 Standard guide for industrial laundering of flame,
thermal, and arc-resistant clothing.
ASTM F2757 Standard guide for home laundering care and the
maintenance of flame, thermal and arc-resistant
clothing
CEN/TR 14560: 2003 Guidelines for selection, use, care and maintenance of
protective clothing against heat and flame.
ISO/TR 2801: 2007 (AS/ Clothing for protection against heat and flame-
NZS 2801: 2008) General recommendations for selection, care and use
of protective clothing.
NFPA 1851 Standard on selection, care, and maintenance of
protective ensembles for structural fire-fighting and
proximity fire-fighting
NFPA 1855 Standard for selection, care, and maintenance of
protective ensembles for technical rescue incidents
NFPA 2112 Standard on flame-resistant garments for protection
of industrial personnel against flash fire
NFPA 2113 Standard on selection, care, use, and maintenance of
flame-resistant garments for protection of industrial
personnel against short-duration thermal exposures.
ISO, International Standards Organisation; TR, Standardised document for information and
transfer of knowledge; CEN, Comite Europeen de normalization (European Committee for
Standardization); NFPA, National Fire Protection Association; AS/NZS, The Joint Australian/
New Zealand Standard.
ASTM F1449, developed in 1992 by the ASTM international subcom-

mittee F23.80, was useful in providing care and maintenance informa-
tion for industrial laundries. This standard describes garments soiled
by flammable substances such as solids, solvents, oils and petrochem-
icals with a flammability risk. If residues of these chemicals remain,
it can help in increasing the flammability risks. These chemicals have
strong odours, which help to detect the presence of residual chemicals
after laundering. Although this standard is helpful for industrial laun-
dering, it provides limited information related to home laundering.
ASTM F2757, developed by subcommittee F23.80 in 2009, provides
guidance for home laundering. This standard is intended for the use of
those who choose to select a home laundering programme for flame,
thermal and arc protective clothing. Although this standard does not rec-
ommend a home laundry procedure, it suggests following the garment
manufacturer’s care instructions. In addition, this standard lacks the
information on other problems such as stain removal instructions; use of
bleaches; use of soft water for laundering, etc. The standard along with the
manufacturer’s instructions can serve the purpose for home laundering of
the FFPPC.
Several standards describe the test method to inspect the durabil-
ity of the FR finish subjected to repeated laundering. For example, the
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) 135
(dimensional changes of fabrics after home laundering) is the most
widely used American standard. This standard is referred to in several
other standards for FFPPC and other PPCs such as ASTM F1930, ASTM
F1506, ASTM F2303 and the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) 70E.
The protocol mentioned in AATCC 135 was unable to keep pace
with the change in consumer choice. Hence, a set of guidelines was
devised by the AATCC and published as a separate monograph in the
AATCC technical manual. Monograph M6 from AATCC (the standard-
ization of home laundry test conditions) provides a set of guidelines for
laundering and drying for many types of garments or fabrics. ISO 6330
(textiles – domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing)
is the international standard similar to AATCC 135. This standard spec-
ifies protocols for fabrics, garments and other textiles that are home-
laundered and dried. There are 10 and 11 different washing procedures
for front-and top-loaders, respectively. In drying there are five processes
ranging from line to tumble drying.
ISO 15797 specifies test protocols and equipment used for the evalu-
ation of workwear of cotton and polyester/cotton (P/C) blends in indus-
trial laundering. This standard can also be used for FR clothing prepared
from the blends of other natural and synthetic fibre blends. NFPA 2112
describes that the FR garments should be tested for performance both
before and after 100 cycles of washing as well as drying. The laundering
protocol described in this standard is alkaline, which is used for heavily
soiled PPCs (Table 2.6).
The FRPPC can be broadly classified into two groups, namely inher-
ent FR or treated. The inherent FRPPC is prepared from synthetic fibres,
which are synthesised with FR chemicals in their molecular structure
during manufacturing. These materials are highly resistant to ignition
or burning. On the other hand, the treated FRPPCs are prepared from
natural fibres and treated with a FR finish in the fibre, fabric or garment
stage. The examples of the two classes include clothing prepared from
Nomex (inherently FR) and FR-treated cotton clothing such as Proban.
Other synthetic fibres such as polybenzimidazole (PBI), Basophil,
Kermel and carbon or oxidised polyacrylonitrile are inherently FR. In
many cases, the natural fibres can be blended with inherently FR fibres
to balance between the performance and comfort. Other fibres such as
Table 2.6 Specifications for industrial laundry formula specified in NFPA 2112
for testing the durability of FR textiles
Temperature Time Water Quantity per
Operation (°C) (min) level wash load (g)
Break 66 10 Low
Sodium metasilicate 17
or equivalent
Sodium 11
tripolyphosphate
Tergitol 15.S.9 or 22
equivalent
Drain 1
Carry-over 66 5 Low
Drain 1
Rinse 57 2 High
Drain 1
Rinse 48 2 High
Drain 1
Rinse 38 2 High
Drain 1
Sour 38 5 Low
Sodium silicofluoride 6
Drain 1
Extract 5
Source: NFPA 2112-2012. (Standard on flame-resistant clothing for protection of industrial
personnel against short-duration thermal exposures from fire)
polyester, viscose or modacrylic can also be treated with inherent FR

fibres to improve comfort, durability and reduced cost. In some cases,
all of these blending conditions may be selected for similar working
conditions.
The inherent FRPPC are not much affected by the detergents and
chemicals used during laundering or dry cleaning. But, the residual
chemicals or unremoved contaminants on these items may reduce the
flame protection. The treated FR fabrics gradually deteriorate if exposed
to conditions such as the use of chlorine or peroxide bleach. Inherently,
flame-resistant materials may change in colour or lose strength to some
extent, but their FR properties are retained with these chemicals.
The cellulosic fabrics treated with FR, Proban, which are used for fire
risks for a short duration, need special care to maintain flame retardant
characteristics for 50 washes. However, several independent tests have
shown that these garments pass flammability tests even after 100–150
washes. On the other hand, garments can fail in the flammability tests
after just a few washes if they are not washed properly. The following care
should be taken during laundering Proban garments:
• Proban-treated garments can be laundered in any conventional

washing machine.
• Use cold or warm water for both whites and colours (temperature
below 60°C).
• Select a wash cycle used for non-colourfast clothes.
• Only synthetic detergents (e.g., Dynamo, FAB, OMO, Radiant, Spree
or Surf) should be used.
• For heavily soiled articles, a short (up to 2 hours) pre-soak cycle may
be useful.
• Regular washing will prevent soiling buildup.
• Garments can be tumble dried (avoid over-drying as excessive
shrinkage may occur).
• Garments may be dry cleaned.
• Do not wash garments in traditional soap-based powders (e.g., Lux,
Velvet, Advance) as the soap powders can form flammable deposits
that may adversely affect the flame-retardant performance of the
fabric.
• Do not use hypochlorite bleaches as they can damage the finish and
can lead to the flame retardancy becoming ineffective.
While home laundering, a normal or cotton cycle can be selected at any

water temperature up to a maximum of 60°C using a typical home laun-
dry detergent. The use of tallow soaps containing animal fats should
be avoided. The garments should be turned inside out before washing
to reduce the chance of abrasion. The use of starch or fabric softeners

should be avoided as they may mask the performance and the particles
may facilitate burning.
It is essential that all the contaminants are completely removed from
the ensembles after the wash process. In some cases, the use of stain
removers is essential for complete cleaning. In addition, the use of hot
water can make detergents more effective in removing soils. If it is not
possible to remove all contaminants in home care, the garments should be
dry cleaned using perc. If garments become contaminated with flamma-
ble substances, they should be immediately removed and replaced with
clean flame-resistant ensembles.
The presence of stains or odours after laundering indicates improper
cleaning of the clothing. As the test involved in evaluating the perfor-
mance is destructive, it is not possible to assess their performance after
care procedures. Stains and contaminants remaining after laundering can
lead to discolouration of the fabric. Hence, care should be taken to prop-
erly clean the items to avoid contaminants catching fire. Dry cleaning can
be used to remove oils and greases, which are hard to remove. It is always
better to consult the manufacturer of the ensembles for detailed instruc-
tions in the case of difficulty in wet or dry cleaning.
2.6.2 Cleaning of body armour

The ballistic panels of soft body armour become saturated with perspi-
ration due to continual field use. The constituents of human perspira-
tion are mainly water along with small quantities of organic compounds
and inorganic salts. Human perspiration in the long-term can affect the
properties of ballistic materials [165]. The laundering of body armour is
not recommended by the manufacturers; even some standards specify
not to clean them. For example, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ),
who publishes standards for the testing of body armour, specifies not
to clean the ballistic panels and coverings. However, the carriers can
be washed and dried with conventional home-laundering techniques.
Hence, after several times, the wearers can attempt to deodorise and
clean the body armour by spraying the panels with odour neutraliser,
cologne, disinfecting sprays and/or wipe them with dilute solutions of
detergent or bleach.
Studies have shown that not only ageing reduces the ballistic per-
formance, but also the method of care and maintenance affects it. The
NIJ standard provides guidelines to evaluate the performance of body
armours in use. The guidelines provided by NIJ standard, can help to
extend the useful life of the armour that may save someone’s valuable life
one day. These suggestions are discussed below [166]:
Dos Do nots
Drip dry the armour indoors. Machine wash or dry the armour, as
machine washing can alter the
ballistic performance.
Regularly inspect the armour for cuts, Bleach the armour or use products
tears and other damages to the carrier containing bleach for care and
and ballistic elements. maintenance.
Contact the manufacturer with any Use commercial laundering facilities as
questions about care and maintenance they may use harsh chemicals that can
of the armour. affect the armour’s protection
performance.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions Dry clean the armour as dry cleaning
for the care and maintenance of the solvents can affect the armour’s
armour. A person should be aware of protection performance.
the cleaning methods before doing it. Dry the armour outdoors as some
ballistic fabrics degrade as a result of
ultraviolet (UV) exposure.
When necessary, hand wash the armour Do not attempt to repair the armour.
with a mild detergent in cold or warm Armour should be returned to the
water. Rinse it thoroughly to remove manufacturer for repairs or
all traces of detergent. replacement.
When washing the whole body armour is allowed (such as combat

clothing used for Tier 1 and UBACS (Under Body Armour Combat Shirt)),
they are routinely laundered. It is important to closely follow the care
instructions provided by the manufacturer as there is a strong impact
of the care process and chemicals on the performance [167]. Appropriate
methods of cleaning and storing can help to maximise its service life
and effectiveness of protection. It is always very important that the users
become better educated on how their vests should be cared, stored and
maintained. It’s an investment that can save an officer’s life.
The laundering of body armours negatively affects the physical and
mechanical properties like the apparel fabrics [168]. The effect of multiple
washing and drying cycles on the fragment protection was analysed by
Helliker et al. [169]. Woven para-aramid (a), para-aramid felt (b), hydro-
entangled UHMWPE (ultra-high-molecular weight polyethylene) felt (c)
and single jersey knit silk (d) was used in this study. It was observed that
the ballistic performance (measured using 0.24 g of fragment simulating
projectile (FSP) of fabric (c) and (d) was not affected by the laundering
up to 27 laundering cycles. However, both the fabric (a) and (b) showed
improved ballistic performance against 0.24 g FSP after nine launder-
ing cycles. Furthermore, the reason for the increase in the performance
was uncertain and it was assumed that the increase in friction between
fibres/yarns due to the removal of the lubricants used in knitting/

weaving or due to the surface peeling of the fibres might have resulted
in the increased value.
This study also established significant change in the physical proper-
ties due to laundering. Shrinkage was observed in all the fabrics, which
lead to the increase in the thickness of the samples. The increase in the
thickness did not change the ballistic performance of the fabrics. However,
it might have changed the thermal resistance of the garments and resulted
in change in the appearance. No significant changes in the mass of the
fabrics were observed, which indicated no loss of fibre during laundering.
Ballistic protective clothing comprised of felts (i.e. fabrics b and c) was
more severely affected by laundering than the woven or knitted fabrics
examined in the study [170].
Fibres such as silk and para-aramid are degraded by laundering due
to the surface peeling of fibres, which may lead to the loss in tenacity of
yarns and fabrics. The surface peeling of fibres may increase the friction
between the yarns, which can increase the ballistic performance of the
fabrics after laundering. Other possible causes of change in the ballistic
performance can be attributed to the removal of the lubricants from the
fabric that was used during weaving or knitting. It has been earlier shown
that the scoured fabric has improved ballistic performance to identical
fabric in the loom state due to the removal of the lubricants.
The body armour can be designed by placing the protective layer
inside a washable and breathable carrier. The carrier is generally made
from cotton or other absorbent material to provide wicking of the sweat.
The carrier can help in improved breathability in addition to the ease
of care and maintenance. The carrier can be separated from the armour
panel for care and maintenance. However, the armour may become bulky
without the significant contribution of protection by the carrier.
The effects of various cleaning chemicals such as odour neutraliser,
liquid detergent and chlorine bleach; and perspiration on the tensile,
chemical and surface morphological properties of different ballistic mate-
rials (aramid yarns and fabrics, UHMWPE yarn and piperonyl butoxide
(PBO) yarn) were investigated by Chin et al. [165]. It was observed that
the tensile properties of the aramid and PBO materials decreased after
exposure to plain water, artificial perspiration, detergent, odour neutral-
iser and chlorine bleach. The tensile strength of UHMWPE was decreased
only by chlorine bleach. Chlorine bleach resulted in a significant decrease
in the tensile strength for all the materials compared to plain water.
Chlorine bleach caused physical changes in the fibre surfaces, which may
have caused the damage to the fibres.
Significant chemical changes initiated by strong oxidisers in the
bleach were observed in the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) results.
Aramids and PBO showed hydrolytic degradation, whereas UHMWPE
showed oxidative degradation, which resulted in the change in fibre ten-

sile properties. It was concluded that exposure to chlorine bleach over a
period of time could significantly damage the soft body armour of ara-
mid, UHMWPE and PBO fibres. Hence, chlorine bleach should be avoided
in the routine care and cleaning of armour. Although additional damage
was not observed on the ballistic fibres exposed to aqueous-based clean-
ing and artificial perspiration beyond that of water alone, it should still
be noted that water can degrade the mechanical properties of aramid and
PBO fibres long-term. Hence, the use of water and/or any aqueous-based
products should be avoided or minimised in the care of soft body armour.
2.6.3 Cleaning of chemical-protective clothing

The amount of research on the cleaning of chemical-protective clothing is
limited. The chemical-protective clothing can be contaminated during the
application of the toxic chemicals, which may be absorbed by the fabrics.
Wearing the contaminated clothing can result in higher levels of exposure
to chemicals compared to clean clothing [164,171]. The amount of soiling
depends on the chemical nature of the textile fibre, chemical treatments of
the fabric and the type of chemical (i.e., whether oil- or water-based). The
penetration of soil, entrapment of soil in the fibre structure, and/or in the
spaces of fibres worn by mechanical wear during laundering or during
use and chemical reaction of soil with fibre and finish can cause difficulty
in soil removal.
The soiling of chemical-protective clothing can occur when the tex-
tile is worn during chemical applications or during laundering by cross-
contamination. During laundering, the chemicals can be transferred from
a soiled cloth via the washing solution to another. It can also occur by the
redeposition of soil removed from the area of soiling into the washing
medium, and thus to all areas of that cloth including the other clothes
[172]. Some clothing retains the soil residue in laundered fabrics regard-
less of temperatures, detergent type, additives, pre-rinse or wash cycle,
pre-wash treatment, fibre content, textile finish and the type of fabric.
In some instances, pre-rinsing can help in better removal of chemicals
from the clothing. Pre-rinsing can involve an additional cycle in the washer,
soaking in a container prior to the wash cycle or rinsing under a stream of
running water. Several researches have shown that pre-rinsing helped in
improving the cleaning efficiency of the chemical-contaminated clothing.
The concentration of the laundering chemicals affects the contami-
nant removal during laundering. It was observed that the degree of dif-
ficulty in the removal of the chemicals increases with the increase in the
concentration of the chemicals. The formulation and laundering process
can also affect the removal process. Encapsulated and wettable powder
formulations were easier to remove than the emulsifiable concentrate.
Depending on the nature of the chemicals and the fabric type, one
washing cycle may not be sufficient to remove the chemicals. Hence, mul-
tiple washing cycles are needed to effectively remove the chemicals. The
time frame between the contamination and washing also affects the effi-
ciency of cleaning. Immediate washing of the contaminated clothing can
significantly improve the chemical removal. The storage of the clothing
for a longer period can help the chemical to be strongly adhered to the
substrate, hence making the removal difficult.
It is essential to remove the contaminants present on the surface or
inside the matrix, or on both before the reuse. The chemical PPC can be
cleaned by the combined process of pre-soaking, air drying, washing and
drying at an elevated temperature. The use of appropriate chemicals is
also essential for this purpose. The efficiency of decontamination can be
calculated using the following formula:
Decontamination (%) = (weight loss/weight gain) × 100
where, weight gain = weight of the exposed specimen − weight of the vir-
gin specimen
Weight loss = weight of the exposed specimen before decontamination
− weight of the exposed specimen after decontamination
The following factors affect the decontamination efficiency:
• The type and concentration of detergent: depending on the nature

of the toxic chemical, the efficiency of a detergent will change. For
example, pesticide removal was more efficient with an anionic phos-
phate detergent [173]. The cationic surfactants are often used to
increase the attraction of the pesticide to the target foliar material.
With the increase in the concentration of the removal of the pesti-
cide, it is more effective up to a certain point [174].
• Prewashed product: for prewashed products, the decontamination
efficiency will be higher as the product provides surfactants with
a higher dosage. For example, the decontamination efficiency was
higher for methyl parathion, deltametrin, trifluralin and triallate
[175,176].
• Quality of water: the presence of minerals and salts in the water may
reduce the cleaning efficiency.
• Auxiliaries used in laundering: the auxiliaries (fabric softeners,
starch, bleaches and laundry boosters) used in laundering can alter
the chemical energy available in the refurbishment process. For
example the presence of starch can alter the wetting behaviour of

the fabrics and hence the decontamination efficiency.
• Heat and mechanical agitation: the increased temperature in the
wash cycle can help in increasing the decontamination efficiency.
However, higher heat in the presoak or rinse cycle may not be very
effective. Increased agitation, longer extraction time and increased
extraction volume can increase the removal of toxic chemicals
from PPC.
• Water volume: increased volume of water can help in increasing the
decontamination efficiency.
• Material variable: factors such as fibre content, yarn and fabric
structure, fabric finishes in addition to the process parameters as
described above affect the decontamination efficiency. The irregu-
larities in the fabric surface act as a sink for pesticides. It is difficult
to remove the chemicals from these places. Finishes that repel water
such as a soil-repellent finish reduce the chemical absorption and
facilitate removal.
The protective clothing for chemical protection is selected not only on the
basis of the level of protection but also on the basis of several important
factors such as ease of care and maintenance. Table 2.7 indicates a guide-
line while selecting the chemical PPC including the care, maintenance,
use and disposal at the end of life cycle.
Some chemical PPC requires special storage conditions such as
being away from sunlight, ozone or moisture. The manufacturer’s
instructions should be checked for the proper care and maintenance
in addition to the storage. Any violations from these conditions may
void the warranty and alter the performance of the PPC. The detailed
information on chemical PPC can be obtained from ASTM F2061-00
(standard practice for chemical protective clothing care and mainte-
nance instructions).
The laundering process used for the decontamination of the PPC
should be effective in removing the contaminants so that they are safe
when worn. Although in many instances where the cloth looks clean, the
residual contaminants in the cloth can be carcinogenic to the skin. The
laundering process should be carefully selected depending on the nature
of the chemical used. The method suitable for the removal of one chemi-
cal may not be appropriate for others. Highly concentrated chemicals may
not be removed completely compared to diluted ones.
It is very difficult to remove contaminants if the PPC is soiled with
different chemical types or several PPCs with different contaminants are
used in the same wash load. The PPCs treated with water repellent or a
soil-release finish will be easier to clean when contaminated.
Table 2.7 Selection criteria for chemical PPC

To Consider To Consider
Checklist (example) Checklist (example)
Assessment of Check MSDS Skin care After cleaning add
hazards and risks cream to skin
Assessment of need Tactility Decontamination Air dry after

of protection maintenance and cleaning cleaning in warm
by developing water
a product
specification
Determination of Neoprene Storage Avoid hot and

barrier material cold temperature
based on resistance
data and usability
Selection of the most Size 10, long Inspection Check for damage
appropriate Central sleeve
Product
Classification (CPC)
product based on
steps 1–3
Training of users Knowledge CPC contaminated Dispose in
about risks with hazardous accordance to
materials regulations
Instruction for use Warnings Disposal of CPC in

designated
container
2.6.4 Cleaning of other protective clothing

A surgical gown becomes contaminated with microorganisms during
wear, which needs effective cleaning before being used again. After daily
use or whenever the gowns become visibly soiled or wet by blood, body
fluids or sweat, reusable surgical attire should be laundered in a facility-
approved and monitored laundry. However, the laundering of surgical
attire in home laundries is not recommended as it can result in the poten-
tial spread of contamination in the home environment. Surgical gowns
simply worn in a medical environment are more likely to be soiled by per-

spiration, body oils or material handled during the performing of other
duties [177]. Soiled attires are not classified as contaminated unless the
garments come in contact with blood or other potentially infectious mate-
rials. Contaminated scrubs under no circumstances should be laundered
in a domestic environment. However, all kinds of soiled attires can be
laundered in a domestic environment.
In several countries, the rule states that “If the surgical gown (owned
by the hospital or not) worn by the employee gets contaminated, the
employer is responsible for laundering it” [178]. In addition, some of the
hospitals specify the policy and procedures for launder-at-home situa-
tions. There are four factors affecting the degree of decontamination of
surgical gowns such as [179]:
1. The action of the washing chemicals and other aids that are used,
2. Washing temperature,
3. The dilution (repeated suds and rinse bath), and
4. The duration of the wash cycle.
The majority of the scrubs are P/C blends with the labels specifying
“no chlorine bleach,” which may affect the colour of the scrub. It is not
uncommon to find the same restrictions on white items such as sheets,
pillow cases and towels. Therefore, people concerned about a deter-
gent’s disinfectant capability include a new generation of bleach in its
composition.
Many detergents commercially available for domestic use may not be
appropriate for laundry sanitisers for hospitals. The laundry sanitisers for
hospital outfits must demonstrate their efficacy against a representative
gram-positive bacterium (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus) and gram-negative
bacterium (e.g., Klebsiella pneumonia). If desired, additional organisms may
be tested and claimed. The sanitiser should be able to “kill 99.9% of bac-
teria” [180].
Doty and Easter [181] investigated the effects of the care and main-
tenance of various protective clothing by washing and drying. The
technical textiles were antimicrobial, stain repellent, stain release, mois-
ture management and ultraviolet (UV) protection materials. Garments
were subjected to repeated laundering and drying cycles in a single load.
The performance of garments was evaluated prior to and after laundering
(a maximum of 20 cycles).
The results showed that that laundering and drying of various PPCs in
one load did not have a significant impact on the performance. Although
they were subjected to 20 wash and dry cycles, their chemical structure
was not affected. It was assumed that the mixing of various functional
textiles during washing and drying can affect the performance of each
other within the first few cycles. However, this assumption was not right
as no change in the performance and chemical structure was observed.
In addition, no garment acquired functional characteristics of other gar-
ments in the load. However, there was a slight change to the appearance
and dimensional stability.
The FR high visibility garments must be laundered separately in water
lower than 60°C or dry cleaned either with perc or petroleum solvent [182].
The use of natural soap, hard water, bleaches, a long washing cycle, over
drying, high wash temperature, starch, fabric softener and other additives
should be avoided. The use of bleach can damage the clothing whereas
starch and softener may reduce the performance due to their presence in
the fabric surface. High water levels, soft water, short extract time, detergent
with high surfactant and low alkalinity, thorough cold water rinsing and
permanent press/low setting ironing is suitable for these protective clothes.
Heavily soiled garments with abrasive soils can be washed at 40°C at
the beginning of the cycle to reduce the abrasion. The washing load and
chemicals should be established to avoid fabric abrasion and the rede-
position of soil. Short extract time can help to avoid wrinkles whereas
tunnel finishing or ironing after the short washing cycle can improve the
appearance. The clothing can be repaired for minor faults not affecting
the integrity of the garment using similar materials either by heat sealing
or sewing on patches.
The FR high-visibility rainwear should be hand washed or machine
washed using cold water and a gentle cycle to retain the FR properties
and the high-visibility. Abrasive cleaners or solvents should be avoided.
These items should be kept away from bleaches, softeners and dry clean-
ing. They should be hang dried and not ironed.
The protective clothing for molten metal can be laundered (either by
home or industrial equipment at low washing and drying temperatures)
or dry cleaned. The use of hard water should be avoided as the metal salts
in hard water can form insoluble deposits on the fabric surface, which can
affect the protection level. Excessive deposits may serve as a fuel for fire
if the garments are exposed to an ignition source. Tunnel finishing is not
suitable for these garments as it may result in excessive shrinkage.
As a wide range of equipment and chemicals is used for cleaning, these
items should be tested by in-house laundering for any adverse effects.
Garments soiled heavily or with splash metal should be dry cleaned for
higher efficiency. The use of natural soap, long washing cycle, high-wash
temperature, starch and bleaches should be avoided. The use of bleach can
damage the clothing whereas starch may reduce the performance due to
its presence in the fabric surface. High water levels, detergent with high
surfactant and low alkalinity, and thorough cold-water rinsing is suitable
for these protective clothes. Hydro extraction should be done at low speed
only for a short duration.
While laundering at home, use home laundry detergent for splash

metal. Avoid tallow soap, starch and bleaches. Select permanent press or
the gentle cycle with cold or warm water (maximum temperature 60°C).
Use the low/delicate cycle in tumble drying and remove promptly.
Conditioning, tunnel finishing (if used) and pressing temperature
should not exceed 120°C. Perc or petroleum solvent should be used for dry
cleaning. The residual dry cleaning solvent or washing chemicals should
be removed. The clothing can be repaired for minor faults not affecting
the integrity of the garment using similar materials either by heat sealing
or sewing on patches.
The protective clothing used for sun/UV protection is prepared
from the blends of cellulosic fibres and synthetics. The laundering of new
clothes can improve their protection level, especially the clothes made of
natural fibres. This might be due to the shrinkage that reduces the gaps
in the structure. As the clothes become older they may offer decreased
protection due to regular care. The effect the first wash has on the fabric’s
sun protection factor (SPF) is very crucial as it can account for most of the
loss of SPF after the wash [183]. Hence, these clothes can be treated with
UV absorbers to absorb more UV radiation.
While using sunscreen or lotions on the body, they should be applied
15–25 minutes prior to putting the UV clothing on to avoid staining or dis-
coloration of the fabric. The UV-protective clothing should be washed soon
after each wearing. If it cannot be washed, at least a rinse in cool water is
necessary. While using the washer, cold water and a gentle washing cycle
using mild soap/detergent can provide good results. These clothes should
not be wrung, but rather laid flat to dry. The garments can be rolled in a
dry, clean towel, to absorb excess water, which can speed up the drying
process. They should not be bleached, dry cleaned or ironed, and should
be stored when they are completely dry.
The cold-weather protective clothing needs special care during the
care and maintenance as it contains multiple layers of different materials
[184]. The appropriate care procedure for one layer may be harmful and/
or ineffective for the other layers. The situation is aggravated if the cold-
weather clothing is highly contaminated, which is often the case in some
sectors. Heavily soiled or contaminated cold-weather clothing cannot
be properly cleaned in cold water, especially oil-based dirt. In oil-based
soiling, the oils are not sufficiently softened to be removed by the roll-up
mechanism. Enzymes that are effective in cold water are an important
additive to break down other insoluble dirt residues.
While cleaning the cold-weather protective clothing, the garments
should be checked for any mechanical damage and repaired. The dirt and
stains should be pretreated before washing or dry cleaning to facilitate
their removal. Cold-weather protective clothing can be wet cleaned at a
commercial laundry instead of dry cleaned with organic solvents. The
professional wet cleaners use wet cleaning equipment with water and they
operate in tandem with their dry cleaning machines. Wet cleaning the
cold-weather clothing in a commercial laundry is more appropriate than
using the organic solvents. The wet cleaning can be done on very dirty
clothing, rain wear and items with microporous structures.
The outer layer of a cold-weather garment is soiled by air pollutants
(carbon black, acidic gases), body excretions and direct contact with dirt
or food residues. Among these, about 40% soil is water-soluble and 10% is
solvent-soluble. Various textiles were grouped by Wentz [185] according to
their preferred method of cleaning into two categories: aqueous and non-
aqueous cleaning. Cold-weather items such as overcoats, p arkas, rain-
coats, sweaters, windbreakers, blankets and sleeping bags, were nearest
to the aqueous end of the scale. After wet cleaning, the garments should
be thoroughly rinsed for detergent residues, which are not desired.
In some occupations, the contamination of cold-weather work clothing
is inevitable (e.g.,workers in many parts of the oil and gas sectors working
in cold climates). Contaminants such as dirt and greases accumulate in
the cold PPC, which reduces the effectiveness of its protection. Hence, the
outer garments such as parkas need to be cleaned before the contaminants
settle into the fabric, which makes them difficult to remove. The members
of the U.S. military are advised about the difficulty of removing grease
and oily contaminants from cold-weather parkas. These contaminants are
hard to remove as high heat is needed to remove these stains, which may
damage the parka’s tape. In addition, many outer garments prepared from
synthetics are also hard to clean at high temperature.
Aeration is a suitable approach for the removal of some types of con-
taminants. The dry cleaning and professional wet cleaning is not always
accessible to the workers working in the remote areas. The research of
Crown et al. [162] is aimed at establishing care procedures for workers
at remote locations, which are close to domestic laundry conditions. The
use of laundry pre-treatments (with domestic pre-laundry sprays or in a
degreaser) was necessary to remove motor oil from aramid fabrics. As the
contaminants or number of laundry cycles increase, the level of difficulty
increases to remove the contaminants.
The outer layer of the cold weather PPC with a durable water repellent
(DWR) finish (silicone or fluoropolymer) may be removed due to multiple
cleaning or may become ineffective due to dirt, detergent residues or
fabric softeners. Hence, in order to get back the required protection it is
necessary to reapply the DWR finish, which is available in sports outlets
or outdoor clothing retailers.
The cold weather apparel prepared using Gore-Tex breathable water
repellent membrane should be cleaned in accordance with its instructions
for safe cleaning. For grease or oil-based stains a pre-wash spray before
cleaning can provide improved results. Warm machine washing (40°C)
using liquid or powder detergent without bleach or softener is ideal for

cleaning. To remove the traces of detergent residue, it should be thoroughly
rinsed. Although commercial dry cleaning can be used for a Gore-Tex
membrane, special care should be taken by the dry cleaner to avoid any
damage. The microporous structure of the breathable membrane may be
clogged with the dry cleaning solvent as it contains surfactants and other
additives. It should be treated with an extra rinse cycle with fresh solvent.
Furthermore, the polyurethane (PU) coating can be adversely affected
by the cleaning solvent used in dry cleaning. In addition, PU coating is
also damaged by the light due to the action of the UV. Hence, storage
should be done away from the light. When there is a need to iron, a steam
iron can be used by using a press cloth between the garment and the iron.
The heat applied during pressing or even tumble drying helps in redis-
tributing the finish in the fabric.
The insulating layer in the cold protective clothing is prepared from
polyester or polyolefin fibres, which are sensitive to heat. If they are
exposed to temperatures higher than their thermal transition tempera-
ture or melting temperature during tumbling or pressing, the excessive
heat can cause shrinkage or damage to the material. Combined heat and
pressure during pressing can reduce the insulation properties of the pro-
tective clothing.
Similarly, polyolefin non-woven scrims, baffles or tapes are used to
secure insulation materials. Excessive heat can cause puckering and dis-
tortions to the garment due to shrinkage or melting. These components
can face problems in tumble drying, dry cleaning or pressing. The non-
woven insulating layer can also be physically damaged (e.g., torn or shift)
by the mechanical action during the cleaning process. Hence, a gentle
cycle can prevent this.
In some cold-protection clothing, wool fibre batts are used as the
insulating layer. If the wool fibres are not treated for a shrink-resistant
finish, they may shrink or stiffen in washing. This type of garment
containing wool fibres should be dry cleaned or wet cleaned with reduced
agitation.
The underwear used with cold-weather clothing is generally single
layer. Hence, it is much easier to clean compared to the multilayered cold-
weather apparel. As the underwear is in contact with the skin, it is essen-
tial to properly clean it. Generally, the underwear used with cold-weather
apparel consists of long-sleeved tops and long-johns prepared from natu-
ral fibres such as cotton, silk and wool or synthetic fibres such as poly-
propylene or polyester or blends of both natural and synthetic fibres. It
is easier to clean synthetic fibre-made undergarments than the natural
counterpart.
The underwear should be cleaned frequently or after each wear to
avoid the problem of body odour created by the absorption of sebum and
apocrine sweat. The underwear containing synthetic fibres emits stronger

odour generated by body fluids compared to natural fibres [186].
Socks used for cold-weather protection are layered to increase ther-
mal insulation instead of single thick socks [187]. Repeated laundering
after use can change the thermal insulation of socks. The initial washing
of a new pair of socks can increase the thermal insulation due to increased
thickness. However, repeated laundering can reduce the insulation due
to significant fibre loss and decrease in the thickness. As the presence of
moisture can reduce the thermal insulation, socks should be completely
dried after laundering [188]. Manufacturers should specify commercial
wet cleaning on care labels, which should be strictly followed. Some man-
ufacturers recommend professional dry cleaning as laundering at home
may be unsafe due to the water-sensitive components, dyes and finishes.
The laundry variables (such as water/garment/detergent ratio, water
pH and hardness, water temperature and rinsing cycle) should be care-
fully controlled in order to remove the contaminants effectively without
redeposition.
2.7 Effects of cleaning on clothing properties

Both the wet and dry cleaning processes act as a degradative agent for
garments that are routinely cleaned. A number of properties such as aes-
thetics, physical and mechanical properties are changed due to cleaning.
The fibres and yarns in the fabric can be damaged by laundering, which
can be difficult to attribute to a specific cause, as a number of mechanisms
(e.g., mechanical agitation, water, detergent, temperature, cycle dura-
tion and drying method involved) are involved in this. Various effects of
cleaning clothes are discussed in the following sections.
2.7.1 Effects of wet cleaning

Garments may sometimes fail during use because of the loss of strength
of the yarns and fabrics due to use and maintenance. A garment is sub-
jected to various tensions during wear and various chemicals, heat and
agitation during washing and drying. The combined effect of tension,
chemicals, heat and agitation can alter the properties of the clothing,
which can be realised by the change in the shape (shrinkage or stretch)
and colour [189]. Various damages caused to clothing are discussed in the
following section.
The exposure of some clothing to direct or indirect sunlight may cause
deterioration in the fibres [190]. The rate of deterioration will vary depend-
ing on the fibre content, yarn and fabric construction and the type of dye-
ing, printing and finishing applied to the fabric. Another significant cause
is weathering, which is the cumulative effect of daylight, temperature,
humidity, rain, abrasive dust, reactive gases (pollution) and cosmetic

radiation on fabric. Moisture in the air and grime present in atmospheric
acid fumes may reduce the tensile and tear strength of fabrics. Bleaching
agents such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
may convert cellulose (in cellulosic fabrics) into oxycellulose, which is
much weaker than cellulose. If the bleach is not thoroughly rinsed out, it
may cause damage to other fabrics with which it comes in contact.
Laundering effects include the loss of tensile strength, discolouration,
overall change in appearance, breakdown of molecular structure and a
change in the oxidation state or degree of polymerisation [15,17,25,137,191–
195]. Hurren et al. [196] reported that the mechanical and chemical deg-
radation of fabric during laundering is mainly due to the abrasion of wet
fabric and cleaning agents, respectively. It is reported that DP-finished
fabrics retained a higher proportion of their initial strength in repeated
laundering when compared to untreated fabrics [197]. Lau et al. [198] stud-
ied the effect of repeated laundering on the performance of wrinkle-free-
treated garments. They reported that wrinkle-free treatment can reduce
the adverse effects of washing on mechanical properties.
The mechanism of breakdown is substantially the same for all fibre
types, i.e., cotton, wool, silk, linen and rayon. The cause of the breakdown
of a large proportion of the fibres is the transverse cracking that occurs at
the position of maximum weakness in the structure as a result of flexing
and bending stress suffered during wear. The surface fibres that are held
lightly undergo gentle abrasion. The breakdown of cotton fibres under
abrasive forces in different conditions (dry and wet) during normal wear
and laundering has been investigated [199]. In the dry state, the surface
layers are rubbed and eroded with no indication of fibrillar structure. In
the wet state, the fibres swell, the fibrillar structure is loosened and the
fibrils can be torn out from the fibre surface.
Murdison and Roberts [200] studied the damage done to cotton fab-
rics in laundering and storage by measuring the change in tensile strength
and fluidity. Samples laundered in 1940 and re-tested in 1948 showed a
lower tensile strength and a higher fluidity due to ageing. Uneven cracks
also developed in the fibres. Fi Jan et al. [201] investigated the influence of
laundering on the properties of cotton fabrics. It was found that the higher
concentrations of hydrogen peroxide used at higher temperatures in a lon-
ger laundering cycle with lower liquor ratios result in a higher degree of
chemical and mechanical damage.
The failure of seams in a sewn garment occurs due to the unsuit-
able selection of sewing thread, stitch type or stitch density, too shallow
a seam allowance or too tight a fit. Although the fabric in a garment may
remain in good condition, a failure of the seams reduces serviceability.
The failure may be due to slippage or to the seam strength [157,202–204].
In many instances, seam pucker can develop after the care procedures in
the cloths due to differential contraction along the line of a seam caused
by the tension from the thread of the seam or the yarns of the fabric. Seam
puckering is a disruption in the original surface area of a sewn fabric that
gives a woollen and wrinkled effect along the line of the seam in an oth-
erwise smooth fabric [205,206].
Slippage is the condition in which a seam sewn in the fabric opens
under load and may close on removal of the load, although it may also
cause permanent deformation [205,207]. Seam slippage is a particular
problem in fabrics with slippery yarns or an open or loose structure. It is
associated with seam allowance, seam type and stitch rate. Tension in the
fabric or rubbing of the garment may result in yarn shifting, which causes
slippage. Seam strength is the force required to break the sewing thread
at the line of stitching.
Snagging: Snagging is the pulling out of warp or weft threads in a
woven fabric, and wale or course threads in a knitted fabric through the
contact with rough objects, which leads to the formation of loops on the
fabric surface [202]. Only the appearance of a garment is changed by snag-
ging and its other properties are not affected. Snagging is observed par-
ticularly in filament-type fabrics, and in extreme cases, a single blemish
may render an article unserviceable even though unsightly ladders do not
necessarily ensue. Soft twisted yarn and loose fabric structure are prone
to snagging, which may rupture the yarn and ruin the fabric. Woven fab-
rics with long floats and fabrics made from bulked continuous filament
yarns are susceptible to snagging.
Pilling: Pilling is the appearance of small bunches or balls of tangled
fibres on the surface of a fabric, which are held in place by one or more fibres
and give the garment an unsightly appearance [208]. Before the invention
of synthetic fibres, pilling was mainly observed in knitted woollen items
made from soft twisted yarns. Both woven and knitted fabrics are prone
to pilling. The propensity may be related to the type of fibre used in the
fabric, the type and structure of the yarn and the fabric construction [209].
Generally, pills are formed in areas that are especially abraded or rubbed
during wear and can be accentuated by laundering and dry cleaning. The
rubbing action causes loose fibres to develop into small spherical bundles
anchored to the fabric by a few unbroken fibres [210].
Fabric made from natural fibres is less prone to pilling as the fibres
break away and shed the pills. In synthetic fabrics, because of a higher
strength of the fibres, they remain attached to the garment and accumu-
late to form pills. Pilling is particularly associated with nylon or polyes-
ter as may be seen in the collar of men’s woven shirts made from P/C or
nylon/cotton blends [211]. Woollen-knitted garments with a loose fabric
structure made from soft twisted yarn (e.g., jumpers and cardigans) also
suffer frequently from pilling [212]. This can be reduced by diminishing
the migratory tendency of fibres from constituent yarns in the fabric and
is achieved by the use of a higher twist in the yarn, reduced yarn hairi-
ness, longer fibres and increased inter-fibre friction, a greater number of
threads per unit length, brushing and cropping of the fabric surface and
specialised chemical finishes [213].
The effects of fabric softeners and cellulase-enzyme containing laun-
dry detergents on pilling were investigated [214]. It was observed that
some softeners were not associated with an increase in pilling and that
cellulase-enzyme detergent additives significantly reduced the amount of
pilling on all cotton fabrics, except cotton interlock knits.
Abrasion: Abrasion is a progressive loss of fabric caused by rubbing
against another surface. It has also been reported to occur through molec-
ular adhesion between surfaces, which may remove material. The hard
abradant may also plough into the softer fibre surface. The breakage of
fibres has been reported to be the most important mechanism causing
abrasion damage in fabrics [215]. Abrasion can be of three types: flat or
plane, edge and flex. In flat abrasion, a flat part of the material is abraded;
edge abrasion occurs at collars and folds; and flex abrasion rubbing is
accompanied by flexing and bending. Abrasion is a series of repeated
applications of stress. The selection of suitable yarn and fabric structure
can therefore provide high abrasion resistance [216].
Abrasion resistance is dependent on several factors such as the fibre
type and properties, yarn structure, fabric construction and type and the
type and amount of finishing material present. High elongation, elastic
recovery and the action of fibre rupture are more important than high
strength for good abrasion resistance. Nylon fibre is considered to pos-
sess the highest degree of abrasion resistance while viscose and acetates
have the lowest [211]. Polypropylene and polyester fibres also have good
abrasion resistance. The abrasion resistance of wool and cotton can be
increased by blending with nylon or polyester. Longer and coarser fibres
help to improve the abrasion resistance of a fabric. Increased linear den-
sity and balanced twist in a yarn give the best abrasion resistance.
Laundering may cause significant abrasion in fabrics, thus shortening
the wear life of a garment. Cotton fabrics laundered in hard water suf-
fered significantly more edge abrasion than those laundered in soft water,
and carbonate detergents caused more abrasive damage than phosphate
detergents [217]. Neither detergent harmed fabrics when used with soft
water.
A fabric with evenly distributed crimp between the warp and weft
gives good abrasion resistance as damage is spread evenly between the
threads. The higher abrasion resistance of fabrics with higher float (such
as twill, satin and sateen) may be attributed to the easy relative mobil-
ity of threads, which helps in absorbing stress. This also is the cause of
higher abrasion resistance in knitted fabrics, which have looser struc-
tures. Fabrics with optimum sett produce the best abrasion resistance.
If the fabric structure is too tight, it prevents the movement of threads,

which are then unable to absorb the distortion. This results in lower abra-
sion resistance. A tight structure also causes the fibres to be stressed and
fatigued beyond their yield point, which leads to breakage. Abrasion
damage and its related effects are likely to be a significant factor in deter-
mining the wear life of a garment during normal use [218–221].
Colour fading: One of the major problems garments face is poor
colour fastness. A coloured item may encounter a number of agencies
during its lifetime that can cause the colour either to fade or to bleed into
an adjacent uncoloured or light-coloured item [222]. New garments may
experience colour loss due to the removal of excess colour that was not
adequately rinsed after dyeing. Colour loss can occur by the migration of
weakly bonded dye molecules out of the fibre. Colour loss during wash-
ing will stain other materials and this will be influenced by the ratio of
coloured to uncoloured items, fibre content of other items and end-use
conditions [223,224]. A specific hue may be produced by the mixing of two
or more dyes. If one component is degraded or lost from the material, the
colour will be altered.
The type of dye, the particular shade used, the depth of the shade
and the dyeing process all affect the fastness of a colour. Some coloured
or printed garments change colour significantly during use. This may be
caused by abrasion, rubbing, atmospheric conditions such as UV light,
oxides of nitrogen or ozone, acid or alkaline substances, laundering or
dry cleaning, ironing; perspiration, rain water, chlorinated water or sea
water. Colour loss due to abrasion may be caused by localised wear such
as rubbing the elbows against a desk, excessive mechanical agitation dur-
ing washing or an attempt to remove a stain by rubbing. The exposure of
a garment to direct or indirect sunlight may cause colour change result-
ing in fading because the UV rays in sunlight cause damage to the dye
structure.
Atmospheric gas fading or fume fading is the colour change of a fab-
ric caused by acid gases in the atmosphere that are formed in combus-
tion processes. Garments left hanging for a long period of time will be
affected by fume fading. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is primarily responsible
for gas fading. Ozone fading (O-fading) occurs in dyes that are colour-fast
to fume fading if a high amount of ozone is present in the atmosphere.
Disperse and direct dyes are more vulnerable to O-fading, and blue and
red dyes are affected to a greater degree than others. Ozone may cause
bleaching in acetate, cotton and nylon fabrics.
Colour loss may sometimes be due to acid or alkali present in various
products. Certain dyes used in dyeing wool fabrics change colour when
exposed to acidic conditions. Alkaline colour change is observed in dark
blue and black acetate fabrics. Colour loss through laundering and dry
cleaning has been investigated by several researchers [225–227]. Colour
fastness to perspiration is also an important factor for consideration by

manufacturers [228,229]. Perspiration is harmful as the bacterial action
may lead to a loss or change of colour and finish, loss of fabric strength,
odour problems, salt rings and deposits. Alkaline-sensitive dyes may be
damaged by fresh (acidic) and decomposed (alkaline) perspiration. Many
of the direct, basic, acetate and metallic dyes are affected by perspiration.
Perspiration may change the hue, cause bleeding of the dye and staining
of lighter areas.
Some fabrics change colour in rain water and chlorinated water, and
some garments may change colour when worn near the ocean. This is
normally observed in wool fabrics and is a result of the action of sodium
chloride on the dye.
Shrinkage: A garment with dimensions that remained constant
throughout its useful life would have great technical value. Shrinkage is
a serious problem in different garments, originating from dimensional
changes in the fabric when it is subjected to washing and dry cleaning.
In recent years, this problem has become more prevalent due to the wide
acceptance of casual wear such as tights, pants, blouses and sportswear.
Several researchers have focused on various causes of shrinkage in woven
[230–235] and knitted structures [15,137,236–238].
Most fabric production processes involve the application of high ten-
sion, which leaves strains in the fabric. These residual strains must be
removed by the manufacturer before the fabric is converted into a gar-
ment or it will lead to shrinkage (i.e., relaxation shrinkage) when the fab-
ric is washed [15,239,240]. Several washings are usually required for the
complete relaxation of the fabric. The largest changes occur after the first
laundering cycle, whereas they become stable only after six laundering
cycles [241]. The residual strains are relaxed by the hot and wet condi-
tions of washing, which can lead to shrinkage. Other forms of shrinkage
include hygroscopic or swelling shrinkage, felting shrinkage, thermal or
heat shrinkage and progressive shrinkage.
Hygroscopic or swelling shrinkage is caused by the swelling of fibres
due to the absorption of moisture [242]. This shrinkage is highest in the
rib weave of wool, cotton, rayon, acetate fibres or their blends and occurs
when the garments are washed or dry cleaned. This group of fabrics may
be pre-shrunk and should be cleaned in solvents with low relative humid-
ity (RH). Felting shrinkage is related to wool and other hair fibres and the
effect is closely related with their scaly surface features. It is accentuated
if woollen items (e.g., socks and underwear) require periodical washing
[238,240]. Felting shrinkage may be caused by excessive mechanical action
during washing, high-temperature drying and high RH of the solvent
during dry cleaning.
Thermal or heat shrinkage occurs in clothing made of synthetic fibres
when subjected to high temperature. The magnitude of the shrinkage
depends on fibre morphology and the temperature, tension and wash-

ing time. Some knitted garments are made from heat-sensitive fibres that
shrink excessively when exposed to heat during drying and finishing.
This can be reduced by permanent heat-setting of the fabric during fin-
ishing. Progressive shrinkage is the relaxation and swelling shrinkage
caused by successive cleaning processes.
Although shrinkage is a common phenomenon in both the length and
width of a garment, some may shrink in one dimension and stretch in
another. The effects of many aspects of home laundering on the dimen-
sional stability and distortion of cotton knits have been analysed by sev-
eral researchers [233,243–245]. Studies on cotton knits showed that tumble
drying causes greater levels of shrinkage than line drying in the first few
laundering cycles [246–248]. It was also shown that the level of shrinkage
should increase with successive laundering cycles, reaching a maximum
after 5–10 cycles.
Stretch: There are several accounts of knitted garments increasing in
size during wet cleaning, dry cleaning and finishing. In some cases, a
fabric that shrinks in length will stretch in width. The use of a garment
may cause some fabrics to stretch out of shape. Some knitted garments
may stretch out of shape if they are hung to dry while still dripping with
water or solvent and some may stretch due to manipulation during steam
finishing, as the fabric is warm and moist from steam. Stretching can be
controlled by suitable yarn, fabric structure and appropriate care during
cleaning.
Bagging is a stretch phenomenon commonly observed in knitted gar-
ments and occurs on the cuffs, ankles and collars [249]. This phenomenon
is related to insufficient elastic recovery of the garment. Where a garment
is made from fabric with poor elastic recovery properties, it will soon show
a baggy appearance (e.g., at the knees of trousers and the elbows of jack-
ets). Elastic fabrics containing elastane are capable of stretching far more
than conventional fabrics, so increasing the elastic recovery. However, the
use of higher amounts of elastane increases fabric stiffness and lowers the
tensile and tearing strength [250].
Change of sensory and comfort properties: Fabric comfort proper-
ties are affected by the sensorial properties (i.e., the fell of the fabric) and
the transfer properties (such as moisture vapour, heat and air) [158,251].
The agitation cycle in the presence of a chemical during washing can lead
to the loss of sensorial as well as the transfer properties. For example, the
loss of wool fabric sensorial properties was investigated by Mackay [19]. It
was observed that the agitation of woollen items was the main reason for
felting shrinkage, which led to the loss of sensory properties.
Similarly, the thermophysiological comfort properties of a garment,
which is an essential property [252,253], can be affected by the laundering
process. The effect of conventional and ultrasonic washing methods on
the thermophysiological comfort properties of knitted fabrics (made from

polylactic acid (PLA), cotton, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and poly-
acrylic (PAC)) was investigated by Uzun [254]. The fabrics were washed
(by using conventional and ultrasonic washing methods) 10 times for 15
and 60 minutes under 40°C. The test results showed that the washing
processes affected the thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, thermal
absorptivity, water vapour permeability and heat loss. Fabrics washed for
15 minutes by ultrasonic showed significantly lower thermal resistance
as compared to conventionally washed fabrics. The PLA fabrics exhib-
ited high dry and wet thermal-resistance values before the washing pro-
cesses, and washed PLA fabric had relatively lower thermal conductivity.
Ultrasonically washed fabrics had higher thermal conductivity than con-
ventionally washed fabrics. The washing times did not significantly affect
the thermal conductivity of fabrics.
In addition to the problems listed above, wrinkling, tearing, microbial
attack and environmental decay are also associated with garment damage.
Garments most commonly become wrinkled during use and are unable to
recover from folding deformation. Wrinkling also arises from laundering,
especially in cotton fabrics, and causes particular concern to consumers.
Wrinkle resistance in a fabric enables it to resist the formation of wrinkles
when subjected to folding deformation. The wrinkle behaviour of a fabric
depends on the type of fibre and yarn, the fabric construction and the
finish applied to the fabric. The resiliency of wool and polyester fibres
gives good wrinkle recovery. High twist yarns can improve the wrinkle
resistance of a fabric. A tightly woven fabric (having more ends and picks)
is more prone to wrinkling than one that is loosely woven. Thinner fab-
rics are also more prone to wrinkling. A plain woven fabric will wrinkle
more than twill or a 4 × 4 basket weave. Different finishes can be applied
to a fabric or garment to improve the resiliency and therefore the wrinkle
recovery.
Tearing is a phenomenon commonly faced by loose-fitting garments.
The resistance of a garment to tearing is measured by the force required
either to start or to propagate a tear in the fabric. Tearing strength depends
on the fibre type, the yarn strength and the fabric construction. Under the
action of tearing, the threads in a fabric group close by sliding instead of
permitting the successive breakage of individual threads. The grouping of
threads becomes easier if the yarns are smooth and able to slip over each
other. For this reason, twill and matt weaves exhibit better resistance to tear-
ing than do plain weaves. Fabrics with higher end and pick density prevent
the threads from grouping, which reduces the tearing strength. Different
finishes, such as anti-crease treatments, may reduce the tearing strength.
Garments may also be damaged by microbial attacks such as insects,
mildew and rot. Many insects, including moths, beetles, crickets, roaches
and termites, will eat the fibres or any food matter that is allowed to dry
on a fabric. Natural fibres are more prone to insect damage, though syn-
thetic fibres may also be damaged in this way if they are soiled.
The most common form of insect damage is caused by moth larvae in
wool and hair fibres. Such damage may not be noticed prior to cleaning
and flexing of the fabric. During cleaning, the yarns may be weakened
and may break at the point of attack, resulting in a hole in the garment.
The risk of insect damage is lowered if garments are cleaned properly
and are free from stains before storing. Moth-proofing finishes can also
be applied to garments.
Vaeck [255] has investigated the chemical and mechanical wear of
cotton fabric during laundering. Cotton fabric was laundered up to 50
times and the decrease in tensile strength taken as a measure of wear. The
wear resulted from chemical degradation (caused by oxidising agents or
bleaches) and mechanical abrasion. He found the tensile strength loss to
be much lower with cold bleach than with hot. It was also reported that in
Western Europe, the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (U.S.),
sodium hypochlorite is the most commonly used bleach in commercial
laundries, while in Central Europe peroxides are preferred. Hypochlorite
bleaching may be done either in a cold rinse or in wash liquor. Most
European countries prefer cold rinse, while the UK and the United States
use the second method.
The loss of durability in a garment may sometimes be due to acids or
alkalis. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids are extensively used in indus-
trial plants, dental, medical, photographic, automotive batteries and in all
chemical laboratories. Accidental contact with these products may cause
fabric damage, i.e., strength loss, disintegration of affected areas and the
appearance of holes. Alkaline damage (caused by caustic soda, caustic
potash and strong alkaline washing compounds) affects silk, synthetic
protein fibres, wool and other hair fibres. Caustic alkalis are common in
many household cleaning aids. Sometimes acid or alkali damage will
become evident after a garment is cleaned.
It was observed that the repeated laundering of cotton fabrics in
alkaline solutions near boiling point and without bleaching left the fab-
ric strength unchanged, although linen fabrics suffered 20–30% strength
loss. After the Second World War, Parisot [256] investigated the mechani-
cal wear of garments by measuring the bursting strength and chemical
degradation that was expressed as a degree of polymerisation. Many
researchers also reported chemical degradation in laundering, but did not
address the loss of tensile strength caused.
Although DP finishes impart shape retention, dimensional stability
and wrinkle recovery to cotton and P/C fabrics, other properties such as
strength, extensibility and abrasion resistance are adversely affected [257–
259]. The extensibility of a wrinkle-free-treated garment is significantly
reduced after repeated laundering [198].
The laundering process destroys the forensic evidence in apparel,

which was investigated by some researchers [260,261]. For example, the
effect of laundering on the blunt force impact (BFI) was investigated by
Daroux et al. [260]. This research investigated the BFI damage in common
apparel fabrics and the effect of prior and post-laundering on this dam-
age. Two single jersey fabrics (100% cotton, bull drill) were investigated as
single and double layers using an impactor representative of a hammer
face. The force transmitted through the specimens was measured and the
impulse was calculated. To establish the effects of impact damage on new,
dimensionally stable (laundered 6 times) and aged fabrics (laundered up
to 30 times), and the effects of laundering on impacted specimens, impact-
ing and laundering were completed cumulatively. It was observed that the
BFI left recognisable damage patterns in the specimens, with a varying
amount of damage. Both the visible and microscopic damage were altered
after laundering. Prior laundering impacted fabrics produced holes in
some specimens, and some fibres exhibited a failure characteristic of BFI.
Life cycle-assessment studies on garments have shown that the period
for which a garment is in use is usually the most energy-demanding
period during the product’s life cycle. This is even higher than the energy
needed in the production or transportation phases. Although the technol-
ogy of laundering has undergone several changes, it is still influenced by
the social, cultural and moral norms. The length of time a person wears
a cloth before washing has not been reduced, but rather increased. The
individual’s wardrobe now contains more clothes that are cleaned more
often than before [262]. Washing more often counteracts the technological
improvements in laundry.
The consequences of changing the washing temperature, filling
grade, detergent dosage or drying method on cleaning effect, energy and
water consumption were evaluated by Laitala et al. [101] by laboratory-
based tests. The results showed that the detergents used today are better
suited for low-temperature washing. An efficient detergent of today can
provide better results at 30°C than with a less efficient detergent of the
past even at 40°C. While laundering only slightly soiled textiles or small
loads, the detergent amount can be reduced. Many textiles washed at a
higher temperature (60°C) suffered colour loss compared to lower tem-
perature (40°C or lower). Line-dried textiles showed less shrinkage than
tumble-dried textiles. The results can motivate consumers to do effective
cleaning, which can reduce the environmental impacts caused by textile
maintenance.
In several instances, a large portion of garments are washed purely
habitually instead of examining the level of soiling [262]. Generally, cloth-
ing items such as underpants and T-shirts that are always in contact with
the skin should be washed after each use [50,263]. The cleanliness of
clothes can be assessed by consumers by evaluating the visible stains and
odour before and after washing [264]. The acceptance level of cleanliness
and body odours greatly varies over time. Body odours are considered
appalling today, therefore, clean clothes, daily washes and use of artificial
perfumes is almost a social norm [265]. Including the cultural influences,
personal choices affect these hygiene practices.
In several instances, the complete washing of clothing can be replaced
by other cleaning methods such as stain removal, airing or brushing. Airing
can be effectively used for woollen materials or for garments that have a
slight odour but are not soiled. An approximate estimation by Uitdenbogerd
[266] revealed that using all clothing items one more day would save about
100 wash cycles per year in households (families with children). The energy
used in washing clothes can be eliminated by the use of disposable cloth-
ing. However, this would increase the volume of production, distribution
and disposable waste [267]. This option may be best suited for clothing used
in specific areas, such as disposable gowns for the medical sector.
Depending on the nature of the fibre used in the clothing, the
frequency of washing can be varied. For example, woollen garments can
be washed less often than cotton garments due to inherent soil repellency
of woollens, which can save energy. However, if the consumer is not aware
of this fact or does not want to follow the recommendation, the potential
saving is lost.
2.7.2 Effects of dry cleaning

The use of chemicals, heat and agitation during dry cleaning can also lead
to the physical damage, dimensional instability, colour loss and many
other problems as discussed in the laundering section. However, the
degree of damage may be of a different extent depending on the clothing
type and dry cleaning parameters. It is essential to check the garment is
dry cleanable from the care label, or else there will be irreparable damage
to the cloth.
Perc is the strongest solvent generally used for the cleaning of most
of the textiles. The use of perc can lead to colour loss, especially at higher
temperatures. Several times the combination of high temperature and a
longer cycle can damage trims, special buttons and beads on some gar-
ments. Perc can also dissolve some adhesives and strip the plasticiser out
of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Some dyes, finishes and resins are not
colour fast enough to the effect of perc as they can lose their colour. Perc is
better suited for oil- or grease-based stains (which only account for about
10% of all stains) than the common water-soluble stains (such as wine, tea,
coffee, and blood). It is a well-known fact that the garment dry cleaned
with perc leaves a mild chemical smell on garments.
Dry cleaning is not the answer to all soil and stain removal prob-
lems. Sometimes, stains become permanently embedded in the materials.
At times, the fibre or fabric cannot withstand normal cleaning and stain-
removal procedures. Decorative trim may not be compatible with a dry
cleaning solvent. Hence, it is important that consumers as well as dry
cleaners read all care labels and follow the instructions.
2.7.3 Precautions during dry cleaning

A wide range of chemicals can be used for dry cleaning as discussed above.
Heavily soiled/stained clothing should be pre-cleaned or spot-cleaned
with the chemicals before being added to the dry cleaning machine. The
types of chemicals should be carefully selected based on the type of the
fabric and fibre. If the stains are not being removed properly after the dry
cleaning, they can be spot cleaned again using the same chemicals used
in the pre-cleaning. Generally there are three types of pre-cleaning or
spot-cleaning chemicals commercially available, namely wet-side agents,
dry-side agents and bleaches. The wet-side agents help to remove water-
soluble stains from the fabric. These agents can be again subdivided into
alkaline, acidic or neutral depending on their pH.
The alkaline agents such as ammonia, lye, potassium hydroxide
(KOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and protein-based home detergents
are used to remove oil and protein stains. The acidic agents such as acetic
acid (CH3COOH), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), glycolic acid (C2H4O3), hydroflu-
oric acid (HF) and oxalic acid (C2H2O4) are used to remove tannin or plant-
based stains. The neutral agents such as neutral synthetic detergents and
surfactants can be used to remove water-soluble stains, water-soluble
dyes, food and beverages.
The dry-side agents are used to remove oily stains, waxes, greases,
fats, paints and cosmetics. These agents are based on non-aqueous
solvents (acetone (CH3COCH3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), perc (C2Cl4),
trichloroethylene (C2HCl3), methylene chloride or dichloromethane
(CH2Cl2), amyl acetate (C7H14O2), etc.), alcohols (ethanol (CH3CH2OH),
methanol (CH3OH), isopropyl alcohol (C3H8O), etc.) and petroleum-based
solvents. This group of chemicals involves some of the most toxic materials
used in dry cleaning.
Bleaches are used if all the stain-removal techniques have failed.
The bleach should be used with precise care to avoid the colour fading.
They are also used in traditional laundering operations. The bleaches can
be grouped into oxidising bleaches (hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), sodium
perborate (NaBO3·nH2O), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sodium per-
carbonate (2Na2CO3.3H2O2)) or reducing bleaches (oxalic acid (C2H2O4),
sodium hydrosulphite (NaHS), titanium sulphate (O8S2Ti) and sodium
bisulphite (NaHSO3)).
chapter three
Equipment for the care of textiles

Various equipment involved in the care of textiles includes washing, dry-
ing and pressing equipment. Washing equipment, or washers, is designed
to wash, rinse and extract water from clothes and make provisions for set-
ting the time, temperature and volume of water. The three major functions
of washers are: (1) removal of soiling from the clothes, (2) the rinsing of
soap or detergent and soil from the wash process and (3) the extraction
of most of the wash and rinse water prior to drying. Drying equipment,
or dryers, is used to dry the clothes, which can sometimes be combined
with the washing equipment. Pressing equipment is used to press the
garments to improve the aesthetic appeal of the clothes.
3.1 Washing equipment
A washing machine, or washer, is a machine to wash laundry, such as
clothing and sheets. The term is mostly applied to equipment that uses
water as the solvent compared to dry cleaning (using an alternative sol-
vent) or ultrasonic cleaning. Washing equipment can be classified as top-
or front-loading.
3.1.1 Top-loading washing machines

Top-loading machines are fitted with an agitator that transfers mechani-
cal energy from the motor to the clothes [30]. The mechanical agitation,
combined with detergent, removes soiling and keeps it in suspension. The
central cylinder (solid or perforated) that contains the clothes to be washed
is usually steel coated with porcelain enamel. As the detergent cycle is
completed, the water is extracted from the fabric through the perforations
of the cylinder. Front-loading machines have a cylinder but no agitator.
The interior of the cylinder consists of baffles that lift the clothes from the
water and then drop them back into it.
The water level will depend on the load size and the design of the
equipment. Top-loading machines use more water for each cycle, but have
fewer cycles than front-loading machines. The temperature of the water
ranges from cold to 60°C and is controlled by a temperature unit fitted to
the control panel of the washer. In some cases, cold-water washing can
be used, thus conserving energy. Cold-water washing is used for knitted
59
polyester or nylon and permanent press items that wrinkle in hot water.
Following the washing cycle, the garments are spun dried or put through
a wringer while still hot. This reduces shrinkage, especially in knitted
fabrics, chino pants and some non-sanforised items. It also prevents the
setting of certain types of stains (such as milk, egg and blood, which may
become permanent if washed in hot water). Hot-water washing should be
used for the removal of grease and oil stains.
Top-loading washing machines are so named because they allow
adding the clothes in the tub vertically without having to bend down.
They are more popular for domestic applications in New Zealand,
Canada, the United States, Australia, Latin America and Asia. They
have several advantages including the fact that clothes can be added
even after starting a washing cycle. They can also use a wide variety
of detergents and bleaches. The price of this equipment is cheaper than
the front-loaders. The advanced top-loading washers can include special
features in addition to the basic washing cycles. Figure 3.1 shows a top-
loading washing machine with various components, which may slightly
vary depending on the manufacturer. The detailed description of each
component and function of the washing machine is not within the scope
of this book. However, a brief description of the principle of operation is
described below.
In top-loading machines, the clothes are placed in a vertically
mounted perforated cylinder within a water-retaining outer tub. A finned
water-pumping agitator is centrally located in the bottom of the basket.
Clothes are loaded through the top of the machine, which is covered
with a hinged door. While the washing cycle is started, the outer tub is
filled with a sufficient amount of water to fully immerse and suspend the
clothing freely in the cylinder. The agitator movement pushes water by
the paddles towards the edge of the tub, which in turn returns the water
towards the agitator to repeat the process. The rotational direction of the
agitator is periodically reversed, as continuous rotation in one direction
would just spin the water around the cylinder with the agitator rather
than the water being circulated in a torus-shaped motion. Some washers
supplement the water circulation with a large rotating screw on the shaft
above the agitator, which helps the water move downwards in the centre
of the cylinder.
Overloading a top-loading washer can either jam the motion of the
agitator or damage the motor or gearbox, or even tear the fabrics. Extreme
overloading can lead to the clothes being wrapped around the agitator
shaft, restricting their motion and jamming the fabric. The use of pre-wet
clothes in a washing load can restrict water circulation, resulting in poor
cleaning.
Energy-saving washing units are preferable as consumers adapt to a
greener lifestyle [268]. Many companies have incorporated such features
Chapter three: Equipment for the care of textiles 61
Motor control Machine control

Pressure
board board
switches
Line filter
Lid switch
Log value
assembly Dome
Tub ring
Interlock
switch
Inner wash
plate
Leveler
Outer wash plate

Suspension
rod Universal
assembly joint
Shock
Drive Pump,
motor pump motor
Interlock and
switch capacitor
Figure 3.1 Top-loading washing machine.
on their products with eco-friendly wash cycles. For domestic laundering,

the temperature of cold water can vary from extreme cold to water at body
temperature. However, a water temperature of 27°C or more gives the best
results. Special detergents that dissolve readily and have good cleaning
properties have been developed for use in cold water. However, cold-
water washing will not be bacteria free. Cold-water washing followed by
tumble drying at 70°C will result in little or no bacterial contamination.
Investigations by Witt and Warden [268a] showed that the important fac-
tors for preventing bacterial growth are water temperature (between 50°C
and 60°C), detergent and longer washing cycles. Washing followed by
steaming or ironing on a hot press has been shown to provide adequate
disinfection.
The duration and degree of mechanical agitation in a washing cycle
depends on the load, the amount of water used and the extraction of
water from the load. A normal washing cycle may be between 30 and
38 minutes. Some washers may include a pre-soak cycle for heavily soiled
items requiring treatment with enzymes, a super wash cycle for heavily
soiled items, a longer cycle for permanent press items that require more
water and a delicate fabric cycle for delicate items and blankets requir-
ing a higher water level, lower temperature and low-mechanical agitation.
Some washers may be fitted with an auxiliary device such as a suds saver
for areas with a limited water supply. Lightly soiled clothes are washed
first, followed by medium to heavily soiled items. During progressive
rinse cycles, the rinse water is stored and used again in successive deter-
gent cycles.
3.1.2 Front-loading washing machines

The construction and working of a front-loading washing machine is
identical to a top-loading washing machine apart from the fact that it
contains a cylindrical drum (tumbler washing tub) in place of the long
agitator (Figure 3.2). Washing is performed by tumbling the clothes in the
cylindrical drum [30]. When front-loaders spin, they permit gravity to act
on the clothes (tumbling and bouncing) and hence do not require agita-
tors [269,270]. The drum consists of blades, termed as agitating vanes or
paddles, on its upper side. The clothes are lifted up by vanes and then
dropped by gravity, which flexes the weave of the fabric and forces water
and detergent solution through the clothes. The rotation of the drum
and the blades generate strong currents in the water, and the rubbing of
clothes assists in removing the dirt from them. Figure 3.2 shows the inner
components of a front-loading washing machine and Figure 3.3 shows the
basic principles of the working of a front-loading washing machine.
The front-loading designs are widely used in Europe [271], although
they are also found in the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Most industrial
washers around the world are front-loaders. As the washing process does
not require the free suspension of the clothing in water, only enough
water is needed to wet it. A reduced amount of water means the use of
less soap, and the repeated dropping and folding action of the tumbling
produces large amounts of foam or suds. A number of semi- or fully auto-
matic washing machines are available comprising a heater in the bottom
of the washing tub to generate warm water for loosening and stripping
dirt particles from the clothes for rapid cleaning.
3.1.3 Top- versus front-loading washing machines

There are some differences between the top- and front-loading washing
machines [272]. The mechanical and electrical design features are simple
in front-loading washers. A top-loading washer keeps water inside the
Valve
Filter
Dispenser
Main control
Pressure
sensor
Door lock
Motor
Heater
Pump
Inverter
Figure 3.2 Front-loading washing machine: inner components.
Paddle
Front loading
Tumble
Water
level
Figure 3.3 Principle of the working of a front-loading machine.

cylinder, where the force of gravity acts down on the water; whereas, in
a front-loading washer, water should be held tightly by the sealed door
to prevent water leakage. This door is locked during the entire washing
cycle, as opening the door could result in water gushing out onto the floor.
In front-loaders, there is a chance that the clothes could be accidentally cut
between the door and the drum, resulting in tearing of the fabric during
tumbling and spinning.
Almost all the front-loading washers for the consumer market must
use a folded flexible bellows assembly around the door opening to hold
the clothing contained inside the basket during the wash cycle. Without
the bellows assembly, small clothing items such as socks could slip out
of the wash drum near the door and fall down the narrow slot between
the outer tub and inner basket, plugging the drain and possibly jamming
the rotation of the inner basket. Retrieving these items from the outer tub
and basket can require complete disassembling of the front of the washer,
including the inner wash basket. Commercial and industrial front-loaders
usually do not use the bellows. They place all the small objects in a mesh
bag to prevent these items from being lost near the door opening.
Clothing can be packed more tightly in a front-loader, up to the full
drum volume (while using the cotton wash cycle), compared to top-
loading washers. This is because wet clothes usually fit into smaller spaces
than dry clothes. Front-loaders are able to self-regulate the water needed
to achieve correct washing and rinsing cycles [268]. Overloading of front-
loading washers pushes the clothes towards the small gap between the
loading door and the front of the wash basket, potentially resulting in
clothing lost between the basket and outer tub. In severe cases, the tearing
of clothing and jamming of the motion of the basket can occur, resulting
in the malfunctioning of the washer.
There are some differences in terms of cleaning efficiency and water
usage, which are discussed below.
Cleaning efficiency and water usage: The use of energy, water and
detergent is lower in front-loaders compared to the top-loaders [268].
However, the duration of a washing cycle is longer and is often computer-
controlled with additional sensors to adapt the wash cycle to the needs
of each load. As this technology improves, the human interface will also
improve, which will make it easier to understand and control the different
cleaning options. Front-loading washers usually use less water than top-
loading residential clothes washers. Estimates show that front-loading
washers use only one-third to one-half of the water used by top-loaders.
Spin-dry effectiveness: Front-loading washers can spin at much
higher speeds (up to 2000 rpm), while top-loading washers (with agita-
tors) can go up to 1200 rpm. High-efficiency top-loaders with a wash plate
(instead of agitator) can spin up to 1400 rpm, as their centre of gravity
is lower. Higher spin speed removes higher amounts of residual water,
making clothes dry faster. This also reduces time and energy of drying, if
clothes are dried in a clothes dryer. However, there is also much more risk
of clothes being damaged at higher speeds.
Cycle length: The cycle time of top-loading washers is generally
shorter, as their design focuses on simplicity, greater performance and
speed of operation [273].
Water leakage: Top-loading machines are less prone to water leakage,
as gravity cannot drag the water out the loading door on top as it can in
the case of front-loading washers. Front-loading washers require a flexible
seal or gasket on the front door, and the front door must be locked during
the washing cycle to prevent it from opening and having a large amount
of water spill out. This seal may leak and require replacement frequently.
However, many current designs of front-loaders use very little water so
they can be stopped mid-cycle for the addition or removal of clothes with-
out water spilling out.
Wear and abrasion: Top-loading washers require an agitator or
impeller to force enough water through the clothes to clean them effec-
tively. While impellers may be very rough especially on bigger loads,
agitators greatly decrease mechanical wear and tear on fabrics. On the
other hand, front-loaders use paddles in the drum to pick up and drop
clothes repeatedly into water for effective cleaning. Hence, during a wash-
ing cycle, clothes frequently rub against each other and this action causes
more wear.
Noise: Front-loaders operate at a lower noise level compared to top-
loaders as the door seal helps in preventing the noise. Top-loaders usually
need a mechanical transmission, which can generate more noise than the
rubber belt or direct drive found in most front-loaders.
Initial cost: In countries where top-loaders are preferred, buying
front-loaders can be more expensive. However, their lower operating costs
can ultimately lead to lower total cost, especially if the cost of energy,
detergent or water is expensive. Similarly, in countries where front-
loaders are the choice, top-loaders can be more expensive than basic off-
brand front-loaders, although without many differences in the total cost of
ownership apart from design-originated ones. In addition, manufacturers
have tended to include more advanced features such as internal water
heating, automatic dirt sensors and high-speed emptying on front-
loaders, although some of these features could be and are implemented
on top-loaders.
Compactness: A front-loading washing machine uses much lower
space than top-loaders. These models can save space in homes with lim-
ited floor area, since the clothes dryer may be installed directly above the
washer in a stacked configuration.
Maintenance and reliability: Top-loading washers may not need a
regular cleaning of door seals and bellows. The potentially problematic
door-sealing and door-locking mechanisms used by front-loaders are not

needed in top-loaders. On the other hand, top-loaders use mechanical
gearboxes that are more vulnerable to wear than simpler front-load motor
drives.
Accessibility and ergonomics: Front-loaders are more convenient for
very short people and those with paraplegia, as the controls are front-
mounted and the horizontal drum eliminates the need for standing or
climbing. For people who are not unusually short, top-loaders may be
easier to load and unload, since reaching into the tub does not require
stooping. Risers also referred to as pedestals, often with storage drawers
underneath, can be used to raise the door of a front-loader closer to the
user’s level.
3.1.4 Other designs
In addition to the two washing machine designs, there are also several
variations of them. Impellers are used instead of agitators in top-loading
machines in Asian countries. Impellers are similar to agitators, but they
do not have the centre post extending up in the middle of the washing
cylinder.
Some top-loaders are similar to front-loading machines. They have
a cylinder rotating around a horizontal axis as the front-loaders do.
However, there is no front door and a top lid with a hatch (that can be
latched shut) provides access to the cylinder. Clothes are loaded from the
top and the hatch and lid are closed. The machine operates and spins
similar to a front-loader. These types of machines usually have a lower
capacity, are narrower but taller than front-loaders and are intended for
use where only a narrow space is available. These machines are some-
times used in Europe. The advantages of this type of machine are: they
can be loaded without bending down; they do not require a perishable
rubber bellows seal and instead of the drum having a single bearing on
one side, it has a pair of symmetrical bearings (one on each side), which
avoids asymmetrical bearing loading and potentially increases the life of
the machine.
There are also combo designs that combine the complete washing
and drying cycle in the same machine, eliminating the transfer of wet
clothes from a washer to a dryer. These machines are better suited for
overnight cleaning as the combined cycle is longer. However, the effec-
tiveness for cleaning larger batches of laundry is drastically reduced. The
drying process uses higher energy than the two devices in isolation, as a
combo machine not only must dry the clothing, but also needs to dry out
the wash chamber itself. These machines are preferred in Europe, as they
can be fitted into small spaces.
3.1.5 Dry cleaning machines

Although there are various makes/models of dry cleaning machines, they
all work on a similar principle. Essentially a dry cleaning machine con-
sists of four basic components:
1. Holding or base tank,

2. Pump,
3. Filter, and
4. Cylinder or wheel.
The holding tank is a reservoir for the dry cleaning solvent. A pump is
used to circulate this solvent through the machine during the cleaning
process. Filters are used to trap solid impurities. A cylinder or wheel is
where the garments are placed in to be cleaned. The cylinder has ribs to
help lift and drop the garments.
The operation of the dry cleaning machine is simple and straightfor-
ward. The solvent is drawn through the filters to trap any impurities from
the tank by the pump. The filtered solvent then enters the cylinder to flush
soil from the clothes. The solvent leaves the cylinder button trap and goes
back to the holding tank. This process is repeated several times during the
cleaning cycle, ensuring effective cleaning.
After the cleaning cycle, the solvent is drained and an extract cycle is
run to remove the excess solvent from the clothes. This solvent is drained
back to the base tank. During extraction, the rotation of the cylinder
increases in order to use centrifugal force to remove the excess solvent
from the clothes.
After extraction is complete, clothes are either transferred to a sepa-
rate dryer or on most machines, dried in the same unit by a closed sys-
tem. The drying process uses warm air circulated through the cylinder to
vaporize any residual solvent. The solvent is recovered and purified in a
still. The clean solvent is then pumped back into the holding/base tank.
The sequence of operations in dry cleaning is explained in Figure 3.4.
Dry cleaning machines are rated on the basis of the loading of fabric
(dry weight) the machine can clean per cycle. Machine sizes vary from
very small (10 kg) to large (50 kg) capacity. The length of the cleaning cycle
depends upon the types of articles cleaned and the degree of soiling.
Some heavily stained garments may go through a stain-removal process
Sorting and Load

Spot Wash Extract Dry Unload Press
inspection machine
Figure 3.4 Sequence of operations in dry cleaning.

prior to cleaning to help in better soil and stain removal. A stain-removal

technician will treat specific items just prior to cleaning. A lot of effort
goes into the process and there are many skilled technicians involved in
caring for the garments.
3.2 Drying equipment
Tumble drying is widely followed in cold climates for drying clothes
[148,150]. Figure 3.5 shows the diagram of a tumble-drying machine. In
a tumble dryer, the wet garments are tumbled in a cage with forced air
circulation. The air temperature can be set as required. The duration of
drying depends on the degree of wetness of the garments needed to be
dried. Tumble drying can make the garment drier than the ambient atmo-
sphere, which is not feasible by outdoor drying. When a gas flame is used
as the heat source for drying, the colour of the garments may fade due to
the exposure to gas fumes. Care should be taken when heat-set garments
are dried by this method.
Heater box
(electric models)
Drive belt
Drum bearing ring

(front support)
and seal
Lint
screen
Burner chamber
(gas models)
Rear
support
rollers
Airflow
Blower
Drive motor
Belt tensioner/idler
Figure 3.5 Tumble-drying machine.

The tumble-drying machine consists of a large metal drum with pad-

dles around its inner rim. In home machines, the rotation of the drum
reverses in every 30 seconds or so, to prevent the bunching up of clothes.
In large commercial machines, the drum always rotates in the same direc-
tion. Cold air is drawn into the machine through an air intake, often
located at the front of the machine. A fan sucks the air in and blows it up
towards a heating element. As cool air passes over the heating element, it
gets warmed and turned to hot dry air. A thermostat controls the heating
element and turns on and off periodically to prevent overheating of the
clothes.
Warm air enters the drum through large holes in the back from the
heating element. In launderette (large size) machines, the entire drum is
full of small holes, and hot air rises up from below. The drum is rotated
by a belt connected to the electric motor. Generally, one electric motor
drives both the drum and the fan. As the drum rotates, the paddles lift
and tumble the wet clothes until they reach the top of the drum. Then the
clothes fall back down by the action of gravity. If the dryer is overloaded,
the drying load bunches up and rolls around in a big mass instead of tum-
bling, and hence takes much longer to dry.
The air that leaves the dryer passes through a lint filter that separates
dust and fluff. Some dryers are equipped with a second fan to help in
extracting the moist air. It is essential to clean the lint filter in a dryer regu-
larly to avoid fire. The air that leaves passes up through a vent hose either
mounted permanently in the ceiling or temporarily through an open win-
dow. In some dryer designs the humid air exhausted is passed through a
heat exchanger and a condenser so the water is cooled and drained away
and the heat it contains is captured and reused, increasing the efficiency
of the process [149].
On an experimental scale in the industry, infrared (IR) and radio fre-
quency (RF) are also being used to dry garments [274]. However the pre-
cise control required for these methods has precluded them from entering
the household market.
3.3 Equipment used for pressing

Some of the garments are manufactured as wash and wear or perma-
nent press garments. These clothes are prepared by special finishing
treatment to provide crease-resistant properties. For example, the resin
treatment of 100% cotton items can provide crease-resistant properties
at the expense of loss in strength and abrasion resistance. The manu-
factured garments can be treated with the specialty chemicals by dip-
ping in the chemical, spraying and vapour-phase treatment. In the first
two cases, the garment needs to be cured after the application of the
chemicals.
The hand irons are the most common type of pressing equipment
used by a household [153]. These irons are heated electrically with the pro-
vision of steam supply and temperature control. There are various shapes
of the irons and the weight ranges from about 1 kilogram to 15 kilograms.
There are several types of pressing tables available for these irons, which
may include a simple table or a table with vacuum arrangement to hold
the garment or section of a garment in place and dry after pressing.
Additional parts can be attached to the table to support various parts of a
garment so that a suitable shape is available for each (Figure 3.6).
Steam presses are used to assist in better shape retention and improve
the efficiency of pressing. The steam presses can be of various shapes
with automatic operations. There are provisions of steam supply to all
the parts, vacuum and altering the pressure. Some designs can be fitted
with a programmed logic circuit to work in varying cycles depending
on the type of garment. In some designs, additional extensions such as
bucks or matching heads can be attached when the shape of the garments
changes. Many other types of pressing equipment are available that will
enhance the final quality of the garments produced. Depending on the
type of product being produced, different equipment will be required.
Some examples include carousel press, specially designed press for trou-
sers and skirts, steam air finisher and steam tunnel.
Specially designed machines are available for creasing and pleating.
Creasing equipment is used to press the edges of clothing components
so that they are easily sewn. For example, the cuffs and patch pockets
Figure 3.6 Pressing equipment to suit various shapes of a garment.

are formed into shape by the working aid, and are pressed to retain the
shape, which makes the sewing operation easier. Pleating machines create
a series of creases following a specific pattern or randomly depending on
the type of the cloth. Pleats of various lengths can be prepared by hand or
by using machines. Blade-type and rotary-type machines can be used for
rapid and accurate pleat creation.
Incorrect selection of parameters can lead to shrinkage, colour loss or
degradation of the fabric. Hence, all the parameters should be precisely
controlled to avoid any damage to the garments. In addition, the acces-
sories used should be able to withstand the processing conditions. In sev-
eral instances, the lack of understanding of the material and the process
can cause permanent damage to the batch of garments. Hence, a perfect
understanding and training of the operators is essential to avoid such
problems.
3.4 Other equipment
Pressing or ironing is a common method of removing unwanted wrinkles
and reinforcing desired creases in garments. The flat iron is a hot plate
(heated by coal and later by electricity) that is used for this purpose. The
garment to be pressed is spread on a flat surface (ironing board) and then
the iron is run over it with a desired amount of pressure. The advent of
stainless steel provided a smooth surface that has been enhanced by Teflon
coatings. Water, sprinkled by hand on the garment, would turn into steam
on contact with the hot iron and aid in removing the creases. Nowadays
a water tank is incorporated in the iron to provide precise sprinkling. In
advanced systems, this water is converted to steam and then sprayed.
Modern irons possess a variety of temperature settings from mild for
delicate items to extremely high for linens. The objective is to obtain clean
crisp creases.
chapter four
Care labelling
Care labels provide information on the temperature settings to be used for
ironing [4]. In certain cases, ironing is not recommended at all. Apparel
and textiles are soiled during their normal use. From an economic point
of view, these items must be cleaned and refurbished for reuse with-
out substantially altering their functional and aesthetic properties. It is
essential that the various processes to which the apparel is subjected to
should maintain and restore the desirable and functional properties. This
is a joint responsibility of the textile and apparel industry, the textile care
industry and the consumers.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States promulgated
a trade rule on care labelling of wearing textiles and certain piece goods in
1972 [275]. The rule requires that apparel items should have a permanent
care label that provides information about their regular care instructions.
The purpose of the rule is to give the consumer accurate care information
to extend the useful life of the garments [276]. In addition to the apparel
products, the other textile products should also contain information on care
labelling. The list of items that use care labels includes clothing, household
textiles, piece goods and yarns made from textiles, furnishings, upholstered
furniture, bedding, mattresses, bed bases, plastics and plastic-coated fab-
rics, suede skins, hides, grain leathers and/or furs and custom-made gar-
ments (e.g., wedding dresses, suits). However, some of the items do not need
care instructions to ensure that the product is not damaged during cleaning
and maintenance. The list of items excluded from care labelling includes
second-hand goods, footwear, jute products, drapery, haberdashery, some
types of furnishings, medical and surgical goods, canvas goods and miscel-
laneous items such as cords, toys, umbrellas and shoelaces.
Care symbols provide all the necessary information on washing,
bleaching, ironing, dry cleaning and tumble drying [277]. The consumer
usually does not have the experience or technical knowledge to decide
which care treatment is suitable, so it is the responsibility of the apparel
manufacturers to provide the necessary care information for the products.
All textile used in apparel and all piece goods sold for making home-sewn
apparel are covered in care labelling apart from shoes, belts, hats, neckties,
non-woven and one-time garments.
Without care information, the consumers will face trouble in deciding
on the appropriate conditions for care treatment of the apparel [9]. Care
73
labels should not be considered as a guarantee or a quality mark of the

product. The following people or groups are covered in care labelling:
• Manufacturers of textiles and apparel.

• Manufacturers of piece goods sold at a retail price to consumers for
making wearing apparel.
• Importers of wearing apparel and piece goods for making wearing
apparel.
• Any organization that directs or controls the manufacture and/or
import and export of textile wearing apparel or piece goods for mak-
ing wearing apparel.
The FTC of the United States regulates care labelling for the domestic
apparel market under rule 16 CFR Part 423 titled ‘Care Labelling of Textile
Wearing Apparel and Certain Piece Goods’. The latest amendments state
that manufacturers can use a set of four basic care label symbols developed
by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) instead of using
words [7]. These symbols are a set of graphic images that function like
universal symbols on highway signs that do not need to be translated into
a variety of languages. Consequently, products sold in the United States
can use text only, symbols only, or both text and symbols. Products that are
destined for multiple countries should adopt the symbols-only format.
The information on care labels must be readily understood by con-
sumers in the post-purchase stage [4,10]. Care labels are expected to
carry information on fibre type, country of origin, registered identifica-
tion number (RN), wash-care instructions, size and the manufacturer‘s
or retailer’s identification. It becomes the responsibility of the garment
manufacturer or retailer to ensure accuracy and validity of the label con-
tents. Consumers with a high need for cognition prefer text format labels
while those with a lower need prefer the information in symbol format.
Generally, text-based labels are preferred as reading skills are taught and
reinforced from an early age. Easily understood labels increase consumer
confidence in caring for the apparel and reduce perceptions of risk con-
cerning the purchase of the item.
4.1 Definition of a care label

According to ASTM D 3136-96, a care label is a label or other affixed instruc-
tions that report how a product should be. Similarly, care instructions are a
series of directions that describe practices that should refurbish a product
without adverse effects and warn against any part of the directions that
one could reasonably be expected to use that may harm the item [4,278].
The FTC definition states that a “Care label means a permanent label or
tag, containing regular care information and instruction, that is attached
Chapter four: Care labelling 75
or affixed in some manner that will not become separated from the prod-
uct and will remain legible during the useful life of the product”.
The care label informs sales personnel and consumers of the appro-
priate care and treatment of the textile and the other material used in its
production. Correct labelling and careful compliance with the informa-
tion given on the care label help to ensure a long life for the textile items.
Care labels help to prevent irreversible damage to the textile article dur-
ing its care processes [9]. The care labels generally contain the following
information, although the statutory provisions may vary from country to
country:
• Care symbols
• Fibre content (% of each fibre)
• Size
• Country of origin
• Further information, such as eco labels, etc.
4.2 Terminologies used in care labelling

Besides the above processes used for care labelling, various other termi-
nologies related to care labelling that the consumers should understand
thoroughly are described below [2].
1. Detergent: A cleaning agent containing one or more surfactants as

the active ingredient(s).
2. Soap: A cleaning agent usually consisting of sodium or potassium
salts of fatty acids.
3. Bleach (in care of textiles): A product for brightening and aiding the
removal of soils and stains from textile materials by oxidation that is
inclusive of both chlorine and non-chlorine products.
4. Cleaning agent: A chemical compound or formulation of several
compounds that loosens, disperses, dissolves, or emulsifies soil to
facilitate removal by mechanical action.
5. Consumer care: Cleaning and maintenance procedures as custom-
arily undertaken by the ultimate user.
6. Professional care: Cleaning and maintenance procedures requiring
the services of a person specially trained or skilled in their use.
7. Refurbish: To brighten up or refresh and restore to wearability or
use by cleaning such as dry cleaning, laundering or steam cleaning.
8. Stain removal: A cleaning procedure for localised areas with clean-
ing agents and mechanical action specific to the removal of foreign
substances present.
9. Solvent relative humidity: The humidity of air over dry cleaning in
equilibrium with the solvent and a small amount of water.
The care labels for various types of clothing should be positioned at appro-
priate places in a particular clothing style (see Table 4.1). However, indi-
vidual manufacturers can slightly vary these positions, but should follow
the instructions described in the “Care label requirements” section below.
Table 4.1 Positioning of care labels in various garments [2,279]

Type of
garment Position of label Type of garment Position of label
Clothing for men and boys
Coats, formal On the left inside Shirts At the back or near
jacket, breast pocket; if there the neck; if
overalls is not one, on the possible on the
lining or the facing, side seam above
on the left side. the hem.
Sports jacket On the left inside Ties On inside.
breast pocket; if there
is not one, on the
lining or the facing.
Trousers At the top centre of Pre-packed shorts At the back on the
the right rear pocket; inside, in
if there is not one, on the middle of the
the waistband at the waistband.
back.
Ski pants and On the waistband at Pre-packed vests At the top centre
trousers to be the back; if there is Swimming trunks back.
worn with a not one, at the top of At the top of the
belt (knitted) the back centre seam. left-side seam.
Clothing for women and girls
Coats, suits On the lower front Overalls and At the top centre
facing. If there is no jumpers back (or, if the
facing, or if, after material is
making up, it is not transparent or the
suitable for carrying overalls have no
a label, at the top neck, in the
centre back. left-side seam
above the hem).
Dresses When fashion Pinafore dresses At the top centre
permits, at the top back (with size
centre back; indication).
otherwise on the
left-side seam, above
the hem.
(Continued)
Table 4.1 (Continued) Positioning of care labels in various garments [2,279]

Type of
Blouses At the bottom, on the Underwear At the top centre
left-side seam, above back. Exception:
the hem. For cami-knickers,
in the middle of
the side seam.
Skirts, At the waistband, at Aprons At the joint
trousers the top centre back. between the body
of the apron and
the left tie.
Corsetry
Brassieres, At the back left, at the Non-stretch At the back left, at
short or long lower edge of the corselettes, woven the lower edge of
garment. corselettes the garment.
(non-stretch)
Stretch girdles At the top centre Athletic support At the back left, at
short or long, back. (non-stretch), the lower edge of
stretch panty suspender belt the garment.
girdles short (non-stretch)
or long,
stretch
corselettes
Tights At the centre back. Stockings On the packing.
Women’s swimwear
One piece At the top of the Two piece At the top of the
left-side seam. Top piece left-side seam.
Bottom piece At the top of the
left-side seam.
Clothing for men, boys, women and girls
Pullovers, At the top centre Reversible anoraks, In the pocket.
knitted back. dressing gowns, At the neck, beside
waistcoats, housecoats, bath the size marking.
knitted robes, baby clothes For articles with
jackets, (excluding side seams, on the
anoraks, nappies) left one.
track suits, For articles without
tops and side seams, on the
bottoms, left shoulder seam.
nightwear For all-in-one
for men, rompers, on the
women and top outside hem.
children
(Continued)
Table 4.1 (Continued) Positioning of care labels in various garments [2,279]

Type of
Other articles
Table and bed At the corner and on Shawls and At the corner.
linen (white the underside, in the neckerchiefs, On the draw tape.
or coloured) hem. finished curtains
not to be
boiled (i.e.,
easy care
articles)
Hand and At the corner or, if Woven and knitted On the left glove.
bath towels, possible, on the gloves
not to be hanging tab.
boiled
Ribbon sold On the packing. Hand knitting yarn On the band.
by length,
pre-packed
Patterned At the corner, with Hand embroidery On the band.
covers, wool the marking. yarn, crochet yarn,
covers hand knitting
(blankets) wool
4.3 Care label requirements

According to FTC rules, anyone dealing with apparel must establish a
suitable basis for care information and it should be sufficient to keep the
garment safe during its use [280]. Various care labelling systems are fol-
lowed worldwide but may differ in terms of the symbols or the wordings
that convey the message. Whatever the system may be, it should follow
the following set of guidelines [276].
• All the symbols used in the care labelling system should be placed
directly on the article or on a label that shall be affixed in a perma-
nent manner to the article.
• The symbols may be produced by weaving, printing or other
processes.
• Care labels should be made of suitable material with resistance to
the care treatment indicated on the label at least equal to that of the
article on which they are placed.
• Label and symbols should be large enough so that they are easily
visible and readable.
• All the symbols should be used in the prescribed order and denote
the maximum permissible treatment.
• The consumers should easily understand the symbols irrespective

of the language.
• The care instruction symbols are applicable to the whole garment
including trimmings, zippers, linings, buttons, etc. unless otherwise
mentioned by separate labels.
• The care symbols selected should give instructions for the most
severe process or treatment the garment can withstand while being
maintained in a serviceable condition without causing a significant
loss of its properties.
• The label, with the symbols and words on it, should be legible
throughout the useful life of the garment.
• The machines used for washing and drying should be able to pro-
vide the conditions mentioned on the care label.
• The care labels should not be visible from the outside of the garment.
• They should not be inconvenient or cause irritations to the wearer.
• They should be easily visible and not hidden, which would other-
wise lead to difficulties in conveying information.
• The labels for a particular style should be positioned at one place,
either on the back, top or middle.
• If not readily seen due to packaging, care information must be
repeated on the outside of the package or on a hangtag attached to
the product.
• It is not always possible to have all the information on one label due
to the type of the garment, material and fashion requirements. In
these cases it is permissible to go for a second label.
• When a garment consists of two or more parts and is always sold
as a unit, only one care label can be used if the care instructions are
the same for all the pieces. The label should be attached to the major
piece of the suit. If the suit pieces require different care instructions
or are designed to be sold separately, like coordinates, then each item
must have its own care label.
• When an article is made of different materials, care instructions
suitable for all materials, including those most sensitive should be
included.
• The textile items that can be neither laundered nor dry cleaned,
should indicate this on the care label and adequately describe the
recommended care treatment.
• Sometimes delicate components of articles such as trims or padding
in furniture or bedding cannot or should not be removed. In these
cases, suppliers should also consider the care of the delicate parts
when developing care instructions for the article.
The care labels should be used for a wide range of products such as apparel
textiles, household textiles, home furnishings, resin-coated fabrics, piece
goods made from textiles, suede skins, leathers and furs [9,13,281]. Care label-
ling used in clothing should provide the consumers enough information on
(1) care instructions for clothing and other textile products, (2) prior knowl-
edge of care and maintenance costs of the materials such as dry cleaning, (3)
the processes and conditions to avoid in order to maximize the useful life of
clothing and textile products and (4) possible damages that can happen such
as dyes running out (e.g., wash separately) during care and maintenance.
The information provided on the care labels also affects the purchase
decision of the consumers [276,282–284]. During clothing purchase, consum-
ers are seeking the information on the fibre content [285] and the cost involved
with the care procedures [285] in addition to the price, physical characteris-
tics (colour, size and style) and brand name. A permanent label containing
care instructions should comply with the following requirements:
1. The label shall be accessible for examination by a prospective con-

sumer as an integral part or on a removable label attached to the
article.
2. The labels may use easily understood symbols in addition to writ-
ten instructions. Symbols and letters on labels must remain legible
throughout the useful life of a garment. Medium-width lettering
of which no individual letter shall be less than 1.5 mm high should
preferably be used.
3. Each significant component should possess its own appropriate and
complete care instructions.
4. The care instruction symbols are applicable to the whole of the gar-
ment, including trimmings, zippers, linings, buttons and sewing
thread, unless otherwise mentioned on separate labels.
5. Labels for a particular style should be positioned at one place in all
garment pieces.
6. Care labels should be made of suitable material with resistance to
the care treatment indicated in the label at least equal to that of the
article on which they are placed.
7. The symbols selected should give instructions for the most severe
maintenance process or treatment the garment can withstand with-
out causing a significant loss of its properties.
8. Care instructions are chosen based on the end-use of the article and
fibre type. In case of a fabric with blended fibres, the care instructions
should generally be based on the properties of the most sensitive fibre.
9. The care instructions selected should be verified to ensure that the
article complies with the performance requirements prior to sale.
Care instructions may be woven into or printed on labels primarily of a

rectangular shape [4,281]. They may be loop labels (sewn at both ends) or
fused flat against the fabric without the use of sewing threads. The size
of the labels will depend on the amount of information with an emphasis

on legibility. The position of the label is not stipulated and hence may
be placed at suitable locations in different garments. Although the rule
states that the organisation or person controlling the manufacture of the
finished garment is responsible for care labelling, the burden of proof falls
on the consumer if an item fails to meet the stated performance standards.
The suppliers are legally responsible to ensure that the clothing and
textile products they supply should satisfy the mandatory requirements.
Legal action or penalties apply when they fail to comply. Hence, they can
avoid the penalties by the following steps:
• Understand the specific requirements for a textile item.

• Understand the Consumer Protection Act and regulations.
• They should ensure that the products comply with the requirements
of this mandatory standard by thoroughly testing the products.
Similarly, retailers should ensure that the products they supply should
satisfy the mandatory standards. The retailers should always:
• Stipulate that any textile item they order must meet the mandatory
standard.
• Undertake visual inspection of delivered stock to check compliance
with the requirements of the mandatory standard.
• Encourage consumers to understand and follow the care instruc-
tions to avoid damage and maximise the useful life of clothing and
textile products they supply.
Some important difficulties with care labels are (1) some indicate highly
restrictive procedures that may not really be necessary, (2) some instruc-
tions are difficult to understand and (3) some abrasive and coarse labels
cause skin irritation. A survey confirmed that many people use inappro-
priate cleaning methods because they do not correctly understand care
label information. Some respondents indicated that they thought bleach-
ing was acceptable, though the instruction warned against it. Similarly,
‘line dry’ was interpreted incorrectly. Educational programmes are there-
fore necessary to enlighten the consumers. Standardising information on
care labels can also minimise misunderstanding. Considerable evidence
also exists to demonstrate that there is no direct relationship between
information provision on care labels and information used.
4.4 Mandatory regulations
In various countries there are mandatory requirements for care labelling.
Table 4.2 describes the standards used in various countries for care labelling.
Table 4.2 Standards for care labelling

Standard Description
AS/NZS 1957:1998 Textiles: care labeling.
AS/NZS 2622:1996 Textile products: fibre content labeling.
ASTM D5489-14 Standard guide for care symbols for care
instructions on textile products.
ASTM D3136-14 Standard terminology relating to care labelling for
apparel, textile, home furnishing and leather
products.
ASTM F2061-12 Standard practice for chemical protective clothing:
wearing, care and maintenance instructions.
ASTM F1449-08 Standard guide for industrial laundering of flame-,
thermal- and arc-resistant clothing.
ISO/TR 2801:2007 Clothing for protection against heat and flame –
general recommendations for the selection, care
and use of protective clothing.
ISO/TR 21808:2009 Guidance on the selection, use, care and
maintenance of PPE designed to provide
protection for firefighters.
ISO 3758:2012 Textiles: care labelling code using symbols.
ISO 3175-1:2010 Textiles: professional care, dry cleaning and wet
cleaning of fabrics and garments-Part 1:
assessment of performance after cleaning and
finishing.
ISO 3175-2: 2010 Textiles: professional care, dry cleaning and wet
cleaning of fabrics and garments-Part 2: procedure
for testing performance when cleaning and
finishing using tetrachloroethene.
finishing using hydrocarbon solvents.
finishing using simulated wet cleaning.
ISO 6330: 2012 Textiles: domestic washing and drying procedures
for textile testing.
ASTM E2274 and E2406 Standard test method for the evaluation of laundry
disinfectants and sanitizers.
NFPA 1851 Standard on selection, care and maintenance of
protective ensembles for structural firefighting
and proximity fire fighting.
(Continued)
Table 4.2 (Continued) Standards for care labelling

Standard Description
NFPA 2113 Standard on selection, care, use and maintenance
of flame-resistant garments for the protection of
industrial personnel against short-duration
thermal exposures.
AS/NZS 4501.1:2008 Occupational protective clothing – guidelines on
the selection, use, care and maintenance of
protective clothing.
AS/NZS 2161.1:2000 Occupational protective gloves – selection, use and
maintenance.
AS/NZS ISO 2801 Clothing for protection against heat and flame –
general recommendations for selection, care and
use of protective clothing.
ISO 15797:2002 Textiles: industrial washing and finishing
procedures for the testing of work wear.
ISO 30023:2010 Textiles: qualification symbols for labelling work
wear to be industrially laundered.
AS/NZS 2621:1998 Textiles: guide to the selection of correct care
labelling instructions from AS/NZS 1957.
AS/NZS 2622:1996 Textile products: fibre content labeling.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is currently

preparing a system of care labelling with special symbols for the indus-
trial cleaning of work wear. This system of graphical symbols is intended
for the care labelling of work wear articles and protective clothing. This
standard will provide information on the professional industrial launder-
ing using ISO 15797, as the industrial cleaning processes (in ISO 15797) are
fundamentally different from the GINETEX symbols (ISO 3758) used on
retail articles intended for home laundering. GINETEX symbols are not
applicable to professionally cleaning the garments. Industrial laundering
treatments such as washing, bleaching, tunnel finishing and tumble dry-
ing after washing are covered in this standard. ISO 30023 does not give
care instructions via the label. Instead, it only shows that the textiles have
been tested for resistance/suitability to the industrial laundry process (as
defined in ISO 15797) as shown in Table 4.3.
ISO 30023 does not use a label to give care instructions. It only shows
that the textiles have been tested for resistance/suitability to the industrial
laundry process (that is defined in ISO 15797). The scope of ISO 30023 is
limited due to the scope of ISO 15797 (to work wear that can be washed
and dried using the 8 + 2 procedures).Testing the samples as per ISO 15797
is expensive as large-scale machineries and more tests are involved in this
standard (Figure 4.1).
Table 4.3 ISO 30023 (new symbols)

Symbol Explanation
Professional industrial laundering, resistant to ISO 15797
washing procedure 1, tunnel finish or tumble dry.

washing procedure 3, tumble dry only.

washing procedures 1 and 6, tunnel finish only.
Tumble drying.
Tunnel/cabinet finishing/drying.
PPC Work wear Apparel
Figure 4.1 The scope of ISO 15797 and 30023.

There are certain advantages of ISO 30023 as mentioned below:
• By using the symbols in ISO 30023, manufacturers can communicate

easily on the resistance of their textiles to industrial laundry (using
ISO 15797 reference procedures).
• Symbols will provide a picture of results of ISO 15797 – testing for
resistance to industrial laundry.
• Unlike domestic care labelling systems (CLS), manufacturers remain
free on care and maintenance instructions.
• ISO 30023 will facilitate the exchange of technical information along
the supply chain.
• The cost of testing, using ISO 15797, will be considerably lower than
the savings it will generate.
• ISO 30023 will speed up the delivery to end-users of textiles suitable
for industrial laundry.
• ISO 30023 will lead to improved accuracy in specifications for the
supply of textile items.
• Linking labelling with recognized test methods will ensure product
quality and lead to less disputes.
4.5 Processes described by care labels

Care labels describe useful information on the processes used for care
and maintenance of clothing items, which include laundering or washing,
bleaching, ironing, dry cleaning and tumble drying (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4 Basic symbols used for care instructions in care labels
Symbols Indicates
Wash tub: gives instructions about laundering.
Triangle: gives instructions for bleaching.
Square: relates to drying.
Hand iron: provides ironing or pressing instructions.
Circle: gives dry-cleaning instructions.

4.5.1 Laundering
A process intended to remove soil or stains by treatment (washing)
with an aqueous detergent solution (and possibly bleach) and normally
including subsequent rinsing, extracting and drying. The process may
be further divided as hand washing, home laundering and commercial
laundering.
• Hand washing: The gentlest form of home laundering using hand

manipulation without the use of a machine or device such as a
scrubbing board.
• Home laundering: A process by which textile products or
parts thereof may be washed, bleached, dried and pressed by
non-professionals.
• Commercial laundering: A process by which textile products or
specimens may be washed, bleached, rinsed, dried and pressed typ-
ically at higher temperatures, higher pH, and longer times than used
for home laundering.
The process may include various operations in relevant combinations

such as soaking, pre-washing and proper washing carried out usually
with heating, mechanical action and in the presence of detergents or
other products and rinsing. Water extraction, i.e., spinning or wringing, is
performed during and/or at the end of the operations mentioned above.
4.5.2 Bleaching
Bleaching helps to remove stains on white clothes and retain their bright-
ness. It can remove the colour when used on coloured clothes. The bleach-
ing agents can be classified as (1) chlorine bleach and (2) non-chlorine
bleach.
1. Chlorine bleach: A process carried out in an aqueous medium

before, during or after washing processes, requiring the use of a
chlorine-based bleaching agent for the purpose of removing stains
and/or improving whiteness.
2. Non-chlorine bleach: Bleach that does not release the hypochlorite
ion in solution, i.e., sodium perborate, sodium percarbonate, etc.
4.5.3 Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning is the process of cleaning textile articles by means of organic
solvents (e.g., petroleum, perchlorethylene and fluorocarbon). This pro-
cess consists of cleaning, rinsing, spinning and drying.
4.5.4 Tumble drying
A process carried out on a textile article after washing with the intention
of removing residual water by treatment with hot air in a rotating drum.
4.5.5 Ironing or pressing
Ironing is a method that uses a heated iron (with or without the presence
of steam) to smooth or retain the shape of a garment by the application of
heat and pressure.
4.6 Care labelling systems

At present, there is no universal care labelling system. In the United
States, the Wool Products Labelling Act (1938), the Fur Products
Labelling Act (1951), the Flammable Fabrics Act (1958) and the Rule on
Care Labelling (1972) are in force. The Japan Industrial Standards (JIS)
for care labelling came into force in 1962. Similarly, in Korea, the rule on
Quality Labelling came into force in 1969 and the use of symbols for care
labelling of apparel products was published in 1972.
The ASTM system is accepted in the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) countries. The ISO or the International Association
for Textile Care Labelling (GINETEX) system is accepted in most of
Europe and Asia. Japan has its own system. Negotiations are under way to
harmonise the two major systems (ASTM and GINETEX) into a universal
labelling system for care procedures. An international labelling system
can facilitate global trade by avoiding technical or standards barriers. The
major systems that are followed worldwide are ASTM, ISO (GINETEX)
and the Canadian, Dutch and Japanese Care Labelling Systems. Although
there are some variations in the symbols, the five basic symbols used in
many of the above listed systems are discussed in a Section 4.6.1.
The Canadian Care Labelling System employs five basic symbols that
are sub-divided into three conventional traffic light colours [4]. The red
(with a cross superimposed) indicates prohibition, yellow the need of care
and green indicates that no special precautions need be taken.
The JIS for care labelling came into force in 1962. Similarly, in Korea,
the rule on Quality Labelling came into force in 1969 and the use of sym-
bols for care labelling of apparel products was published in 1972.
The Technical Committee (TC-38) of ISO handles all types of textile
standards through several subcommittees. Subcommittee SC-11 is con-
cerned with developing standards for care labelling with the primary
objective of developing an international symbol system. Manufacturers
and retailers follow the ASTM standard (ASTM D 3938 – determining
or confirming care instructions for apparel and other textile consumer
products) to ensure correct information is included on care labels. The

other standards dealing with care labelling include ASTM D 3136 (stan-
dard terminology relating to care labels for textile and leather products
other than textile floor coverings and upholstery), ASTM D 6322 (interna-
tional test methods associated with textile care procedures) and ASTM D
5489 (standard guide for care symbols for care instructions).
The most recent amendment to the rule states that the manufactur-
ers can use a set of basic care label symbols developed by ASTM instead
of using words. These symbols are graphic images that function like
universal symbols on highway signs and that do not need to be trans-
lated into a variety of languages. The intention of using symbols is that
an individual without any previous experience should be able to interpret
the symbols correctly and follow the actions suggested by them. However,
it is often hard for the consumers to understand the symbols correctly.
Following the FTC rules, products sold in the United States can use text
only, symbols only or both text and symbols. Products that are destined
for multiple countries should adopt the symbols-only format to avoid
the need to label in multiple languages. Consumers with a high need for
cognition prefer labels that present care information in text format, while
those with a lower need prefer the information in symbol format.
Care labels that are easily understood by consumers increase their
confidence in caring for the apparel and reduce their perceptions of risk
concerning the purchase of the item. The care instructions can be passed
to the consumers with text only, symbols only and a combination of text
and symbol [286]. The manufacturers of clothing and other textiles prefer
to use symbols on the care label, as the care symbols are globally recog-
nizable and do not need to be translated into other languages. The major-
ity of the consumers prefer care labels that contain text and symbols, as
these skills are taught and reinforced from an early age.
There are various care labelling systems followed around the world.
Among the different care labelling systems, the systems that are mainly
followed are listed below:
• International Care Labelling System

• ASTM Care Labelling System
• Canadian Care Labelling System
• British Care Labelling System
• Japanese Care Labelling System
• Australian Care Labelling System
4.6.1 International (ISO) care labelling system

The ISO system commonly known as GINETEX for care labelling was
established in 1963 in Paris following several international symposiums
for Textile Care Labelling at the end of the 1950s [287,288]. A large number
of national organisations are members of GINETEX. The countries that are
members of GINETEX are Austria, Brazil, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Belgium, England, Germany, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, the
Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia,
Turkey and the United Kingdom. GINETEX has the following objectives:
• To define symbols for textile care at an international level.

• To define the regulations for the use of care symbols.
• To promote the use of clothing care symbols.
• To acquire all markings and all rights relative to the symbols.
• To register the symbols, both national and international.
• To insure protection for all marks and symbols as adopted in all
member countries of GINETEX.
• To conclude all agreements liable to the promotion of the above-
mentioned objectives
• To take all measures and carry out all actions in order to promote the
above objectives, either directly or indirectly.
An internationally applicable care labelling system based on symbols for

textile materials has been devised by GINETEX. The care labelling system
provides the correct information on the care instruction of textile prod-
ucts to consumers, retailers and textile manufacturing companies. The
care labels describe various processes the clothing item can tolerate to
avoid any irreversible damage to the product. The symbols or pictograms
used in most countries are registered trademarks of GINETEX.
The international system of care labelling symbols is defined by
GINETEX. In addition, GINETEX promotes and coordinates its technical
background on an international level. The care labelling system takes into
account any new technical and ecological developments together with
changes in consumer practices. The symbols used in the GINETEX sys-
tem represent that the garment can withstand the process and a cross
indicates the process is not possible for the garment. The five symbols as
described in Figure 4.2 are used in this system.
Wash Bleach Tumble Iron Dry

dry clean
Figure 4.2 Five symbols used in the ISO system for care labelling.
The washtub represents the washing or laundering process, which

may contain some number inside. This number indicates the maximum
permissible temperature of the water in degrees centigrade. Both the
washtub and the number indicate that machine washing is possible. A
hand in the washtub indicates only hand washing is possible. If there is
an underline beneath the washtub, it indicates a milder treatment is in
order. Numbers above the washtub indicate different washing programs
and these are not always identical with those actually used in washing
machines. There may be some additional indications that are not followed
everywhere. ‘CL’ inside the triangle indicates that chlorine bleaching is
possible. The dots (1, 2 or 3) inside the iron symbol indicate the maximum
temperature at which ironing can be done. The letters (A, P or F) inside
the circle indicate the dry cleaning process with the solvent to be used
(A, P and F indicate any solvent, any solvent except trichloroethylene and
petroleum solvent, respectively). A circle inside a square indicates that a
particular garment can be tumble dried.
4.6.2 ASTM care labelling system

In the ASTM system there are five basic symbols: washtub, triangle, square,
iron and circle indicating the process of washing, bleaching, drying, iron-
ing or pressing and dry-cleaning, respectively [7]. The prohibitive symbol
‘X’ may be used only when evidence can be provided that the care proce-
dure on which it is superimposed would adversely change the dimensions,
hand, appearance or performance of the textile. The washtub with a water
wave represents the washing process in the home laundering or commer-
cial laundering process. Additional symbols inside the washtub represent
the washing temperature and the hand washing process. The water tem-
perature in the hand washing process may be 40°C. Additional symbols
below the washtub indicate the permanent press cycle (one underline,
minus sign, or bar) and a delicate-gentle washing cycle (two underline,
minus sign, or bar). The detailed description is given in Figure 4.3.
The triangle represents the bleaching process and an additional sym-
bol inside the triangle indicates the type(s) of bleach to be used. The square
indicates the drying process. An additional symbol inside the square rep-
resents the type of drying process to use including tumble dry, line dry,
drip dry, dry flat and dry in shade. Additional symbols below the square
indicate the permanent press cycle (one underline, minus sign or bar) and
the delicate-gentle cycle (two underline, minus sign or bar). Permanent
press and gentle/delicate cycle instructions may be reported in words
along with symbols instructions for tumble-drying and the dryer heat
setting. The dots are used to represent the dryer temperature: three dots
(high), two dots (medium), one dot (low), no dots (any heat) and a solid
circle (no heat/air).
ASTM guide to care symbols

Warning
symbols for
Machine laundering
wash
Cycles Normal Permanent Delicate/ Hand

and press gentle wash
Do not wash
Water
temperatures
º
(maximum) (200ºF) (160ºF) (140ºF) (120ºF) (105ºF) (65 F–
Wash 85ºF) Do not bleach
Symbol (s) 95 70 60 50 40 30
dots & ºC.
Do not dry
(used with
Bleach do not wash)
when
needed Any bleach Only non-chlorine/
oxygen bleach Do not iron
Bleach
Additional
instructions
Tumble dry (in symbols
or words)
Line dry/
Cycles Normal Permanent Delicate/ hang to dry
press gentle Do not wring
and
Dry Drip dry
Do not
Heat settings Any High Medium Low No heat/ tumble dry
heat air
Dry flat
In the shade
(added to line
Iron when dry, drip dry, or
needed dry flat)
dry or steam
Heat settings High Medium Low
No steam
Iron (added to iron)
Dryclean Do not Wetclean Do not

dryclean wetclean
Normal cycle Mild cycle Normal Mild Very mild
P F P F W W W
Professional Gentle solvent
Any solvent petroleum or
textile care silicone solvent only
Figure 4.3 Symbols used in the ASTM care labelling system.
The hand iron represents the hand ironing process and the pressing
process. Dots inside the iron represent the temperature setting. The max-
imum temperatures by different number of dots are three dots (200°C),
two dots (150°C) and one dot (110°C). The warning symbol, crossed-out
steam lines under the iron or words may be used to report the warn-
ing, ‘do not steam’. The circle represents the dry cleaning process.
A letter inside the circle represents the type of solvent that can be used.
Additional symbols may be used with the circle to furnish additional
information concerning the dry cleaning process. The iron symbol may
be used with the dry cleaning symbol to represent how to restore the
item by ironing after wearing.
4.6.3 Canadian care labelling system

The Canadian Care Labelling System consists of five basic symbols that
are illustrated in the conventional traffic light colours. If any message is
not conveyed by the care labelling symbols, words in English and French
may be used. The five symbols must appear in the following order on the
care labels: washing, bleaching, drying, ironing and dry cleaning. The
symbols are described in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Symbols and processes used in Canadian care labelling system
Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions
Washing (a washtub without water Drying (square symbol indicates drying)
wave represents washing process)
Green washtub: Green square: tumble dry
machine wash in hot at medium to high
water (not exceeding temperature and remove
70°C) at a normal article from the machine
setting. as soon as it is dry.
Avoid over drying.
Green washtub: Orange square: tumble
machine wash in dry at low temperature
warm water (not and remove article from
exceeding 50°C) at a machine as soon as it is
normal setting. dry. Avoid over drying.
Orange washtub: Green square: hang to
machine wash in dry after removing
warm water (not excess water.
exceeding 50°C) at a Green square: ‘drip’ dry,
gentle setting hang soaking wet.
(reduced agitation).
Orange washtub: Orange square: dry on
machine wash in flat surface after
lukewarm water (not extracting excess water.
exceeding 40°C) at a
gentle setting
(reduced agitation).
(Continued)
Table 4.5 (Continued) Symbols and processes used in Canadian care

labelling system
Orange washtub: hand Ironing (the iron with a closed handle
wash gently in represents the ironing process).
lukewarm water (not
exceeding 40°C).
Yellow washtub: hand Green iron: iron at a high
wash gently in cool temperature (not
water (not exceeding and exceeding 200°C –
30°C). recommended for cotton
and linen).
Red washtub: do not Orange iron: iron at a
wash. medium temperature
and (not exceeding 150°C –
recommended for nylon
and polyester).
Bleaching (triangle symbol Orange iron: iron at a low
indicates bleaching process) temperature (not
and exceeding 110°C –
recommended for
acrylic).
Orange triangle: use Red iron: do not iron or
chlorine bleach with press.
care. Follow package
directions.
Red triangle: do not Dry-cleaning (the circle indicates
use chlorine bleach. dry-cleaning)
Green circle: dry clean
Orange circle: dry clean,
tumble at a low safe
temperature.
Red circle: do not dry
clean.
4.6.4 British care labelling system

The British Care Labelling System uses graphic symbols to provide infor-
mation on care labels. The care instruction symbols should appear in the
order of washing, bleaching, drying, ironing and dry cleaning. The sym-
bols used for various processes with necessary explanation are given in
Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Symbols and processes used in British care labelling system
Washing
Cotton wash (no A washtub without a bar indicates that
bar) normal (maximum) washing conditions
may be used at the appropriate
temperature.
Synthetics wash A single bar beneath the washtub

(single bar) indicates reduced (medium) washing
conditions at the appropriate
temperature.
Wool wash (double A double underline beneath the washtub
underline) indicates much reduced (minimum)
washing conditions, and is designed
specifically for machine-washable wool
products.
Hand wash only Wash by hand.
Bleaching
Any bleach allowed.
Only oxygen bleach/non-chlorine bleach allowed.
Do not bleach.
Ironing
Hot iron
Warm iron
Cool iron
Dry cleaning
Must be professionally dry cleaned. The letters contained
within the circle and/or a bar beneath the circle will
indicate the solvent and the process to be used by the dry
cleaner.
Must be professionally dry cleaned. The letters contained
within the circle and/or a bar beneath the circle will
indicate the solvent and the process to be used by the dry
cleaner.
(Continued)
Table 4.6 (Continued) Symbols and processes used in British care

labelling system
Professional wet clean only.
Do not dry clean.
Tumble drying
May be tumble dried
with high heat setting
with low heat setting
Do not tumble dry.
A cross through any symbol means ‘DO NOT’
Source: http://www.care-labelling.co.uk/whatsymbolsmean.html.
4.6.5 Australian/New Zealand care labelling system

The joint systems AS/NZS 1957:1998, Textiles-Care labelling and AS/NZS
2622:1996 Textile products – Fibre content labelling; AS/NZS 1957:1998,
Textiles-Care labelling with variations and additions are followed in
Australia and New Zealand. The joint standards specify that care instruc-
tions must be permanently attached to articles, written in English and
appropriate for the care of the article. The instructions can be clarified by
additional symbols if needed, but symbols alone are not sufficient. The
symbols are used for washing, bleaching, drying, ironing and dry clean-
ing instructions. In addition, professional wet cleaning is explained by the
use of one symbol.
The washtub symbol indicates the washing process. The number
inside the washtub indicates the maximum temperature for washing. A
single line underneath the washtub indicates mild treatment or washing
cycle using the permanent press setting, whereas two lines underneath
the washtub indicate gentle or delicate cycle. A cross indicates that the
process is not appropriate for the clothing.
The bleaching, drying, ironing, dry cleaning and professional wet
cleaning processes are indicated by the symbols as shown in Table 4.7. The
iron symbol indicates ironing and the dots inside indicate the acceptable
Table 4.7 Care symbols used in joint Australian/New Zealand system
96
Washing Ironing
Normal Permanent press Cool iron Warm iron Hot iron Do not iron
Delicate/gentle Hand wash
50°C
95°C 70°C 60°C
No steam (added to iron)
40°C 30°C
Do not wash Do not wring
Care and Maintenance of Textile Products

Bleaching Dry cleaning
Any bleach Only non- Do not bleach Any solvent Petroleum Any solvent Dry clean in
(when chlorine bleach except solvent, accordance
needed) (when needed) trichloroethylene liquid silicone with P*
Dry-clean in accordance with F* Do not dry clean

* With strict limitation on amount of water, reduced
mechanical action and low drying temperature
(Continued)
Chapter four: Care labelling
Table 4.7 (Continued) Care symbols used in joint Australian/New Zealand system
Drying: Tumble drying Professional wet cleaning
Normal Permanent press Normal process Mild process Do not

Delicate/gentle Very mild professionally
process wet clean
Any heat High Medium Low
No heat/air
Air drying (no tumble dry)
Line Drip dry Dry flat In the shade

dry – hang
to dry
Do not dry Do not tumble dry
97
temperature range. The dry cleaning process is indicated by a circle and

the letters within the circle provide information on the solvents to be used
during the cleaning process, which is needed by professional textile clean-
ers. The line below the circle indicates the limitations in the dry cleaning
process, which may be related to mechanical action, addition of moisture
and/or drying temperature.
4.6.6 Japanese care labelling system

The Japanese Care Labelling System uses basic symbols that are different
than other systems for care labelling. The symbols are shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Symbols and processes used in Japanese care labelling system
Washing instructions Dry cleaning instructions
Machine wash in water Dry clean; use any
temperature of 95°C or dry cleaning agent.
less.
No other restrictions.
Machine wash in water Dry clean; use only
temperature of 60°C or a petroleum-based
less. agent.
Machine wash in water Do not dry clean.
temperature of 40°C or
less.
Machine wash at delicate Wringing instructions
cycle or hand wash in
water temperature of
40°C or less.
Machine wash at delicate Wring softly by
cycle or hand wash in hand or spin dry
water temperature of by machine
30°C or less. quickly.
Hand wash in water Do not wring by
temperature of 30°C or hand.
less.
Do not wash (not
washable).
(Continued)
Table 4.8 (Continued) Symbols and processes used in Japanese care

labelling system
Bleaching instructions Drying instructions
Use chlorine bleach. Hang dry.
Do not use chlorine Hang dry in shade.

bleach.
Ironing instructions Lay flat to dry.
May be ironed directly at Lay flat to dry in

180°C–210°C. shade.
May be ironed directly at
140°C–160°C.
May be ironed directly at
80°C–120°C.
Do not iron.
May be ironed at
180°C–210°C if a cloth is
placed between the iron
and the garment.
4.7 Example of care labels

An example of a care label is shown in Figure 4.4. This care label explains
the care instructions, type of fibre used, and country of origin, explained
by text as well as symbols. There may be variations to these labels depend-
ing on the type of the cloth and country of final destination.
4.8 Electronic care labels

The electronic labels use radio frequency identification (RFID) tags for
storing information electronically on a garment [279,289–291]. The same
RFID tag used for containing the product details at the point of sale cannot
be used for storing the care instructions due to privacy concerns [292,293].
Hence, additional tags are needed for the care instructions, which will
increase the cost of the garment. In addition, the consumers need special
readers to extract the information stored on the RFID tag. Hence, they will
prefer the physical label instead of an electronic label. Furthermore, the
93% Cotton
7% Spandex
30'
Machine wash cool

Do not bleach
Drip dry in shade
Cool Iron
Do not dryclean
Made in New Zealand
Figure 4.4 Examples of care labels explaining the meanings of various symbols.
use of RFID tags in the garment may pose health risks to the consumers
due to the exposure to radiation.
The other concern related to the use of RFID tags is the electronic
waste [293]. An appropriate method should be devised to recycle or
reuse the RFID tags if they are removed at the point of sale. Similarly, if
customers remove the chip at some point, proper disposal of the tags is
essential, which causes additional worries to the companies. In addition,
the other issues related to RFID are the lack of standardisation and high
cost. Standardising the technology, design and use of the tags can solve
the issues related to a lack of standardisation, whereas the technological
developments can help to overcome the cost-related issues.
RFID tags can be used in combination with the RN system, which
is currently in use in some places including the United States. The FTC
issues the RN, which can be used on the textile label instead of the com-
pany name. The use of the RN system assists the buyers to easily iden-
tify a company from the RN using the Internet. The RN system uses less
space on the label and more space is available for other care instructions.
Therefore, the combined use of RFID and RN number systems could fur-
ther benefit industry and consumers.
The use of RFID tags is still in its infancy stage [289]. Hence, it is too
early to conclude the final shape of RFID tags and their impact on con-
sumers. One of the industry-observed benefits to the consumers is by
including washing instructions in the tag. In Germany, RFID chips are
being used in nursing homes to help the nurses in correctly sorting the
garments according to care instructions. Hence, there is a potential benefit
of RFID tags to the consumers. However, all the major drawbacks should
be overcome to make RFID tags a success.
4.9 Issues related to care labelling

The selection of processes for garment care and maintenance can increase
the cost as shown in Figure 4.5 as well as affect the useful properties.
Garments may lose the useful properties due to the deviation from the
label instructions and improper conditions used for the care and main-
tenance [294]. They may lose their visual and tactile aspects or shrink
more than the specified values [137]. They may also fade in colour or cross
stain during the washing or dry cleaning and subsequent processes. All
these consequences result in the rejection of the garment. Hence, consum-
ers should strictly follow the care instructions, otherwise they are solely
responsible for the damage caused to the garment.
In some countries, customers demand the use of their national lan-
guage for the care labelling and marking of textile products. Hence, the
use of multi-lingual care label systems exists in some places around the
globe [11]. In this case, the labels would have to be very big to accommo-
date several languages, and the extra cost for industry is mostly associ-
ated with translating and relabelling. These problems can be solved by the
use of care label instructions in symbols rather than text so that they can
be easily followed by all the consumers.
The use of chemical substances is regulated through the European
Community Regulation known as the Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical (REACH) substances,
EC1907/2006). However, many consumer organisations around the globe
have mentioned that the use of chemical substances in textiles is not suf-
ficiently addressed in the current legislation. The use of nanotechnologies
and the residual chemicals present in the garments are neither covered by
REACH nor well-documented. Chemical labelling will incur additional
Drycleanable items
when washed
Increased costs
Washable items
Non-aqueous cleaning Aqueous cleaning

Selection of cleaning process
Figure 4.5 Cleaning process and cost.

costs for the industry to conduct tests for chemical substances. Hence,
many industries are not in favour of the labelling of chemicals, and they
think that labelling will hardly add any value for the consumer.
The residual solvent that remains after dry cleaning can affect
the water repellency, reduce the breathability and other properties.
Hydrocarbons should be used for olefins, PU and rubber items instead
of perchloroethylene (PCE, also called perc) as it can cause swelling to
textile items. Elastane fibres swell in PCE and return to the original size
after solvent evaporation. Olefin piping in corded seams can shrink and
the coating may be separated by PCE.
chapter five
Care instructions for

specialty textile items
All textile materials, irrespective of their area of use, get soiled by general
use and exposure to the environment, consequently requiring cleaning
and care [4]. It is to be noted that, in the house, the use of textiles extends
far beyond that of apparel into carpets and rugs, curtains and upholstery
material, bed linens and other specialty textiles as in blinds, shutters,
awnings, blankets and leather goods. In addition, other sectors such as
automotive (for seats and interiors), offices (for separators), hospitality and
medical (bed linens) and commercial seating also use textiles.
The manufacturers of carpets and rugs generally give functional fi nishes
that reduce the degree of soiling of the product [295–297]. In addition, they
are shampooed and steam cleaned to restore them. Special chemicals (pow-
ders or liquids) may also be employed to remove stains. The common issues
and cause for carpet replacement are wearing out of the materials, colour fad-
ing and fashion. A stain-resistant finish is commonly mandated for curtains
and upholstery by the manufacturers. These products are also expected to
be resistant to microbial agents, mildew and rot [41]. Vacuum cleaners are
widely employed to maintain these materials. Curtains may also be sub-
jected to washing. Replacement is prompted mainly by colour fading on
prolonged exposure to sunlight and/or gas fumes (if heating is involved).
Bed linens are washed using harsher settings in a commercial laun-
dry as compared to apparel. This is prompted by the assured cleanliness,
critical in the hospitality sector, despite the shortened useful life. Home
linens are, however, included in the general wash and undergo a rela-
tively mild treatment. In developed countries, hospital linen has morphed
to the disposable kind and after-care is not significant.
Seats in personal automobiles are regularly vacuumed, shampooed
and dried. The use of changeable car seat covers is also prevalent. Fabrics
used in commercial seating and office separators are dusted or vacuumed,
and usually replaced before any significant physical change/damage
becomes readily apparent. In the medical field, for disposable applications,
products are designed to possess a minimum usage life and appropriate
shelf life. For all the above-mentioned items, care instructions are neces-
sary for optimal washing and storage conditions wherein the p roduct will
retain its special characteristics.
103
5.1 Carpet and rugs

Professional carpet care and cleaning is required to maintain the carpets
rather than regular vacuuming. However, frequent vacuuming can help
to keep grit from becoming embedded into the carpet [298,299]. Most car-
pets need hot-water extraction, either in isolation or in combination with
cleaning, for their maintenance [300]. Some carpet designs may need spe-
cial means to be cleaned. The carpets should be cleaned by carpet care
professionals at least every 18–24 months to refresh the texture and reju-
venate the fibres in the carpet.
Fibre content is the most important parameter in selecting a care pro-
cess for carpets [101]. Most recent carpets are fabricated from synthetic
fibres such as nylon, polyester or polyolefin, which may be cleaned with
most cleaning methods. The carpets manufactured from natural fibres
such as wool, cotton, silk and sisal require specialised care.
Any attempt to remove the stain by rubbing can lead the spill of the
stain into the pile and damage the fibres of the carpet. The stains should
be covered by a towel for blotting them. This is repeated using dry towels
until all the liquid has been absorbed. In the case of large spills, a wet-dry
vacuum can be used to remove most of the spills before blotting.
Rug care is determined by the size, construction and material of the
rug. Large rugs should be vacuumed to remove dirt, and if a rug is revers-
ible, both sides should be vacuumed. If pets are kept at home, a vacuum
may leave pet hairs behind. A stiff brush should be used to remove these
hairs, brushing in the direction of the nap of the rug.
5.2 Curtains and upholstery material

The care labels fixed to the rear of the curtains should be checked before
laundering. Selecting professional curtain cleaners is the best choice.
Regular gentle vacuuming with an appropriate soft vacuum attachment
can help the curtains to be dust-free [301,302]. The removal of dust from
the folds will prevent the grit from corroding the fabric. The edges of the
curtains should also be cleaned regularly as they are frequently touched
and may accumulate dust from the window sills.
The curtains should not be touched by hand as dirty hands can spoil
the fabric. Rather a draw cord should be used. Any marks on the cur-
tain can be spot cleaned with a damp cloth. The curtain should be dried
immediately after spot cleaning to avoid any water marks. The curtains
used in the kitchen absorb cooking odors and splattered grease over time;
hence, they should be cleaned with special care. The curtains made of
cotton and linen can be machine washed. However, silk curtains should
always be hand washed. Prior to washing any curtain, a small portion
should be tested to see its behaviour [273]. Some delicate or silk curtains
Chapter five: Care instructions for specialty textile items 105
may bleed colour in the first wash. The use of cool water and a mild deter-
gent is preferred for the curtains whether they are machine washed or
hand washed to avoid shrinkage.
After the curtains are washed and dried, they need to be pressed to
refresh the fabric and make the pleats look sharper. When ironing, they
should be turned inside out and ironed on a low setting. The curtains
in the living room or bedroom with embellishments should be washed
and pressed with more care to avoid pucker and damage to the embel-
lishment. The curtains should be rotated regularly, to wear out evenly.
Curtains and blinds should be used to protect the upholstery from direct
sunlight through windows. The loose threads should never be pulled out,
but rather cut to prevent any damage.
The upholstery should be vacuumed regularly with a soft uphol-
stery attachment. The upholstery fabric can be slightly discoloured by the
action of dirt combined with body moisture [303]. Regular vacuuming
will remove the grit that can wear the fabric. While washing the uphol-
stery, the care instructions should be checked that they are attached to the
sofa. For better results, a professional dry cleaning service should be used
at least once a year to keep the fabric fresh.
The upholstery fabric should never be placed in direct sunlight as it
can fade and damage the fabric.
5.3 Bed linen
The bed linens also need proper care for maintaining their aesthetics and
other useful properties. While following any care procedure for bed linen,
the care instructions should be followed. The bed linen should always be
cleaned by hand or machine washed, rather than dry cleaned. The linen
items should be washed in lukewarm or cold water. While machine wash-
ing the linens, a gentle washing cycle and mild soap should be used. The
following instructions should be followed for machine washing:
• Linens should be pre-washed before the first use. While washing,

separate the linens from the other items in the wash and separate the
light and dark colours.
• Linens should be machine washed in warm water on a gentle cycle
with a cold-water rinse. Overloading of the washing machine should
be avoided as this can cause fibres to break down from excessive
abrasion and agitation. Care should be taken to pre-treat any stains
prior to washing.
• A neutral or mild detergent without bleaching agents such as chlo-
rine or peroxide is recommended. Detergent should not be poured
directly on the linens; rather, it should be added to the water as the
washtub fills, or added as dilute solution. Unless linens are very
soiled, only half the recommended amount of detergent needs to be

used. Linens should not be chlorine bleached as it can weaken fibres
and cause yellowing. For white linens, oxygen-based bleach should
be used.
• Fine linens can be machine dried on low heat. Damp linens should
be shaken well before adding to the dryer. Tumble drying should be
done for no more than 5–7 minutes on low setting. The linens should
be tumble dried at cool temperature or by air drying. They should
be removed from the dryer, when still slightly damp as over drying
can make them stiffer, and damage the lustre and lifespan. After the
removal from the dryer, the linens should be laid flat or hung on a
hanger to become completely dry. Over-drying is the most harmful
process for fabrics as it weakens the fibres causing shrinkage and
pilling. Line drying outdoors is also a good option when possible.
Remove the linens from the dryer when they are still warm to avoid
wrinkling.
• Linen items do not need ironing unless they are really wrinkled.
If needed, they should be ironed while the fabric is still damp or
ironed with steam at a medium-to-hot temperature. For best results,
white linen should be ironed on both sides, whereas dark linen on
the wrong side only. In case of damask/jacquard fabric, iron on
the reverse side first, then on the front side to bring out the sheen.
Embroidered items should be ironed on the reverse side atop a towel
to preserve the three-dimensional effect of the embroidery. A press
cloth should be used to protect delicate lace and cutwork.
• Before storing the washable linens, they should be washed and
dried. Linens should be stored in a cool, dark and dry spot. When
storing in a garment bag with other garments, the other garments
should be of cotton, linen or muslin. Add appropriate tags as
needed. A lavender sachet can be placed with linens to keep them
smelling fresh. Linens should be rotated every 6 months and stored
in bags that do not emit fumes or permit moisture, which may dam-
age the material.
5.4 Other items
5.4.1 Blinds, shutters and awnings
While cleaning these items, it is essential to check the care labels before
going for any cleaning. Regular dusting or the gentle wiping of blinds
over the front of the fabric can help to avoid any harsh cleaning. Plasticised
materials and sunscreen blind fabrics can be wiped down with warm
soapy water or mild detergents. While wiping, vigorous rubbing of the
fabric should be avoided as it can cause damage. More care should be
taken while wiping flock-back blind fabrics. The use of any type of cleaner
on blinds or leaving the blind wet while wiping should be avoided. Any
marks from the front of the fabric can be removed by using a wrung-out
cloth and gently treating at the spot. However, spot cleaning with exces-
sive pressure can cause water marks on the fabric.
Shutters should be dusted regularly and can be wiped down with
a damp soft cloth. Use of abrasive cleaners or any scourers should be
avoided, which can damage the finish of the timber. Scrubbing the fab-
ric or the use of harsh soaps, detergents, solvents, other liquid cleansers
or any bleach should also be avoided. Dirty marks and mildew should
be immediately removed by gentle brushing and cleaning well with cold
water.
5.4.2 Blankets
Most of the blankets can be cleaned by hand or machine [304,305]. Prior
to cleaning, excess dirt and foreign materials should be removed from
a blanket. The blanket should be placed in a mesh wash bag so that the
straps, buckles, etc. are protected from machine damage. Before washing
a blanket, mend or replace bindings, treat spots and stains and ensure
that the detergent is made for cold water. The following points should be
considered while cleaning the blankets.
• Machine wash: Blankets should be machine washed in cool water

on a gentle cycle using mild soap or a blanket-cleaning formulation.
Blankets that are machine washable should fit within the washing
machine or they will not get washed properly. Softener sheets or
liquid softener may be introduced as well.
• Water temperature: Cold water should be used for blanket washing,
which will keep the blanket in good condition.
• Drying: Blankets should preferably be line dried and not tumble
dried. Blankets should not be put in a hot dryer. A medium-heated
dryer or permanent press cycle must be used for the best results.
• Electric blankets: These blankets should be washed carefully. They
should never be dry cleaned, as the dry cleaning solvents can dam-
age the electrical wiring. Similarly, mothproofing is harmful to the
electrical wiring also.
5.4.3 Leather goods
Leather goods need to be cared for similar to the human skin as they are the
tanned product of an animal [139]. Appropriate care and maintenance will
ensure leather stays in good condition and increases its durability. The
care instructions should be followed and the genuineness of the leather
has to be confirmed before any treatment. Care practices for leather, suede,
nubuck or synthetic leather should not be used interchangeably.
• Prior to cleaning, excess dirt and foreign materials should be

removed from leather goods. Pre-treatment with a leather sham-
poo may be necessary before any conditioner or sealer is applied,
depending on the surface and level of soiling. While applying a con-
ditioner or sealer, it is wise to use a clean cloth before transferring to
the leather, to assist even coverage and absorption.
• Annual cleaning and reconditioning is recommended for leather
jackets. If the jacket has a smooth surface, the entire surface should
be wiped using a mild soap or detergent. A damp sponge can be
employed to rinse the jacket and blot excess water. The jacket should
be dried in a place with abundant air circulation. Reconditioning
of leather items is done to prevent the leather from drying out and
getting damaged by the external elements. Conditioner and water-
proofing products are applied in a similar manner to when the jacket
was new.
• While removing stains, a spot test should be carried out before
using any cleaning agent on the leather. This ensures that the
leather will not be damaged. This is done by applying a small
amount of the cleaning agent on areas such as the collar of the
jacket and letting it set for about 10 minutes. The applied spot is
checked to ensure that there is no damage to the applied area. In
order to remove ink stains from leather, a non-acetone nail polish
remover may be used.
• A leather jacket should always be hung up on a wooden or padded
hanger. Using a wire or a thin plastic hanger can cause indentations
or damage to the leather.
• Creases can be removed from leather goods by hanging in the bath-
room and running a hot shower. The steam will cause the creases
to relax. While doing so, the jacket should not be placed directly
under the water from the shower. Alternatively, creases can also be
removed by ironing (at a low setting) using a layer of heavy paper
between the iron and the jacket.
5.5 Care based on fibre type

Taking proper care of the clothing can keep away the frustration of
repairing or even replacing garments, and hence, can save unnecessary
expenses. Similarly, washing the clothes when it is needed, rather than
each time the clothes are worn, can also save time and prevent wearing of
the garment due to frequent cleaning. The following section describes the
care to be taken to lengthen the lifespan of the clothing.
• Clothing subjected to excessive cleaning can wear out sooner.

Depending on the type of garment and climatic conditions, some
garments can be worn more than once before they are cleaned.
Hence, a decision should be made after wearing a garment if it needs
cleaning. One should check it for any stains, lint, odour or any other
factor that would necessitate a cleaning. If the garment appears clean
and there is no bad odour, it should be reused again before washing.
Jackets can be brushed with a cloth-brush on the shoulder and other
areas followed by hanging them on a padded hanger.
• ‘A stitch in time does save nine’ was well said by Benjamin Franklin.
Minor repair to small tears or holes when they appear can prevent
major repair work later, which may become irreparable subsequently.
• The hanger used to hold a garment should be of good quality to sup-
port the load of the cloth. Fragile wire hangers may lead the garment
to sag out of shape and finally the shoulders of the garment may be
damaged.
• The clothes should be stored with proper folding to avoid wrinkles.
Storing clothes for a longer period of time needs special care to avoid
the attack of microbes during the storage, which may damage the
cloth. It’s disheartening to pull out your favourite outfit and discover
a moth hole. If prolonged storage is needed, for example the winter
clothes in tropical countries, they can be stored in isolated places so
that more room is available in the wardrobe for other clothes.
• Ironing them again not only wastes your time, but also adds to the
wear and tear on your clothes.
• Sweaters should be cleaned, folded and stored in drawers or in stor-
age boxes.
• While cleaning the clothes, the care instructions on the garment label
should always be followed. This will save the clothes from damage.
The use of hot water during washing or hot air during tumbling can
cause shrinkage in rayon, wool, silk and their blends. The shrinkage
can lead to improper fitting. Furthermore, there is also the threat of
colour fading when hot water is used.
• Some delicate items should be washed by hand or using cold or
warm water on the gentle cycle.
• The stains should be treated as soon as possible, before they are
solidified. Use a commercial product for stain removal and use the
appropriate steps. If there is any issue related to the colour-fastness,
the clothes should be tested in an inside seam before using on the
stained portion. If the garment is given to a dry cleaner, the location
and cause of the stains should be mentioned to them.
• The clothes should be sorted before washing. Wash fabrics accord-
ing to light or dark colours. You do not want dark colours bleeding
onto your light-coloured clothes. Washing delicate fabrics separately
from sturdy fabrics protects the delicate materials, which might be

damaged by rubbing against coarse fabrics. Wash items that pro-
duce lint, such as terry cloth towels, separately for obvious reasons.
• The use of a right type of detergent in an adequate amount is very
essential. Wrong detergent and an excessive amount may damage
the cloth. By using the proper amount, the cost of detergent as well
as water can be saved. There should not be an excessive amount of
suds in the water as the detergents left in clothing can irritate skin
and damage the cloth.
• The drying instructions should be followed while tumble drying.
Similarly, drying in sunlight or under shade should also be done as
per the instructions.
• While ironing, setting the right temperature is essential for the type
of fabric. Excessive heat can burn the fabrics instantly. Pressing very
delicate fabrics should be done with care; using a press cloth adds
another layer of protection.
• The clothes should be selected as per the occasion. For example,
wearing a good shirt while cleaning a car can damage or stain it.
Hence, changing the shirt or other good clothes before this sort of
work can save the clothes from potential damage.
5.5.1 Cotton items
Cotton fibre is often used as blends with other fibres so it will not shrink
and wrinkle easily. Hence, the care instructions should be checked while
washing for any special exceptions [3,201,306]. However, cotton clothes
can generally be easily machine washed and dried. Best results can be
obtained by using warm water, regular detergent (with colour-safe bleach
if desired), normal wash cycle and tumble drying on a normal setting.
• Cotton items should be separated by colour and weight. Lighter

colours can be washed in warm water, whereas dark colours such as
denim, corduroy and canvas can be washed in cool water.
• Cotton whites can be washed with bleach on a hot water setting.
Bleaches should be avoided if a finish has been applied to the gar-
ment. An excessive amount of bleach should be avoided as it can
damage the fibres.
• Excessive drying of cotton clothes should be avoided, as it can cause
wrinkles as well as shrinkage. The clothes should be removed from
the dryer when they are slightly damp or allowed to air dry.
• The stain-removal quality of cotton is outstanding. Applying water,
seltzer or an ice cube to the affected area can help in easy stain
removal. Pre-soaking in detergent before washing can remove even
really dirty stains.
• While washing cotton towels, use of a lower amount of recom-

mended detergent with an extra rinse cycle can help to retain the
softness and fluffiness as residual detergent can affect the softness.
Similarly, silicone-based softeners should be avoided as they will
diminish the absorbency of the towels due to their hydrophobic
nature.
• A hot iron should be used to remove the wrinkles. The clothes
should be turned inside out before ironing. Keeping the iron at one
place of a cloth for a longer duration should be avoided. The crisp-
ness of cotton fabrics can be revived by adding a spray starch during
ironing. Hang cotton shirts and pants to prevent wrinkling.
5.5.2 Woollen items

The natural soil release ability of woollen clothing enables the longer use
between two consecutive refurbishing cycles. In some instances, washing
can be replaced with airing or spot cleaning. Woollen clothing is gener-
ally subjected to shorter washing cycles and lower washing temperatures
than other fibres. Hence the energy consumption is much lower than
other fibres [307]. Wool is the potential natural fibre to reduce the envi-
ronmental effect from textile care and maintenance, which is the most
energy-demanding phase, and may exceed the production, transpira-
tion and disposal phases [308,309]. However, woollen clothing is slightly
expensive and its properties can often change due to improper care and
maintenance practises.
Generally, woollen items are washed at lower temperatures. In
order to achieve the desired disinfection at a lower temperature, a lon-
ger washing cycle and detergents with higher bacterial killing efficiency
are needed [310]. The professional laundry-systems chemical disinfection
(such as detergents containing peracetic acid) is used [311]. Hence, from
a laundry worker’s perspective, the care for woollen items is not hard.
The following list describes the specific care and storage instructions for
woollen clothing.
1. Wool fibre is used in knitwear manufactured mainly by a fully

fashioned and flat knitting machine with some circular knit (wool
book). The consumer demand for machine-washable wool knit-
wear and the modern requirements for easy-care wool that needs
tumble dryability are increasing [312]. Furthermore, the increased
use of domestic washing machines and tumble dryers has neces-
sitated the research efforts to produce shrink-resistant methods for
wool. It is a well-known fact that wool fibre is highly vulnerable
to felting shrinkage, which is caused by the directional frictional
effect (DFE) [313–315]. Any attempt to mask the scales of wool can
reduce the DFE and hence, the felting shrinkage. Processes such
as chlorination-Hercosett and treatment with chlorine containing
shrink-resistant polymers can be adopted to prevent the shrinkage.
However, the chlorination processe is vulnerable to the problem of
adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) compounds, which results in the
reaction of chlorine with wool. The other processes are discussed in
detail in the paper by Holme [297].
2. Cleaning of wool in a machine should always be done separately
or it should be hand washed [316]. The woollen garments need
low temperature and short-duration washing. A mixed load in the
washing machine can cause the leaching of dyes from other fabrics
and cross staining of woollens. It will be difficult to clean the stained
woollen item.
3. Another reason for not washing woollen items with other clothing is
the increased potential of pilling [317,318]. The mechanical agitation
during washing can lead to pilling, which can be severe if washed
with synthetic fibres.
4. The use of an appropriate detergent or dry cleaning chemical is very
essential for woollen items. There are commercial products avail-
able for woollen clothing, however, the nature of the chemical mix-
ture should be analysed while selecting an appropriate chemical.
Although some of the commercial laundering agents use the name
wool, they may not be appropriate for woollen items. The detergents
or chemicals should be mixed with hot water first and then the solu-
tion should be mixed with a larger amount of cold water. This will
help in better mixing of the laundering agents with water. If the
laundering agents are not meant for woollen items, use as minimal
an amount as possible of the detergent to avoid felting shrinkage.
5. Daily care activities such as brushing, airing and pressing are impor-
tant especially for woollen garments. The same woollen garment
should not be used on a daily basis for a longer time. The woollen
garments need some time (about a day) between two consecutive
wearings to regain their shape.
6. The woollen items labelled with a care instruction ‘hand wash only’
should be washed in cool water using a mild detergent. The use of
bleaches should be avoided as they damage the wool fibre. Rinsing
twice in cool water is preferred to remove excess detergent, and
extra water should be removed by a gentle squeeze. The woollen
clothing should not be rubbed against itself, which will cause felt-
ing shrinkage. High temperature, harsh detergent and agitation can
lead to shrinkage and colour fading. In several instances, the wool-
len items can be easily cleaned with just cold water. The twisting or
wringing should be avoided in order to retain the shape. They also
should be dried flat to retain the size and shape.
7. In order to clean the woollen items that are labelled machine wash-
able, the delicate washing cycle should be selected with the use of
mild detergent. Both the washing and rinsing should be done either
with cool or warm water to avoid felting shrinkage. The correct
machine wash includes filling the machine with cold water, add-
ing soap (if any), agitating the water to mix the soap, adding the
woollens by pressing them down into the water, agitating them by
hand very gently and pushing them under the water. After this, they
should be left for about 30 minutes followed by setting the machine
to the part of the cycle where it drains, then refills for rinsing with-
out any agitation. Agitation with the presence of detergent can cause
felting shrinkage.
8. The woollen items should be spin dried at a lower rpm (400–1000 rpm)
to remove the excess water [307]. This indicates a higher amount of
moisture remaining in the cloth, which takes more time to dry. It was
established that the spin dry speed can be increased up to 1400 rpm
without substantial shrinkage [307]. Two cycles of rinsing and spin
dry are appropriate for the majority of clothes. Furthermore, they
should be dried flat after washing to retain the size and shape.
9. Woollen garments that are of high quality, expensive or not used fre-
quently should not be cleaned regularly. They should be cleaned after
wearing the garment once or twice or a few more times depending on
the use. This will help to maintain the natural resiliency and springi-
ness of the woollen clothing. The items used frequently should also
be washed as little as possible. If possible they should be managed
with spot cleaning and airing so that the durability is increased.
10. Woollen garments that are large in size and difficult to handle
should be sent to the commercial cleaner. Before sending them, all
the worn places should be mended to reduce further damage.
11. As the woollen items are prepared from wool fibres that vary
widely in their qualities, it is essential to follow the care instructions
recommended by the manufacturer. The same clothing styles made
from different wool fibres should follow different care procedures.
12. Drying the woollen clothing under direct sunlight should be avoided
to retain the shade. Neither should it be dried in the dryer as the
combination of heat, friction and pressure can cause shrinkage.
13. Avoid hanging woollen clothing after washing as it easily loses its
size and shape.
14. After washing and drying, the woollen items should be allowed about
24 hours before wearing again. This will help to recover the natural
resiliency, to remove the wrinkles and to retain the original shape.
15. If stained, the stains should be treated with water immediately while
still wet to prevent settling of the stain on the fabric. Otherwise, a
clean white cotton cloth can be used to absorb and remove as much
of the stain as possible. Harsh rubbing to the stained area should

be avoided. If the stain is dried, it will be hard to remove. In this
scenario, or with the stains that are hard to remove such as grease
or ink, professional cleaners should be consulted. An improper
attempt to remove grease stains often proves to be ruinous for
woollen items.
16. Heavily soiled woollen items should be soaked in cold water with
a mild detergent for a few hours. The soil mark should be removed
gently by hand or by a soft brush to retain the colour and avoid
shrinkage. The use of a hard brush or harsh detergent should be
avoided.
17. For removing alcohol stains, the stained portion should be soaked
in cold water and laundry detergent should be used at stained por-
tions. A gentle scrub by hand or a soft brush can help to remove the
stain.
18. If the stain is created by mud, it should be wetted first and then
sponged with soapy water. In order to deal with perspiration stains,
the stained area should be sponged with white vinegar.
19. For the removal of any type of stain, the stained portion or the whole
garment should be immersed in sufficient quantities of cold water.
An attempt should be made to remove the stains before immersing
the whole garment, which can cross stain the other areas. The stains
should be removed before pressing. Otherwise, heat can cause stains
to settle in the wool fabric.
20. If any chemical is being used for stain removal, it should be safe for
woollen clothing. The chemical can be tested in a concealed area of
the garment before applying onto the stain.
21. The wrinkles on woollen clothing will be automatically removed if
the clothing is kept hanging in a dry state for a sufficient amount of
time. When the woollen items need to be pressed or ironed, the iron
should be set on ‘Woollens’. The garment should be sprayed with a
little water prior to ironing. Woollen items should never be ironed
dry. The clothing should be pressed in the inner side with a smooth
motion avoiding excess pressure or rubbing, which can create shiny
spots. If shiny spots appear after ironing, spraying a small amount
of distilled white vinegar followed by rinsing with cool water can
remove the shiny spot.
22. While using a heavy iron for top pressing, a clean white cotton cloth
should be placed on the portion to be ironed to avoid damage or cre-
ate shiny spots.
23. While pressing napped woollen items, a thick terry cloth towel
should be placed on the ironing board to prevent crushing. A trial
test can be done in a hidden area before pressing. If the napped
item is scorched slightly, rub gently with an emery board. For
more severe scorches, a diluted solution of hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) can be used.
24. When it is needed to press a high amount of woollens, a steam iron
can be used. The pressing of curved areas such as lapels and collars
can be done by using a tailor’s ham. Similarly, for pressing seams
open without making a visible seam edge, a seam roll can be used.
For pressing the areas hard to reach, a point presser along with a
press cloth can be used.
25. Woollen clothing should be stored after cleaning in a dry container
with moth balls to repel moths and insects. The direct contact of moth
balls with the clothing should be avoided. They should be packed in
loosely woven cloth bags and placed near the storage place. The food
or other biological stains should be definitely removed because they
attract moths and insects. The woollen items should be stored in a
dry area and clean storage space. White tissue paper should be used
between the folds (if folded for storage) to prevent wrinkling. When
removed from the storage place, the woollen clothing needs to be
aired out to remove the odour of the mothballs.
5.5.3 Silk items
Silk is a natural protein fibre similar to human hair. The clothing items
prepared from silk fibre are highly sensitive to the temperature, type of
detergent and bleach [319–321]. Therefore, while washing silk garments,
appropriate care instruction should be followed, which can ensure dura-
bility of these items, as described below:
• Although machine washing is mentioned in the care label, hand

washing of silk is always the ideal choice.
• While using a washer, use the delicate cycle, mild detergent and the
shortest spin cycle.
• In a top-loading machine, use a mesh bag for extra protection (this
step is not necessary in a front-loading machine).
• Avoid the use of perfume or deodorant for silk items.
• Avoid the use of bleach, especially chlorine bleach, for silk items, as
the bleach can damage the fabric.
• Silk should never be exposed to direct sunlight for any longer than
need be because it may deter the properties. Wet silk may turn yel-
low in direct sunlight.
• While drying, excessive temperature and heat can be detrimental to
the lustre of the silk fabric. In addition, the friction with the dryer
drum might cause yarn breakage.
• When using a dryer, the air dry setting should be used without
any heat.
• Avoid the spraying of water while ironing.

• Individual stains should not be treated with water.
• Always use the iron in the backside of the cloth using a cool iron or
setting for silk. Excessive heat can dull, pucker or burn silk fabric.
• Hang silk garments to dry as they will retain the shape.
• Minor silk wrinkles generally disappear if the garment is hung
overnight.
• Major wrinkles can be removed by cool ironing.
• Hanging the silk garment in the bathroom during a shower can help
in the removal of the wrinkles by the humidity.
• If any stains need to be removed, a professional dry cleaner should
be consulted. The sooner the stain is treated, the better.
• Almost all silk garments can be easily hand washed without being
damaged.
• A mild non-alkaline soap or specially formulated shampoos, such as
a baby shampoo, should be used. Detergents that contain enzymes
and brighteners should be avoided.
• Silk items should be pre-soaked in lukewarm water for 3–5 minutes.
Pre-soaking prevents the silk items from shrinkage. They should be
gently moved from side to side during soaking. However, dark or
printed items should not be soaked. They should be washed in cold
water.
• If there is hard water, the hardness can be removed by adding a
spoon of borax to the washing water.
• After soaking for a maximum of 5 minutes, the silk items should be
thoroughly rinsed with cold water by adding a teaspoon of vinegar
to remove the soap completely.
• Adding a few drops of hair conditioner to the final rinse water can
provide an extra silky feel.
• As silk is very delicate, the silk items should be handled with great
care while they are wet.
• A dry towel can be used to remove the excessive water after washing.
• Roll out the silk and straighten it gently at the corners.
• Dry flat, never wring dry or twist.
5.5.4 Nylon items
The following care should be taken for nylon clothing items or its blends
[322,323]:
• While nylon items are machine washed, cold water and a gentle
cycle (as mentioned in the care instruction) should be used.
• Nylon clothes should be washed separately from other types of
fabric.
• Any commercial laundry detergent can be used for nylon clothes.

• Only non-chlorine bleach should be used for nylon clothes.
• If a dryer is used to dry the nylon items, the dryer should be set on
its lowest setting. The items should be removed promptly when the
cycle is finished.
• Some nylon items can develop pills due to extensive washing and
tumble drying. Hand washing and drip drying can be used to avoid
this problem.
• Delicate nylon items such as lingerie and hosiery should be washed
with the use of warm water and gentle detergent for best results.
After washing, hang or lay flat to dry these items.
• The problem of static on nylon can be avoided by adding a fabric
softener either during the rinse cycle in the washer or with a dryer
sheet in the dryer.
• A cool setting should be used while ironing nylon items.
5.6 Problems during laundering and

dry cleaning with solutions
Various problems such as wrinkling, shrinkage, distortion, colour loss,
non-removal of soil, staining, change in texture and other changes in
appearance are concerns in laundering and dry cleaning [324,325]. The
appropriate selection of laundering chemicals and washing cycles and the
attention to care instructions can avoid these problems. Various problems
such as wrinkling, shrinkage, distortion, colour loss, non-removal of soil,
staining, change in texture and other changes in appearance are concerns
in laundering [325]. The appropriate selection of laundering chemicals
and washing cycles and the attention to care instructions can avoid these
problems. Table 5.1 describes the problems and necessary solutions dur-
ing the laundering operation.
Similarly, there are certain things both the customer and dry cleaner
should take care of to avoid problems during dry cleaning as discussed
below:
• The dry cleaning should be done in accordance with the care label
instructions.
• While accepting an article for dry cleaning, the dry cleaner should
inspect it and get the history of the stains or damages. If the garment
is damaged, depending on the circumstances, the dry cleaner may
be responsible for the damage.
• The customers should check all the pockets prior to dropping off the
garment to ensure that there are no foreign objects that may spoil
the cleaning process.
118
Table 5.1 Problems during the cleaning of textiles and possible solutions
Problems Probable causes Solutions
Greying of clothes Insufficient amount of detergent. Increase the amount of detergent and/or use a detergent booster or
bleach.
Wash-water temperature too low. Increase the wash temperature to a permissible higher value.
Incorrect sorting, transfer of colour. Separate heavily soiled items from lightly soiled ones; separate dark
and light colours.
Uneven cleaning Insufficient use of detergent after Soak clothes in a concentrated solution of a liquid laundry detergent.
treating with a pre-wash stain Re-wash with an increased amount of detergent.
remover.
Yellowing of Insufficient amount of detergent. Increase the amount of detergent and/or use a detergent containing

clothes enzymes, detergent booster or bleach.
Wash-water temperature too low. Increase the wash temperature to a permissible higher value.
Hand washing synthetics with Use hot water (60°C) and a permanent press cycle. Increase the
light-duty detergent. Treating amount of detergent and/or use a detergent booster or bleach.
synthetic fabrics in a ‘delicate cycle’.
Fabric Use of an incorrect bleach type. Hard to remove yellowing. Hence, use the right type of bleach.
discolouration
Poor washing Insufficient amount of detergent. Use a sufficient amount of detergent.
Wash-water temperature is too low. Increase the wash temperature to a permissible higher value.
Overloading of the washer. Reduce the wash load. Sort clothes by colour, fabric and the amount
of soiling. Use a proper water level as per the load.
(Continued)
Table 5.1 (Continued) Problems during the cleaning of textiles and possible solutions
Chapter five: Care instructions for specialty textile items

Residual detergent Undissolved detergent. Add the right type of detergent to the water first before adding
or streaks of clothes and starting the washing cycle.
powder present The use of hard water that combines Increase the wash temperature to a permissible higher value. Do not
on dark or bright with detergent to form a residue. overload the machine. Use soft water, liquid laundry detergent or a
colours non-precipitating water softener with a powder detergent.
Stiff, harsh fabrics, The use of hard water that combines Use soft water, a liquid detergent or a non-precipitating water
increased fabric with detergent to form a residue. softener with a powder detergent.
wear and abrasion
Lint Improper sorting; mixing clothes such Sort the load and wash the clothes that form lint in separate loads
as sweaters, bath towels and flannels from synthetic or napped fabrics. Very heavy lint shedders such as
with synthetics, corduroys, velours and blankets, chenille bedspreads or rugs should be washed separately.
other napped fabrics that cause lint.
Overloading of the washer or dryer. Reduce the wash load and use a proper water level as per load size.
An insufficient amount of detergent. Increase the amount of detergent in order to hold lint in the solution
during the wash time.
A clogged lint filter. Clean lint filter.
Overdrying in a dryer that creates a Use fabric softener in the washer or dryer to reduce static electricity
build-up of static electricity in of synthetics. Avoid overdrying.
synthetic fabrics.
Dryer lint screen is full. Clean lint screen after each use and dry with a cleaned lint screen.
Pilling Pilling is caused in synthetics as the Pilling cannot be prevented completely. It is a natural characteristic of
fibres break off the surface, ball up some synthetic and permanent press fabrics. Use a fabric softener in
and cling to the surface. the washer or dryer to lubricate the fibres. Use a spray starch or
fabric finish on collars and cuffs while ironing.
119
(Continued)
120
Holes, tears or Incorrect use of sodium hypochlorite Follow the guidelines on the use of bleaches. Never pour liquid
snags bleach. sodium hypochlorite bleach directly on clothes. Use the bleach
dispenser in the washer or dilute with at least four parts of water
before adding to the wash water.
Unfastened zippers, hooks and belt Fasten zippers, buckles, hooks and eyes before adding to the washer.
buckles that readily snag synthetic Turn synthetic knits inside out while washing.
knits.
Rips, tears and broken threads in Mend any visible damage before washing, especially open seams that
seams. will fray and become difficult to mend.
Overloading the washer. Let wash load circulate freely. Use the proper water level for the
amount of clothes being washed.

UV degradation [326]. Check items like curtains before washing by gently pulling the fabric
to determine their condition. Use a gentle cycle for curtains that can
be washed.
Colour loss or Unstable dyes used in the garments. Follow the instruction on the care label. Wash new items separately
colour fading Improper use of bleach and incorrect the first few times to remove excess dye. Sort load before washing.
detergent type. Rubbing with water
will cause these colours to bleed or
fade.
Use of too hot water for coloured Use cooler water for coloured items.
fabrics.
Improper use of bleach. Test item for colour fastness before using bleach. Use oxygen bleach.
Undiluted bleach applied directly to Do not pour undiluted bleach directly on the clothes. Follow the
the fabric. instructions for the correct use.
(Continued)
Chapter five: Care instructions for specialty textile items
Wrinkling of Incorrect washing or drying cycle. Use the permanent press cycle on the washer and dryer. Use warm
synthetic or wash, slower spin speed in the washer, and cold rinse. Remove items
permanent press from the dryer as soon the cycle completes; hang or fold items.
fabrics Failure to remove items promptly Remove items from the dryer as soon the cycle completes; hang or
from the dryer at the end of the fold items.
cycle.
Over drying. Reduce drying time and remove items when there is a trace of
moisture in them; hang or fold items.
Overloading of the washer and/or Do not overload the washer or dryer and use fabric softener.
dryer.
Shrinkage Over-drying. Avoid over drying and remove the clothes when there is a trace of
moisture in them. Stretch back into shape and lay flat to finish
drying.
Residual shrinkage. Many knits and woven fabrics shrink when first laundered. Check
the quality of the item and read care instructions.
Agitation of woollen items leading Reduce agitation. Use a gentle cycle or soak method for washing and
to felting shrinkage. rinsing.
121
• The article should be fully examined by the customer as well as

the dry cleaner for any damages, cloth blemishes, fading, tears, etc.
noted on the docket.
• Customers should keep their dockets, and the dry cleaners should
maintain good records in case a problem occurs in the future.
chapter six
Stains
Stains are local deposits of soiling or discolouration that exhibit some
degree of resistance to removal by laundering or dry cleaning, thus cre-
ating critical issues in garment care [280,327]. The presence of stains on
a garment makes it dull, stiff and vulnerable to attack by insects. Any
attempt to remove stains may cause colour loss or abrasion. Stain removal
is affected by the age, extent and type of stain and the type of fabric. The
fibre content, fabric construction and the dye and finish characteristics
should be considered before stain removal, as the same stain may respond
differently in different fabrics. Failure of the cleaning method to remove
soiling and stains may lead to product failure.
6.1 Types of stains
Stains can be classified according to their characteristics as water- or
solvent-soluble and insoluble. They can also be classified according to the
method of removal as protein stains (milk, blood, albumen, pudding, baby
food, mud, cream, egg, gelatine, vomit and ice cream), tannin stains (beer,
alcoholic beverages, coffee, cologne, fruit juice, soft drinks, tea, tomato
juice and berries), oil-based stains (hair oil, automotive oil, grease, salad
dressing, butter, lard, suntan lotion and face creams), dye stains (cherry,
mustard and colour bleeding in the wash) and combination stains (candle
wax, ballpoint ink, lipstick, shoe polish, tar, eye makeup, barbecue sauce,
gravy, hair spray and tomato sauce) [328–333].
Identification of the type of stain is important to prevent its removal
from damaging the fabric. As ageing and heat can set stains permanently,
they should be removed as soon as possible [2]. The selection of an unsuit-
able method may also set the stain permanently. The removal of some
stains requires special techniques and solvents and should be done by
laundry professionals.
6.2 Removal of stains
The most important thing to be considered while dealing with any kind of
stains is to prevent them from setting [2]. Once set, the staining material
forms a chemical bond with the fabric, which is permanent and hard to
remove. Removing the set stain can lead to the discolouration of the fabric
123
and the rejection of the discoloured fabric itself. Sometimes excessive rub-
bing of a set stain by scrubbing can lead to the stained fibers being worn
off, leaving the unstained ones visible. To prevent the rejection of a gar-
ment with a permanent stain, these general guidelines should be followed:
• Treat any stain immediately with water or with the appropriate sol-
vent if it is available.
• Avoid direct heat, as heat will cause most types of stains to be set in
the fabric. Stained clothing should not be placed near radiant heat
sources; always room temperature or lukewarm solvents should
be used.
• The solvents or water should be gently applied, dabbing them onto
the stain and letting them soak in rather than scrubbing forcefully.
Polyester fibre and durable press (DP) finishes retain oily soiling and cre-
ate cleaning problems [36]. The staining characteristics of resin-treated
fabrics have been evaluated by Reeves et al. [334]. It was reported that
the removal of soiling from a garment was affected by the fibre content,
the type of soil and the process of producing cross-links of resin and
catalyst. Polyester/cotton (P/C) fabrics with and without resin treatment
soiled more readily with an oily soil and retained more of the soiling after
repeated laundering than did similar cotton fabrics. However, with non-
oily soil, the P/C fabrics soiled less than cotton fabrics and retained less
soil after laundering.
Special care should be taken with regard to temperature during
the removal of albuminous stains as higher temperatures may acceler-
ate the coagulation of albumen and fix the stains [335,336]. Some stains
such as glues and paints that contain epoxy resin as a base will dam-
age the fabric during removal. Oily stains should be sponged with a dry
solvent and non-greasy stains should be removed with water. Garments
packed in polyethylene bags may stain when subjected to excessive heat,
e.g., packing the heated garment just after ironing, or carrying garments
in a car under high-temperature conditions. Ink stains require skill and
specialised techniques for complete removal.
6.3 Impact of stain removal on clothing properties

The stain removal with chemicals and heat can alter the clothing proper-
ties [337]. The major effect can be colour fading on the portions treated with
the chemicals. In some instances excessive rubbing can lead to abrasion
or pilling or some other mechanical damage as discussed in Section 2.7.
chapter seven
Storage of clothing
7.1 Apparel textiles
The effect of storage on the performance of garments is of special interest
to manufacturers, retailers and consumers. The problems associated with
the storage of garments are insect, rot and mildew damage or other con-
ditions that may create problems during subsequent use. When textiles
are stored in damp or in highly humid conditions, they are vulnerable to
insect damage. This will be aggravated if the storage spaces are dark and
stagnant with warm and humid areas. Before storing a garment, the fol-
lowing points should be noted:
1. The garment should be cleaned and all stains removed.

2. All the fastenings should be closed.
3. Belts should be removed from their loops.
4. The garment should be hung from a coat hanger.
5. A moth preventive should be sprayed if the garment is vulnerable to
insect attack.
6. The storage area should be cool and dry.
Many insect species may damage soiled textiles and those made of wool
or other animal hair fibres such as mohair, angora and cashmere. Crickets
and silverfish may cause irreparable damage to cellulosic garments and a
distinct odour may arise, particularly when starch, glue or other attractive
materials are present. If synthetic fabrics are stored in a dirty, spotted or
stained condition, they may be damaged by insects. A reliable moth pre-
ventive such as naphthalene or paradichlorobenzene in the form of balls,
flakes or powder should be applied before storing. Storage areas should
be cool, dry and away from sunlight to prevent the hatching of insects.
Some expensive garments such as coats and furs should be stored
in appropriate storage vaults. Furs must be stored at the correct degree
of humidity, as high humidity can cause damage by mould or mildew,
and low humidity draws moisture and natural oils from pelts and fur
hairs, thus shortening the life of the fur. Knitted items and sweaters
should be stored flat with tissue paper stuffing so that fold marks will
not be obvious. If pile garments are folded into boxes, the pile may be dis-
torted. During recent decades, an increasing number of storage firms have
installed burglar-proof and fire-proof storage vaults. Some professional
125
cleaners also provide wardrobe-storage hampers or box-storage and will

store garments in a vault with controlled temperature and humidity.
Wool can easily lose its shape and become less defined if washed
without care, and worst of all, it can shrink, becoming quite a few sizes
smaller. Indeed, it is not unknown to pull out a child’s sweater after put-
ting in an adult’s one! If you’re not seeking such a transformation of your
woollen garments, it makes sense to follow these instructions.
7.2 Storage of personal protection

equipment (PPE)
Some of the contaminated protective clothing after use may pose a risk
during the laundering process. In addition, selection of appropriate
cleaning protocol is very essential, which can affect the performance in
the subsequent use. Hence, the cleaning should be performed by a trained
professional or by specialised laundries. Sufficient information on care
and maintenance should be obtained from the manufacturer of the PPE.
The PPE should be properly cleaned before storage, which may extend
the life of the item. The PPE should be appropriately cleaned and dried.
When the PPE is not in use, it should be stored in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. The vaults should be checked and
repaired as needed. The PPE should be placed in an appropriate, clean
container and stored in a convenient, uncontaminated environment.
Covering it with some plastic wrapping can prevent dust accumulating
in the garment. Atmospheric conditions such as excessive heat, moisture,
direct sunlight, dust, chemicals, corrosive atmospheres or the presence
of organic vapours may considerably reduce the life span of some PPE.
The PPE will start degrading by the exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light or
photo-oxidation during their storage if the closet doors are left open and
the garments are stored for a prolonged period.
Several dyes and specialty finishes in the PPE are sensitive to
UV light including the material from which they are manufactured. The
most vulnerable part is the outer layer (in a multilayer ensemble), which
deteriorates due to the degradation of the material, finishing and coating.
This can lead to insufficient protection (e.g., from fire), or can reduce the
water/oil repellency and wind proofing.
The used and/or contaminated PPE should be cleaned after use so
that it is in a hygienic fashion in the next use. The users of the PPE should
be trained on the appropriate use, care, and maintenance of the clothing
to retain the protection properties. A record should be maintained on the
care and maintenance of the PPE.
The protective gloves must be cleaned from the contaminants before
storage. They should be stored away from high temperatures and direct
sunlight in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Some
Chapter seven: Storage of clothing 127
gloves may be affected by the presence of moisture and artificial lighting.

Gloves for chemical protection should be rinsed in warm water to avoid
the contaminants being dried on the gloves.
Protective helmets and harnesses should be cleaned with warm water
and soap following the manufacturer’s instructions before being stored.
The storing of the helmets in hot places such as vehicle dashboards should
be avoided.
Whenever possible, the PPEs used by a visitor should be disposable. If
not practical, the non-disposable PPE may be used by the visitor, cleaned
and stored as per the manufacturer’s instructions. The re-usable respira-
tors must be stored in a sealed container.
Insulating mats, barriers and covers need to be washed at intervals not
exceeding 6 months and tested as per Australian/New Zealand standard
(AS/NZS) 2978 at intervals of 6 months or less. They should be stored and
handled carefully, away from chemicals, sharp objects, tools and other
equipment to avoid damage. The electrical-insulating gloves should be
washed and tested at intervals of 6 months or less and stored unfolded in
clean containers in a cool and dry place away from direct sunlight.
chapter eight
The environmental impact and

health hazards of cleaning
The use of non-aqueous textile cleaning has been in practise for several
years. The properties of the textile and the nature of the soiling deter-
mine the medium for cleaning. The medium of cleaning in this case can
be non-polar liquids such as petroleum, carbon dioxide or other similar
liquids, which meet the textile cleaning performance requirements. The
use of water and perchloroethylene (PCE, or perc) is not included in the
non-aqueous cleaning.
8.1 Environmental impacts
The current global trend is to reduce the environmental load by the con-
sumption of lesser materials, adopting alternative techniques, recycling
and the reuse of material [338]. There are several things that can reduce
the burden on the environment such as using the optimum washing load,
lowering the washing water temperature, reducing the frequency of wash-
ing or devising a method of spot cleaning, using eco-friendly chemicals
and eco-programmes, avoiding tumble drying and adopting alternative
freshening methods such as airing [101,339,340].
As mentioned earlier, perc has been classified as carcinogenic to
humans. Therefore, perc should be used as a hazardous substance during
its storage and handling. The wastes derived from dry cleaners using perc
should also be treated carefully and should not be directly discharged to
any water course. The direct release of the perc fumes to the air can lead
to the formation of smog by the reaction with some other volatile organic
substances.
A home clothes dryer can generate about 2 kg of CO2 per load of laun-
dry dried. Hence, the dryers should be used only when it is necessary.
Manufacturers of clothes dryers should measure the energy efficiency
and improve it. Dryers should be labelled with energy consumption labels
according to the amount of energy consumed per kilogram of clothes
(kWh/kg). Automatic dryers can sense when the clothes are dried and
switch off to save electricity and over-drying.
129
8.1.1 Chemicals with potential hazards

Some of the chemicals used in the manufacturing of detergents, soaps or
other washing aids or dry cleaning chemicals pose an environmental threat
[340,341]. Table 8.1 summarises the list of chemicals used in soaps, detergents
and dry cleaning chemicals and their potential environmental impact.
Table 8.1 List of cleaning chemicals and their environmental/health hazards

Types of
cleaning Chemicals used Environmental/health hazards
Laundering Soaps, sodium carbonate or Many of these chemical
bicarbonate solution (neutral or formulations are a potential
weakly alkaline condition). hazard when dispersed widely
Detergents: mixtures of anionic into the environment
and non-ionic surfactants (e.g., contaminating our soil, water
alkali sulphates, fatty alcohols, and air.
alkylphenolethoxylates).
Dry Perc (most widely used). A major source of toxic air
cleaning pollution produces hazardous
waste in many countries.
Perc can contaminate soil and
groundwater where they are
disposed of. For these reasons,
it is important to reduce and
eventually eliminate this
chemical from routine use [120].
High-level exposure to perc can
affect the central nervous
system, kidneys and liver, and
cause mood and behavioral
changes, impairment of
coordination, dizziness,
headache and fatigue. Chronic
exposure to lower levels of the
chemical can lead to cognitive
and motor functioning
impairment, headaches, vision
impairment and in more
isolated cases, cardiac
arrhythmia, liver damage and
kidney effects. Perc has also
been demonstrated to have
reproductive or developmental
effects, and may cause several
types of cancer.
Chapter eight: The environmental impact and health hazards of cleaning 131
The European Union has banned the detergents with non-ionic sur-
factants nonylphenolethoxylates (NPEs) and nonylphenols since 2005.
However, NPEs are not being banned so far in the United States. Canadian
facilities have planned to reduce the NPEs in the waste water [342].
Two recent studies at Georgetown University (in Washington, D.C.)
have investigated that perc is retained in dry cleaned clothes and the
amount of perc increases with repeated dry cleaning cycles. The sec-
ond study shows perc, classified as carcinogenic to humans by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is retained in dry
cleaned clothes and that levels increase with repeated cleanings.
The alternative to perc is the use of liquid carbon dioxide (CO2) for dry
cleaning, which has been used for cleaning in other processes for about
the last 3 decades or so [343–345]. For dry cleaning purposes, liquid CO2
is formulated with additives and delivered to dry cleaners in pressurized
canisters [346]. During the dry cleaning process, clothes are immersed
in liquid CO2 contained in an enclosed cylindrical basket (inside a pres-
sure vessel that has pressures of 700–1000 psig). The load is then agitated
inside the basket by high-velocity fluid jets or by mechanical action to
remove soils. Once the cleaning cycle is complete, the pressure is released
from the vessel, liquid CO2 is vaporized and dry garments are removed.
It has been claimed that better cleaning is possible with liquid CO2 as
it has a low viscosity, which will help in the removal of smaller particles
from the surface with less re-deposition [347]. In addition, liquid CO2 is a
non-polar solvent that is most effective in removing non-polar soils such
as oily stains and greases. While experimental laboratory studies on soil
removal from garments in liquid CO2 appear promising, they have not yet
been demonstrated under commercial conditions. However, it is inferior
to perc in removing some forms of stains such as grease.
It was found that during liquid CO2 dry cleaning, the level of the
mechanical action has no influence on the removal of relatively small
particulate and non-particulate soils [348]. Therefore, increasing the
mechanical action cannot improve the washing results for relatively small
particles (like carbon black and clay) that are received using perc. The use
of suitable surfactants that reduce adhesion forces can help in the removal
of relatively small particulate soils.
8.1.2 Recent innovations in laundering

Consumers always demand products that are better, cheaper, faster deliv-
ered and easy to care for. Furthermore there is a global trend to lower the
environmental load. This has led to the research and development of new
textile products such as durable press, wrinkle-free finishes, the creation
of ultra-hydrophobic surface treatments and self-cleaning finishes.
8.1.3 Green cleaning
Green cleaning refers to the use of cleaning products and methods that
are eco-friendly to preserve human health and environmental quality.
Green cleaning products and techniques avoid the use of toxic chemicals,
some of which emit volatile organic compounds negatively affecting the
respiratory, dermatological and other health conditions in addition to the
environmental pollution [349]. Consumers are also becoming aware and
emphasising the use of eco-friendly cleaning products.
Conventional detergents can contain toxic ingredients that are
harmful to the ecosystem, human beings and the environment [134,350].
For example, phosphates in conventional laundry soaps can cause algal
blooms, which negatively affect ecosystems and marine life [89]. Hence,
consumers should always select eco-friendly detergents. There are many
commercial detergents available with labels indicating various eco-labels
such as the product is readily biodegradable, phosphate-free and made
from plant- and vegetable-based ingredients, which can help consumers
to select an eco-friendly chemical. These detergents or soaps are gentler
on skin and to the cloth.
Similarly, soaps are available that are made from certain tree seeds or
oils that are easily biodegradable. A cup of white vinegar can be added to
the washer during the rinse cycle, which acts as a softener. Vinegar natu-
rally balances the pH of soap, leaving the clothes soft and free of chemical
residue.
Various agencies are also focusing on the use of eco-friendly meth-
ods and products for laundering. For example, the EPA’s ‘Design for the
Environment Program’ labels products that satisfy the EPA’s criteria for
chemicals. These products can contain the ‘Design for the Environment
(DfE)’ label. Generally, products labelled as ‘low’ or ‘zero’ volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are safer for human health as well as for the environ-
ment. The following describes the steps that domestic consumers can fol-
low to make the cleaning as green cleaning:
Selection of concentrated detergents: As concentrated detergents use
reduced packaging, there is a smaller carbon footprint and more products
can be shipped at a cheaper price. The composition of the concentrated
detergent should be appropriate for the clothing. These detergents can pro-
duce excessive foam in front-loading machines, which can damage them.
Wash by hand: Although hand washing is time consuming, there are
certain advantages to it. This method is cheap and efficient. Hand wash-
ing gives you an idea of the laundry load on a weekly/daily basis and
saves energy. Many clothes are being prevented from damage due to the
rigorous process of machine washing.
Maximize energy efficiency: The washing machines that are too old
consume excessive electricity as well as water. For example, a top-loading
washing machine from the last century uses twice as much water per
load than a newer machine. Hence, they can be replaced with the newer
machine designs. However, if a replacement cannot be done, the follow-
ing steps can improve the efficiency of these machines: (1) The use of cold
water can save electricity consumption. About 90% of the energy used
for washing clothes is used to heat the water. (2) With the availability of
different varieties of detergents for cold-water washing, a huge amount of
money can be saved with the use of cold water. (3) The machine should
always be run with only full loads of laundry, which ensures maximum
efficiency, or a smaller load option can be selected (if available in the
machine) to save water and energy.
Hang it out to dry: The drying process consumes more electricity
than the laundering process. Selecting outdoor drying or line drying can
reduce the carbon footprint. The durability of the clothes increases with
this method as there is less wear and tear than when a dryer is used.
Maximize dryer efficiency: When the dryer is used regularly, clean-
ing the lint filter after each drying cycle will increase the dryer efficiency
and shorten the drying time. A moisture sensor in the dryer can reduce
the amount of drying time or turn off the machine when the clothes are
dry. Excessive drying, too high of a load and use of a damp cloth should
be avoided to increase the dryer efficiency.
Avoid ironing if not needed: Ironing also consumes substantial
energy and can deteriorate the fabric. In many instances it can be omitted
by simply hanging clothes immediately after the wash cycle is complete.
The water in the cloth will work with gravity to pull most wrinkles out.
Then fold dry the clothes where you want the creases to be, and place them
under other clothes in your dresser, which will further help to press them.
Use commercial services if needed: Commercial establishments
are generally more efficient than home washing. Some special garments
needing commercial laundering and dry cleaning should not be cleaned
at home for maximum efficiency, proper care and maintenance.
Avoid chlorine bleach: Chlorine bleach may cause skin irritation and
redness. Its fumes can irritate eyes, noses and airways, and if swallowed it
can be fatal. Chlorine also poses a hazard as it can react with other wash-
ing aids to form toxic gases. If mixed with chemicals containing ammonia,
it can produce lung-damaging chloramine gases. Chlorine mixed with
acids, such as those in some toilet bowl cleaners, can form toxic chlorine
gas, which can damage our airways. When released into the waterways,
chlorine bleach can create organochlorines that can contaminate drinking
water. Organochlorines are carcinogens that can damage reproductive,
neurological and immune-system toxins. It has been known as one of the
most enduring compounds to cause developmental disorders. Once intro-
duced into the environment, it can take years, or even decades, to break
down to less-damaging forms.
8.1.3.1 Ozone laundering
Ozone laundering systems have recently been shown to be successful in
commercial installations because of the reduction in the use of energy,
water and chemicals. Ozone laundering is eco-friendly and it has been
proven that fabrics last longer, thereby reducing replacement costs. Ozone
enhances the effectiveness of the chemicals by supplying oxygen to the
laundry water, thus reducing the need for high-temperature washing with
lower amounts of laundry chemicals [240,351]. Ambient to warm water
temperature is needed for ozone laundering. High temperature dissipates
ozone prematurely, negating its power, whereas, low temperature has a
higher saturation level of ozone, providing better cleaning efficiency.
As ozone laundering systems normally require fewer rinse cycles, water
usage is reduced by an estimated 30–45%. These systems recover most of
the water used, so the reductions in water usage may be as high as 70–75%.
Ozone oxidises the soiling in linen, making it easier to remove from the
washed water. It can also reduce the need for harsh, high pH traditional
chemicals for the same cleaning effectiveness. Ozone reduces the quantity of
the chemical usage. The cost of chemicals is typically reduced by a minimum
of 10%, but in certain cases the cost can be reduced by 50% [282]. Heavily
soiled loads consisting of oily rags, food and beverages can be washed effec-
tively with ozone in warm temperature water to get the quality-required
cleaning. Typical reductions of energy are in the range of 80–90% for most
laundries. The resultant savings claimed by laundries range from 5–30%.
New chemical formulations specially developed for low temperature
ozone laundering are commercially available. Compared to the standard
formulations for washing, these new chemicals greatly enhance the clean-
ing efficiency. Ozone in a water solution performs some of the functions of
chlorine bleach. It assists in water softening by helping to remove cations
such as calcium and magnesium from the water.
Ozone laundering improves the life and quality of textiles because it
enables a shorter cycle time and a lower temperature. The wash cycles can
be reduced by 10–40% per load as the wash and rinse cycles are reduced.
A reduction in the amount of chemicals used also helps to improve the
fabric life. Generally, the cost of linen replacement is much higher than
water, chemical and energy costs. Ozone laundering can provide signifi-
cant savings in this area.
In addition, the effluent will contain lower levels of biochemical-
and chemical-oxygen demand (BOD and COD) because ozone oxidises
bacteria, other micro-organisms and some dissolved organic compounds.
The reduced washing and rinsing time means the laundry equipment
is used more efficiently and the total staff hours per load are reduced.
Furthermore, ozone is not dangerous to humans in the concentrations
typical for ozone laundries compared to other chemicals.
8.1.3.2 Ultrasonic cleaning
Water is used for many laundering activities due to its high solvency
for many substances in addition to the demonstrated occupational and
environmental safety. However, the cleaning of hydrophobic contami-
nants is difficult to remove by water from hydrophobic surfaces such as
polyester. The use of detergents and the mechanical action during washing
can damage the fabric. The use of ultrasound, another type of mechanical
action, for the cleaning of hard surfaces has been reported to be effective
for textiles as well [194,352–355]. The application of ultrasonic energy can
prevent the fabric damage that occurs in the conventional mechanical
washers. The cleaning by ultrasound depends on the rapid formation and
violent collapse of bubbles or cavities in cleaning liquids [356]. Ultrasound
can be applied to textile laundering and dry cleaning operations.
The use of ultrasound cleaning is gentler to the fabric compared to
the mechanical agitation of the laundering machine. The aggressive flow-
ing and rotational agitations of wash bath and the deformations of the
fabric and friction between the fabric surfaces do not take place in ultra-
sonic energy. Furthermore, ultrasound can remove the soils deposited in
the fabric even at low liquor ratio and in a shorter cycle. This can lead
to both water and energy saving. In addition, high-frequency ultrasound
can remove stains on fabrics via a generation of active species in liquid.
However, ultrasound is generally not suitable for regular cleaning of soft
and flexible materials such as textiles.
The mechanism of cleaning by ultrasound is significantly different
from conventional home laundering. In home laundering by machine
or even hand washing, rubbing to the fibre surface occurs by aggres-
sive stirring, agitation and plunging actions in the bath accompanied by
chemicals. The transfer of the stains from the fibre surface into the bath is
achieved with the help of detergents. However, ultrasonic laundering is a
more gentle process, where the fabrics lie almost stationary in the ultra-
sonic bath. The acoustic cavitation produces a micro level of high-speed
liquid movement accompanied by a vibration at the liquid/fabric interface
through which the stains are removed. In theory, the deformation and
damage to the fibres and yarns in a fabric induced by ultrasonic agitation
may be much less than that of mechanical agitation.
Conventional laundering of silk items can lead to crease and deforma-
tion. The fabric rubbing during the laundering process causes fibre fractures
in the form of fibrillation and degradation [320]. The appearance and wear
endurance of silk garments are affected by this, which lead to considerable
inconvenience in everyday use. As silk fabric can change in size and lose
the hand property, the durable press finishing that is e ffective in improving
the crease resistance to laundering, cannot be applied to silk. Dry cleaning
of silk fabric is relatively ineffective in removing water-soluble stains and
it is expensive. Ultrasonic laundering was found to perform much better

in removing common stains from silk fabrics while the fabric appearance
and dimensions were maintained compared to machine laundering [321].
In addition, there was less fibre damage by ultrasonic laundering to the
fabric. This research showed that the introduction of ultrasonic laundering
could produce a significant benefit for silk fabrics. However, ultrasonic agi-
tation caused a slightly higher colour fading than the mechanical agitation.
The K/S value (the ratio of absorption coefficient (K) over the scattering
coefficient (S)) of the fabric laundered by ultrasonic agitation after 15 laun-
dering cycles was only 2.7% lower than the fabric laundered by a washing
machine, and the difference was not significant.
Blood stains from polyester/cotton-based medical surgery gowns [354]
and soils from polyester and cotton fabrics can be efficiently removed by
ultrasonic laundering in shorter time and at a lower bath ratio [357]. Home
laundering of wool fabrics generally lead to felting shrinkage. However,
ultrasonic laundering of woollen clothing can reduce fabric felting whilst
achieving good stain removal compared with hand washing [194,352]. The
repeated ultrasound washing cycles did not affect the colour and the ten-
sile strength of the fabric [358]. Millions of bubbles or cavities are created
by the ultrasonic energy with very high frequency into the liquid, which
constantly strike at the target material surface, and as a result, remove the
dirt off textile materials. The most important parameter in the mecha-
nism of ultrasound cleaning is the power of ultrasonic cavitation in liq-
uids. Ultrasonic use works better for the stain removal from a stained
fabric. A higher velocity of the laundering solution at the fibre surface is
achieved by ultrasonic irradiation. This increased velocity improves the
mechanical removal of the stain from the surface of the fibre.
Ultrasonic cleaning has many advantages over the conventional laun-
dering process such as (1) superior cleaning properties, (2) reduction in
cycle time, (3) reduced energy consumption, (4) less chemical and (5) less
mechanical damage to the clothing due to less fibre migrations. In spite of
the above-mentioned advantages, there are several disadvantages associ-
ated with the ultrasonic cleaning of textiles, which are mentioned below:
1. It is difficult to achieve a homogeneous distribution of the acoustic

field in the whole washing load, which may lead to irregular wash-
ing. There will be some areas of low acoustic energy that can result
in improper cleaning. However, this problem can be overcome by
moving the washing load continuously so that all the clothes pass
through the areas of high ultrasonic intensity.
2. For the effectiveness of cleaning, the wash load has to be exposed to
the ultrasonic field in such a way that there is the continuous pro-
duction of ‘strong transient cavitation’ on the fabric surface. The col-
lective cavitation of a large number of bubbles in the gassy liquid is
needed for good cleaning. However, the softness of the fabric facili-
tates cavitation to produce a small erosion effect while its reticulate
structure favours the formation of layers of big bubbles that obstruct
wave penetration [359].
3. The commercial development of ultrasonic washing machines for
domestic laundering is difficult due to the difficulties in the design-
ing of a suitable washing machine.
8.1.3.3 Eco-friendly chemicals for laundering

There are several companies producing environmentally friendly for-
mulations for cleaning, which are easy to use, effective and productive
in cleaning performance, and save resources and water. Many of them
use detergents of non-petrochemical origin or substances that have been
produced through genetic engineering [360,361]. The use of a washing sub-
stance closest to nature (such as soap) can guarantee a simple return into
the natural cycle. Natural products such as baking soda, lemon juice, salts,
pure soaps and palm oil can be used to make the products eco-friendly.
Various companies are using these products to prepare formulations
that include an ecological bleaching agent and stain remover, ecological
washing powder, ecological laundry detergent, wool and delicate laundry
detergent, soap bars and disinfectants. Consumers need to be aware of
these products to make the care and maintenance of clothes eco-friendly.
8.1.3.4 Eco-friendly chemicals for dry cleaning

There are some chemicals listed as eco-friendly and are being used in the
dry cleaning of clothing items as discussed below.
1. Hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon-based solvents such as Chevron

Phillips’ EcoSoly or Exxon-Mobil’s DF-2000 can be used in standard
dry cleaning. These petroleum-based solvents are less aggressive
than perc, hence, they need higher temperatures and longer cycles
during dry cleaning. Hence, some heat-sensitive materials such
as wool or acrylic may be adversely affected by the dry cleaning.
Longer cycle time indicates more mechanical action on the fabric.
Unlike the perc, these solvents are safe to beads, plastic buttons and
sequins. However, some polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials may
deteriorate if progressively treated with hydrocarbons, and some
adhesives may also dissolve. The other disadvantage of hydrocar-
bon is it takes longer to evaporate from bulky parts of clothing such
as shoulder pads. It can leave small traces of oily residue that can
cause allergies to some people. Although the hydrocarbon solvents
are classified as combustible, they do not pose a high risk of fire
or explosion when stored and handled properly. However, they can
contain traces of volatile organic compounds that can form smog.
2. Modified hydrocarbon blends (pure dry): These are compounds

prepared from hydrocarbons by modifying their properties.
3. Glycol ethers: Glycol ethers (dipropylene glycol tertiary-butyl
ether) in several instances are more effective than perc and are eco-
friendly. Various brand names for these products include Rynex,
Solvair, Caled Impress and CaledGenX. One of the glycol ethers,
‘Dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl ether (DPTB)’ has a flash point
well above the industrial specification. The ability of removing
stains (water soluble) is equivalent or better than perc and other gly-
col ethers. The waste of DPTB can be easily separated by azeotropic
distillation at a lower boiling point.
4. Liquid silicone or siloxane: Liquid silicone (decamethylcyclopen-
tasiloxane, or D5) is a colourless, odourless and non-oily fluid that
can be used for dry cleaning with a more gentle action and with-
out any colour loss [362]. The popularity of siloxane is growing as
it is considered a green solvent. As siloxanes hardly react with the
textiles, the textile items retain their colour and quality. The use of
liquid silicone needs licensing as it is in the list of the property of
‘GreenEarth Cleaning (GEC)’. Although it is eco friendly, the cost is
almost double of perc and GEC needs to be paid for the annual affili-
ation fee. It produces waste that is non-toxic and non-hazardous. It
can degrade within a few days in the environment in the presence
of silica and traces of water and CO2. The research on female rats by
Dow Corning established the fact that exposure to the solvent can
increase the incidence of tumors. However, the male rats were not
affected by the exposure. Further research carried on humans estab-
lished that the threats observed in rats are not relevant to humans in
this case due to the differences in the biological pathways.
5. Liquid CO2: The use of liquid CO2 is found to be superior to the
commercial methods of dry cleaning using perc [363]. However,
the cleaning efficiency of liquid CO2 is fairly low compared to
perc. The equipment used for liquid CO2 is more expensive than
perc equipment, which makes it difficult to be afforded by small or
medium businesses. The environmental impact of CO2 use is very
low as the clothing does not emit volatile compounds. In addition,
CO2 cleaning can also be used for fire- and water-damage restoration
as it is effective in the removal of toxic residues, soot and associated
odours of fire. CO2 is non-toxic, it does not persist in clothing and
its greenhouse gas impact is lower than that of a majority of organic
solvents. Some commercial dry cleaners use enzymes, which are
equivalent to liquid CO2 and more environmentally sustainable.
6. Brominated solvents: These are n-propyl bromide-based solvents
with a higher Kauri-butanol (KB) value than perc (a KB value is an
international terminology used to measure the solvency power of
a solvent based on hydrocarbon, which is specified in the ASTM

standard: ASTM D1133). The higher KB value helps in the faster
cleaning than perc. However, improper use can damage the buttons,
sequins and beads. It is available in trade names such as Fabrisolv
and DrySolv. In dry cleaning, the exposure to the solvent does not
pose any health risk. Therefore, it is being approved by the EPA as a
significant new alternative solvent compared to the traditional haz-
ardous solvents. However, excessive exposure can lead to numbness
of the nerves. Although the solvent is expensive, the cost is counter-
balanced by its faster cleaning action, lower temperature and quick
dry times. The overall dry cleaning cost per garment is found to be
the same or lower compared to perc.
8.2 Health hazards
The exposure to laundering and dry cleaning chemicals poses various
health hazards [118,140,364]. For example, the exposure to perc even at
lower levels can lead to fatigue, headaches, dizziness, confusion, nausea
and irritation to skin, eye and mucous membranes. The degree of these
problems is related to the amount and concentration of perc and the dura-
tion of the exposure. Exposure to high levels of perc, even for short time,
may cause serious symptoms, such as liver damage, respiratory failure or
other fatal consequences.
8.2.1 During laundering or dry cleaning

Laboratory studies on animals have indicated that exposure to high levels
of perc can impede the growth of a foetus and can cause birth defects and
even death [126,365,366]. However, studies on people exposed to high levels
of perc are either limited or inconclusive. It is yet to be determined whether
exposure to perc can cause the adverse effects such as miscarriages or affect
women’s fertility or affect the child in the womb. However, it is an estab-
lished fact that the dry cleaning chemicals can cause health disorders.
The people working in dry cleaning agencies can face serious health
hazards as they spend a lot of time in an environment where the perc
levels in the air are usually higher than outdoors [125,367,368]. Depending
on the nature of the machineries and work practises, the level of exposure
can vary from shop to shop. There are several ways in which perc is mixed
with air as it evaporates rapidly. The various causes include:
1. Poorly maintained equipment.

2. Leakage in the equipment.
3. When the container of the perc is open to the air (such as while perc
is added to the machine or transferred to other containers).
4. Perc waste materials after dry cleaning.

5. Garments not dried completely or processed improperly.
6. While transferring the clothes from a dry cleaning machine to a
dryer in older machine designs (with separate washers and dryers).
The health hazards of perc exposure can be significantly reduced or even

eliminated with improved technology, new dry cleaning equipment
design and improved cleaning practices. For example, new machines,
which clean and dry garments in a single unit, eliminate the transfer
of wet garments from a washer to a dryer. Hence, they can significantly
reduce the amount of exposure. Although the new equipment design
and advanced technology can help to reduce the amount of exposure;
improper work practises, inappropriate material handling and storage
and improper maintenance of equipment can increase the exposure.
The potential of perc exposure leading to cancer has been extensively
investigated [125,369–371]. The laboratory studies on rats and mice have
established that perc can cause cancer in these animals when they swal-
low or inhale it. Several studies on people working in laundry and dry
cleaning businesses have established the fact that perc exposure can pose
elevated risks of certain types of cancer. The potential for an increased
risk of cancer depends on factors such as the amount and concentration
of perc exposure and the duration of the exposure. Furthermore, the indi-
vidual’s age, lifestyle, overall health condition and family traits also affect
the risk of cancer.
8.2.2 Residual amount left in the clothing

It is the duty and responsibility of the professional cleaners to remove
any traces of perc from dry cleaned clothes. A mild odour of perc is not a
conclusive fact for the presence of any residual amount left in the clothes
[372,373]. However, the dry cleaner can be approached to confirm that the
perc has been removed completely or can be requested for a re-process of
the garment if the solvent has not been completely removed.
The level of perc that the consumers of dry cleaning are exposed to
by wearing the dry cleaned garments is not expected to cause any serious
concern to an average person’s health. However, within the premises of
the dry cleaning services, the level of perc may be slightly higher than
the outdoor air. Hence, frequent visits to the dry cleaner can cause minor
effects such as skin irritation or nausea.
Several medical websites assign one of the main causes of dermati-
tis to the detergents and other chemicals applied to clothing during its
cleaning. It has been shown that the fibres with irregular cross-sections
are more likely to retain the detergent and other washing chemicals. If
the rinsing process is not very effective there will be higher amounts of
residual chemicals. For example, the bean-like cross-sectional shape of

cotton fibres [374] may provide easy sites for the detergent residues to
bind, and with the low uptake of moisture into the garment overall, could
potentially cause retention issues. The fibres with a circular cross-section
such as polyester/nylon may not retain much of the chemicals. Similarly,
the staple yarns have higher chances of retaining these chemicals com-
pared to filament yarns. The dyed and printed textiles are composed of
a variety of chemicals that can form complexes with the detergents and
other washing aids.
During high physical activity or in hot climatic conditions, the human
body faces heat stress and therefore, perspires a lot to maintain thermal
balance. This heat stress may be accentuated if chemicals from the dyes
and finishes in the fabric leach out and become locally concentrated. In
addition, there may be traces of detergents remaining in the fabric due to
poor rinsing during laundering. All these factors can lead to skin irritation.
It has been observed that the use of proper washing conditions can
help to remove any traces of chemicals from the wash load. Although com-
mercial surfactants are normally used in permissible concentrations, it has
been observed that the length of the alkyl chain in anionic surfactants is
closely related to skin irritability. Compounds containing saturated alkyl
chains of between 10 and 12 carbon atoms exhibit the worst effects [375].
Research on the allergenic properties of surfactants has shown that they
pose no increased risk of allergy. The residual chemicals present on the
cloth due to the poor rinsing can cause instantly occurring reactions of the
skin, particularly in patients with pre-existing skin diseases. The reaction
from these residual chemicals may cause stinging or itching [376].
8.2.3 Cross-contamination of diseases
There have been reports of infections among groups of people by the
transmission of a virus due to the mixing of uniforms during laundering
[377–379]. For example, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
infections among players of competitive sports and S. aureus infections
transmitted by the wearers of protective clothing. Hence, appropriate
cleaning of these uniforms after each use is highly recommended [380].
However, there is no specific evidence of such contamination reported by
the users of cold-weather protective clothing. Still, there is always the risk
of cross-infection by sharing the helmets and gloves. The threats can be
higher in winter climates where low humidity upsets skin hydration, as
abraded and chafed skin could be susceptible to Staphylococcus infection.
chapter nine
Future trends
The care and maintenance procedures have undergone several changes in
the past decade or so, which affects the properties of apparel, protective
and other textiles. Some of the changes include the formulation of greener
soaps and detergents, new eco-friendly solvents for dry cleaning, the
design and working of laundering and other similar equipment and the
technical changes in the equipment to operate the new green chemicals.
To cater to these changes, the fabric and garment manufacturers, in addi-
tion to their raw material suppliers, should make sustainable products as
per the environmental sensibility [381].
Care labels always play an important role in the appropriate care and
maintenance of many textile products. The durability, aesthetic values
and dimensions of these items can be altered if the processes, process
conditions and chemicals needed for care and maintenance are wrongly
selected. Hence, the manufacturers should always include the right param-
eters in the care instructions and the consumers should follow them.
The main difficulties associated with care labels are: (1) some indicate
procedures that are far more restrictive than necessary, (2) some instruc-
tions make no sense or are difficult to understand and (3) some abrasive
and coarse labels cause skin irritation. These problems can be avoided by
the manufacturers with necessary action. The conditions essential for a
clothing care label should always be clearly written out using a universal
language or symbol. The selection of soft material for preparing the labels
or directly printing the instructions on some inner part of a textile item
can avoid the problems of skin irritation.
The use of the Internet in selling various products has grown tremen-
dously. The purchasing of clothing from the Internet poses the risk of size,
fit, aesthetics, feel of the fabrics and read information on the care and con-
tent labels [382–384].
In addition to the essential information, the manufacturers can include
additional information such as environmental labels, guarantees, finishing
information and a sweatshop label. Environmental labels provide infor-
mation on environmentally friendly, ozone-friendly, biodegradability and
recycling. Environmental labels can assist consumers in the selection of
products with lower impact on the environment. With the guarantees in
the clothing, consumers are assured on the quality of the product. The
information on textile finish can provide additional information to the
143
consumers. The sweatshop label provides information on the employee’s

working conditions during the textile production process.
The consumers should also properly understand the meaning of the
care instructions before any process. A survey found that many people
do not fully understand care label information and select more vigorous
cleaning methods than those recommended. Some respondents indicated
that they thought bleaching was acceptable, though the instruction warned
against it. Similarly, ‘line dry’ was interpreted incorrectly. Educational
programs are therefore necessary to maximize the number of consumers
correctly interpreting the labels. Standardizing information on care
labels can also minimize misunderstanding. It is essential for the manu-
facturers to always include the care label with the right care i nstructions
that will be an integral part of the clothing for the useful life of a product.
However, several researchers have demonstrated no existence of a direct
relationship between information provided and information used.
There are professional wet cleaning businesses that use water and bio-
degradable soap for washing leather, suede, most tailored woollens, silk
and rayon items. The use of tensioning machines and moisture-controlled
dryers ensures the fabric retains its original size and shape. These estab-
lishments clean the majority of the garments labelled as ‘dry clean only’
safely to a satisfactory level. Similarly, the garments with a ‘dry clean
only’ label should be cleaned by a professional business in order to avoid
any possible damage to the clothing.
Crease-resist garments have been in use for quite some time. The use
of resins and cross-linking agents is well established for cotton and its
blends. In the case of synthetics, especially polyester, heat-setting tech-
niques have been well-researched. These finishes have to be taken into
consideration while preparing care labels.
Soil-resist and anti-microbial finishes are made possible by the use
of specialty chemicals [41,385]. Such chemicals have to be retained after
washing so as to maintain the desired characteristics. At times, the manu-
facturer also recommends the topping up of such finishes. Milder wash-
ing cycles are sufficient to ensure cleanliness.
Low-water washing (levis) is a new introduction. Herein, modern
technology has been used to assist users in long-term care of garments.
The concept aims to draw customers based on the environmental benefits.
Self-cleaning garments and fragrant fabrics (microencapsulation)
are areas under development. They use intelligent microbes and nano-
technology to impart functionality to fabrics and garments. The care sys-
tem for such materials will need to be established once they are widely
available.
As the use of protective clothing is becoming increasingly impor-
tant now, and there are several types varying in material and design, the
care and maintenance of these items is rather difficult. Several protective
Chapter nine: Future trends 145
clothing items lack standards describing their care and maintenance.

Hence, the standards bodies around the globe should come forward to
establish standards for the care and maintenance of protective clothing.
Technological developments have helped to prepare environmentally
friendly detergents by changing the formulations. The use of enzymes
in detergent compositions helps to work at lower temperatures, thereby
reducing energy consumption [386]. As these detergents are compact,
they reduce packaging, transportation and storage needs resulting in
environmental benefits [387].
The future improvement will focus on the replacement of harm-
ful chemicals with bio-based degradable ingredients. Newer detergents
are being manufactured with natural-base surfactants such as palm- or
coconut oil-based alcohol modified with ethylene oxide. Vegetable oil-
based alcohols mostly with 12 carbon atoms foam well in solvent-like
water. Methyl esters from palm oil are combined with ethylene oxide
to make methyl ester ethoxylates that effectively clean soiled clothes.
Alkylpolyethoxide (APE) nonionic detergents prepared from palm- or
coconut-based detergent alcohols modified with ethylene oxide are also
good cleaning agents.
chapter ten
Conclusions
If a garment does not meet its performance requirements, it fails to
meet its business objectives. Manufacturers and retailers will suffer
losses because of returns, complaints and reputational damage with
their target market. The durability of a garment depends mainly on its
care (i.e., severity in laundering, dry cleaning and ironing.) Garment
performance can be enhanced by the appropriate selection of fibre, yarn,
fabric; combination of production processes and application of finishes.
Standard test methods can also be established to check whether the
garment meets the p erformance required for the intended use before it
goes to the consumer.
Consumers do not have the experience and technical knowledge to
decide which care treatment is suitable for a product. Thus, care label-
ling is the responsibility of garment makers to help the consumers to
maintain the apparel’s aesthetic value and durability. The manufacturer
is responsible for proper labelling of textile fibre products when they are
ready for sale or delivery to the consumer. The importer is responsible
for proper labelling of imported textile products. Custom merchants and
tailors are responsible for showing properly labelled bolts, samples and
swatches to customers. Domestic manufacturers must attach care labels
to finished products before they sell them.
For consumer care, symbols make sense when they can understand
and follow the instructions. Symbols should provide the same informa-
tion to everyone without language barriers. Use of symbols allows for
smaller and more comfortable care labels, and the symbols are easy to
understand. Smaller labels also cost less and this could translate into
consumer savings. For manufacturers, care symbols make even more
sense. When harmonized with other countries, symbols will allow
participation in a global marketplace where symbols will clearly com-
municate the same information in all countries. Smaller labels cost less
to buy or manufacture and also cost less to inventory. Total inventory
can be further reduced by eliminating the need for different labels for
different countries. Therefore, all the manufacturers should attach care
labelling instructions to the garment for the benefit of the consumers
and to upkeep their brand.
New developments in fibre technology (such as microfibres, nano-
fibres and speciality fibres) and finishes extend the analytical aspect
147
of garment manufacture. Similar developments in other areas (such as

laundering chemicals and techniques) are necessary to cope with these
advanced materials. Products with advanced fibres and finishes will also
require the development of new care instructions; hence, the existing care
instruction process should be updated accordingly.
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Index
Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables.
A Anti-microbial finishes, 144

Antiredeposition agents, 11, 12t
AATCC, see American Association of Antistatic agents, 18–19
Textile Chemists and Colorists AOX compounds, see Adsorbable organic
Abrasion, 42, 49–50, 119t, 124 halogen compounds
Accessibility and ergonomics, of washing Apparel textiles, 25
machines, 66 care instructions for, 8f, 9–10t
Acoustic cavitation, 135 storage of, 125–126
Adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) ASTM, see American Society for Testing
compounds, 112 and Materials
Aeration, 44 Asymmetrical bearings, 66
Aerosol starches, 16 Atmospheric gas fading, 50
Agitation, 113 Australian/New Zealand care labelling
heat/mechanical, 39 system, 95–98
Agitator, 60 AS/NZS 2978, 127
Air drying, 21–22, 97t Automatic dryers, 129
Alcohol stains, in woollen fabric, 114 Automobiles seats, 103
Alkalinity, 12t Auxiliaries, used in laundering, 38–39
Alkylpolyethoxide (APE) nonionic Awnings, 106
detergents, 144
Aluminosilicates, 12
American Association of Textile Chemists
B
and Colorists (AATCC) 135, 31
American Society for Testing and Materials Bacteria, 14
(ASTM), 74 preventing growth of, 61
care labelling system, 74, 87, 90–92 Bagging, 52
chemical protective clothing, 39 Base tank, 67
D1133, 139 Bed linens, 103
D6413, 29–30 Bellows, 64
F1449, 30t, 31 BFI, see Blunt force impact
F2061-00, 39 Biodegradable soap, 144
F2757, 30t, 31 Blankets, 107
firefighter’s protective clothing, Bleaches/bleaching, 6, 14, 47, 57, 75, 86
30t, 31 symbols and processes used in
standards, 87–88 ASTM care labelling system, 90, 91t
Anionic detergents, 10, 11f, 18 Australian/New Zealand care
Antilint agents, 18–19 labelling system, 96t
171
172 Index
Bleaches/bleaching (cont.) standards for, 82–83t

British care labelling system, 94t systems, 87–99
Canadian care labelling system, 93t ASTM system, 90–92, 91f
international (ISO) care labelling Australian/New Zealand system,
system, 89f, 90 95–98
Japanese care labelling system, 99t British care labelling system, 93–95
Blind fabrics, 106–107 Canadian care labelling system,
Blunt force impact (BFI), 55 92–93
Body armour, cleaning of, 34–37 ISO system, 88–90
Body odours, 55–56 Japanese care labelling system,
Box-storage, 126 98–99
British care labelling system, 93–95 terminologies used in, 75–78
Brominated solvents, 138–139 Care symbols, 73, 79, 85t, 147
Builders, 11, 12t Carpet, and rugs, 103, 104
Burglar-proof storage vaults, 125 Cationic detergents, 11, 11f, 18
Cellulosic fabrics, 33
CEN/TR 14560: 2003 standard, for care
C
and maintenance of firefighter’s
California Air Resources Board (CARB), 16 protective clothing, 30t
Canadian care labelling system, 87, 92–93, Charged systems, 18
92–93t Chemical labelling, 101
CARB, see California Air Resources Board Chemical-protective clothing, cleaning of,
Carbonates, 12–13 37–40
Carcinogen, 16 Chemicals, with potential hazards,
Care instructions 130, 130t
for apparel clothing, 8f, 9–10t Chevron Philips EcoSoly, 137
for specialty textile items, 103–122 Chlorination processe, 112
bed linen, 105–106 Chlorine bleaches, 14, 86, 133
care based on fibre type, 108–116 Citrates, 12, 13
carpet and rugs, 104 Clay soils, 4
curtains and upholstery material, Cleaning, environmental impacts of,
104–105 129–139
other items, 106–108 Cleaning agent, 75
problems during laundering and Cleaning efficiency and water usage, of
dry cleaning with solutions, washing machines, 64
117–122 Clothing, storage of, 125–128
Care labelling, 8, 73–102 Cold-water washing, 59–60
definition of, 74–75 Cold-weather protective clothing,
difficulties associated with, 143 43–45, 141
electronic labels, 99–100 Collective cavitation, 136
examples, 99, 100f Colour fading, 6, 50–51, 120t, 124
for garments, 1–2, 147 Colour loss, 50, 120t
issues related to, 101–102 Combination stains, 123
mandatory regulations, 81–85 Comfort properties, 52
positioning in various garments, Commercial detergents, 24
76–78t Commercial laundering/dry cleaning,
processes, 85–87 86, 133
bleaching, 86 Compactness, washing machines, 65
dry cleaning, 86 Concentrated detergents, 132
ironing/pressing, 87 Consumer care, 75
laundering, 86 Contaminants, 44
tumble drying, 87 Costs, of washing machines, 65
requirements, 78–81 Cotton, 49
Index 173
care for, 110–111 sequence of operations, 67f

cycle, 22 solvents, 17
Crease-resistant properties, 69 symbols and processes used in
Crease-resist garments, 144 ASTM care labelling system,
Creasing, 70–71 91–92
Crickets, damage to cellulosic garments, Australian/New Zealand care
125 labelling system, 96t
Cross-contamination, of diseases, 141 British care labelling system, 94t
Cross staining, 5 Canadian care labelling system, 93t
Curtains, 103 international (ISO) care labelling
and upholstery material, 104–105 system, 89f, 90
Cycle length, of top-loading washers, 65 Japanese care labelling system, 98t
Cylinder, 67 vs. wet cleaning, 19–20
Cylindrical drum, 62 Dryers, 129
efficiency, 133
sheet, 21
D
Drying, 20–23
D6413 test, 29 blankets, 107
Dark-coloured clothes, 5, 17 cycle, 7
Decontamination efficiency, 38–39 equipment, 68–69, 68f
Delicate washing cycle, 6, 113 symbols and processes used in
Denim fabrics, 6 ASTM care labelling system,
Design for the Environment (DfE) 90, 91t
label, 132 Australian/New Zealand care
Detergents, 4–5, 18, 24, 75, 105 labelling system, 97t
comparison of, 15t British care labelling system, 94t
eco-friendly, 132 Canadian care labelling system, 92t
type and concentration of, 38 international (ISO) care labelling
DfE label, see Design for the Environment system, 89f, 90
label Japanese care labelling system, 99t
Dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl ether DrySolv, 139
(DPTB), 138 Durability, 54
Diseases, cross-contamination of, 141 Durable press (DP), 3–4
Disinfectants, 14 Durable water repellent (DWR) finish, 44
Dispersing agent, 11, 12t DWR finish, see Durable water repellent
Dispersion forces, 3 finish
“Do not tumble dry” specification, 7 Dye stains, 123
Dow Corning, 138
DP, see Durable press
E
DPTB, see Dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl
ether Eco-friendly chemicals
Dry cleaning, 2, 3, 16–19 for dry cleaning, 137–139
benefits/limitations of, 20 for laundering, 137
chemicals and environmental/health Eco-friendly detergents/solvents, 17,
hazards during, 130t, 139–140 132, 143
eco-friendly chemicals for, 137 Elastane fibres, 102
effects of, 56–57 Elastic fabrics, 52
machines, 67–68 Electrical-insulating gloves, 127
nylon fabric, 116 Electric blankets, 107
other chemicals, 18–19 Electronic care labels, 99–100
precautions during, 57 Emulsifying agent, 11, 12t
problems during, 117–122, 118–121t EN 340 standard, 28
process, described by care labels, 86 Energy efficiency, 132–133
174 Index
Environmental impacts of cleaning, Fragrant fabrics, 144

129–139 FR clothing, see Flame retardant clothing
chemicals with potential hazards, Front-loading washing machines, 6,
130–131 62, 63f
eco-friendly chemicals vs. top-loading washing machines,
for dry cleaning, 137–139 62–66
for laundering, 137 FSP, see Fragment simulating projectile
green cleaning, 132–139 FTC, see Federal Trade Commission
ozone laundering, 134 FTIR, see Fourier-transform infrared
recent innovations in laundering, 131 results
ultrasonic cleaning, 135–137 Fume fading, 50
Environmental labels, 143
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), G
16, 131
Enzymes, 11, 12t Garment performance, 147
EPA, see Environmental Protection GEC, see GreenEarth Cleaning
Agency Gentle cycle, 22
Epoxy resin, 124 GINETEX, 83, 87–89
Equipment Global climate impact, 5
for care of textiles, 59–71 Glycol ethers, 138
drying equipment, 68–69 Gore-Tex breathable water repellent
other equipment, 71 membrane, 44–45
used for pressing, 69–71 Gram-negative bacterium, 41
washing equipment, 59–68 Gram-positive bacterium, 41
Excessive cleaning, 109 Green cleaning, 132–139
Exxon-Mobil’s DF-2000, 137 eco-friendly chemicals
for dry cleaning, 137–139
F for laundering, 137
ozone laundering, 134
Fabric conditioners, 19 ultrasonic cleaning, 135–137
Fabric discolouration, 118t GreenEarth Cleaning (GEC), 138
Fabric structure, 3 Green solvents, 17
Fabrisolv, 139 Greying, of clothes, 118t
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 73, 78 Guarantees, 143
Felting shrinkage, 51
FFPPC, see Firefighter’s personal protective H
clothing
Fibre geometry, 3 Hand irons, 70, 91
Filament yarns, 3 Hand washing, 86, 132
Filter, 67 “Hand wash only” label, 7
Firefighter’s personal protective clothing Hang drying, 22
(FFPPC) Hangers, 7, 109
cleaning of, 28–34 Harsh fabrics, 119t
standards for care and maintenance Health hazards of cleaning
of, 30t cross-contamination of diseases, 141
Fire-proof storage vaults, 125 during laundering/dry cleaning,
Flame retardant (FR) clothing, 29 139–140
Flat iron, 71 residual amount left in clothing,
Fluorescent whitening agents, 11, 12t 140–141
Foaming agent, 11–12, 12t Heat, 23
Fourier-transform infrared results Heat stress, 141
(FTIR), 36 Heavy duty detergents, 13
Fragment simulating projectile (FSP), 35 Holding tank, 67
Index 175
Holes, 120t K
Home laundering, 86
Hot-water washing, 6, 60 Kauri-butanol (KB), 138
Hydrocarbon, 137 Klebsiella pneumonia, 41
blends, 138 K/S value, 136
resins, 18
Hydro-entangled UHMWPE (ultra-high- L
molecular weight polyethylene)
felt, 35–36 LAS, see Linear alkyl benzene sulfonates
Hydro extraction, 21, 42 Laundering, 2, 3, 4–5, 86
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), 47 auxiliaries used in, 38–39
Hydrophobic contaminants, 135 commercial, 86, 133
Hydrophobic fibres, 3 eco-friendly chemicals for, 137
Hygroscopic shrinkage, 51 health hazards during, 130t, 139–140
Hypochlorite ion, 14 home, 86
industrial, 26, 83
innovations in, 131
I ozone, 134
Impellers, 66 pre-treatments, 44
Indoor drying, 22–23 proban garments, 33
Industrial laundering, 26, 83 problems during, 117–122
Injection systems, 18 sanitisers, 41
Ink stains, 124 Leather goods, 107–108
Insect damage, 53–54 Light-coloured clothes, 5, 17
Insoluble stains, 123 Light-duty detergents, 13
International Organization for Linear alkyl benzene sulfonates
Standardization (ISO), 83 (LAS), 11
care labelling system, 82–83t, 88–90 Line drying, 21, 81, 106, 133
ISO 11612, 28 Linens, 105–106
ISO 15797, 31, 83, 84f Lint, 119t
ISO 30023 standard, 83–85, 84f, 84t trap, 21
ISO 6330, 31 Liquid carbon dioxide (CO2), 131, 138
ISO/TR 2801: 2007, 30t, 82t Liquid detergents, 13
Internet, 143 Liquid silicone, 138
Ironing, 87, 109 Loop labels, 80
avoiding, 133 Low-water washing, 144
symbols and processes used in Lubricating film, 14, 16
ASTM care labelling system, 91, 91t
Australian/New Zealand care M
labelling system, 96t
British care labelling system, 94t Maintenance and reliability, of washing
Canadian care labelling system, 93t machines, 65–66
international (ISO) care labelling Material variable, 39
system, 89f, 90 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Japanese care labelling system, 99t (MRSA), 141
ISO, see International Organization for Microbes, 109
Standardization Microencapsulation, 144
Microfibres, 147
Minor repair, 109
J
Moisture, 23–24
Japanese care labelling system, 98–99 controlled dryers, 144
Japan Industrial Standards (JIS), for care Moth balls, 115
labelling, 87 Moth-proofing finishes, 54
176 Index
MRSA, see Methicillin-resistant health hazards, 139–140

Staphylococcus aureus impedes growth of foetus, 139
Perfumes, 56
N Permanent care labelling, 80
Permanent press, 7, 22
Nanofibres, 147 Personal protection equipment (PPE),
Nanotechnologies, 101 126–127
NaOCl, see Sodium hypochlorite Personal protective clothing (PPC),
Naphthalene, 125 24–28
Napped woollen items, 114–115 Perspiration, 51
National Fire Protection Association Phenolic disinfectants, 14
(NFPA), 31–32, 32t Phosphates, 12, 13
1851, 30t Pilling, 48–49, 112, 119t, 124
2112, 30t Pine oil disinfectants, 14
2113, 30t Pleating, 71
National Institute of Justice (NIJ), 34 Pleats, 23
Natural products, 137 Polar surfaces, fibres with, 3
New clothes, 5 Polyester, 4, 49
NFPA, see National Fire Protection Polypropylene fibres, 49
Association Polyurethane (PU) coating, 45
NIJ, see National Institute of Justice Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 137
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 50 Poor washing, 118t
Noise, washing machines, 65 Powdered chlorine bleach, 14
Non-aqueous cleaning, 129 PPC, see Personal protective clothing
Non-chlorine bleach, 86 PPE, see Personal protection equipment
Non-ionic detergents, 11, 11f Precooked vegetable starches, 16
Nonylphenolethoxylates (NPEs), 131 Pre-rinsing, 37
Nylon, 49, 116 Pre-soaking, 62, 110, 116
Pressing, 23–24, 87
equipment used for, 69–71
O
Pressure, 24
OBAs, see Optical brightening agents Prewashed product, 38
Oily soils, 4 Proban garments, laundering, 33
Oily stains, 123, 124 Professional care, 75
Olefin piping, 102 Progressive shrinkage, 52
Optical brightening agents (OBAs), 18 Protective clothing, 144
Organochlorines, 133 cleaning of, 40–46
Outdoor drying, 22, 133 Protective gloves, 126–127
Over-drying, 106 Protective helmets, 127
Oxygen bleaches, 14 Protective textiles, cleaning of, 24–46
Ozone fading (O-fading), 50 body armour, 34–37
Ozone laundering, 134 chemical-protective clothing, 37–40
firefighter’s clothing, 28–34
other protective clothing, 40–46
P
Protein stains, 123
Para-aramid felt, 35 PU coating, see Polyurethane coating
Paradichlorobenzene, 125 Pump, 67
PCE, see Perchloroethylene PVC, see Polyvinyl chloride
Penetrating agent, 12, 12t
Perchloroethylene (PCE, perc), 16, 17, 56, Q
101, 129, 130
and cancer, 140 Quaternary ammonium disinfectants, 14
Index 177
R Soil-release finish, 4
Soil-removal efficiency, 3
Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, Soil-repellent finish, 4
99 Soil-resist finishes, 144
REACH substances, see Registration, Solvent relative humidity, 75
Evaluation, Authorisation Solvent-soluble stains, 123
and Restriction of Chemical SPF, see Sun protection factor
substances Spin drying, 21
Refurbish, 75 effectiveness, of washing machines,
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation 64–65
and Restriction of Chemical Sprinkling, 71
(REACH) substances, 101 Stains
Residual alkalinity, 29 removal of, 75, 123–124
Residual chemicals, 101 resistant finish, 103
Residual detergent, 119t stain removal impact on clothing
Residual strains, 51, 140–141 properties, 124
Resin treatment, 124 types of, 123
Retailers, 81 in woollen fabric, 114
RFID tags, see Radio frequency Standards for care labelling, 82–83t
identification tags Staphylococcus aureus, 41, 141
Rugs, 103, 104 Staple yarns, 3
Starches, 16, 29
Steam presses, 70
S
Stiffness, 119t
Scrubs, contaminated, 41 Storage, of clothing, 125–127
Seams apparel textiles, 125–126
failure in sewn garment, 47 of personal protection equipment (PPE),
puckering, 48 126–127
slippage, 48 Stretching, 52
Self-cleaning garments, 144 Sun protection factor (SPF), 43
Sensorial properties, 52 Suppliers, 81
Set stain, 123 Surface peeling, of fibres, 36
Shrinkage, 51, 121t Surfactants, 11
Shutters, 107 functions of components of, 12t
Silicone-based softeners, 111 Surgical gown, 40–41
Silk fabric, 135–136 Sweaters, 109
care for, 115–116 Sweatshop label, 144
Siloxane, 138 Swelling shrinkage, 51
Silverfish, damage to cellulosic garments, Symmetrical bearings, 66
125 Synthetic detergents (Syndet), 10–11
Single jersey knit silk, 35 components and functions of, 12t
Sizing chemicals, 18 Synthetic fibres, 4
Slippage, seam, 48
Snagging, 48, 120t
T
Soaps, 10, 75
and detergents, 4–5 Tannin stains, 123
Socks, 46 Tearing, 53, 120t
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 47 Technical Committee (TC-38), of ISO, 87
Sodium silicate, sodium sulphate, water, Temperature, 12t
12t Tensioning machines, 144
Softeners, 6–7, 29 Terry towels, 6
Soiled attires, 41 Tetrachloroethylene, 16
178 Index
Textile finishing information, 143–144 cycles, 6, 61–62

Textile materials symbols and processes used in
cleaning of, 3–57 ASTM care labelling system, 90, 91t
effects on clothing properties, 46–57 Australian/New Zealand care
protective textiles, 24–46 labelling system, 96t
dry cleaning, 16–19 British care labelling system, 94t
vs. wet cleaning, 19–20 Canadian care labelling system, 92t
drying, 20–23 international (ISO) care labelling
pressing, 23–24 system, 89f, 90
regular care and maintenance of, 1 Japanese care labelling system, 98t
wet cleaning (using water), 4–16 Washing equipment
Thermal/heat shrinkage, 51–52 dry cleaning machines, 67–68
Thermophysiological comfort properties, front-loading washing machines, 62, 63f
52–53 other designs, 66
Top-loading washing machines, 6, 59–62, top-loading washing machines, 59–62,
61f 61f
vs. front-loading washing machines, top- vs. front-loading washing
62–66 machines, 62–66
Transverse cracking, 47 Water, 135, see also Wet cleaning
Tumble drying, 21, 30, 68–69, 68f, 87, extraction, 86
106, 110 leakage, of washing machines, 65
ASTM care labelling system, 90 quality, 38
Australian/New Zealand care labelling volume, 39
system, 97t Water-pumping agitator, 60
British care labelling system, 95t Water-soluble stains, 123
international (ISO) care labelling Wear and abrasion, of washing
system, 89f, 90 machines, 65
Tunnel finishing, 42–43 Wet cleaning (using water), 2, 4–16, 97t
benefits/limitations of, 19–20
vs. dry cleaning, 19–20
U
effects of, 46–56
UHMWPE (ultra-high-molecular weight other washing aids, 14–16
polyethylene) felt, 35–36 washing by hand, 7–10
Ultrasonic cleaning, 135–137 washing chemicals, 10–14
Underwear, 45–46 washing with machine, 5–7
Uneven cleaning, 118t Wetting agent, 12, 12t
United States Environmental Protection White-coloured clothes, 5
Agency (EPA), 16, 131 Woollen fibre, care for, 111–115
Upholstery material, 104–105 Woollen-knitted garments, 48
Woven para-aramid, 35
Wringing instructions
V
Japanese care labelling system, 98t
Vacuum, 24 Wrinkling, 53, 121t
Vacuum cleaners, 103
Vinegar, 132 Y
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 132
Yarn structure, 3
W Yellowing, of clothes, 118t
Wardrobe-storage hampers, 126 Z

Washing, 3
aids/chemicals, 6 Zeolites, 12, 13

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Care and Maintenance

Rajkishore Nayak and

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-56675-0 (Hardback)

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

Chapter 2 Cleaning of textile materials..................................................... 3

Chapter 3 Equipment for the care of textiles........................................... 59

Chapter 4 Care labelling.............................................................................. 73

Chapter 5 Care instructions for specialty textile items....................... 103

5.5.3 Silk items����������������������������������������������������������������������������������115

Chapter 6 Stains.......................................................................................... 123

Chapter 7 Storage of clothing................................................................... 125

Chapter 8 The environmental impact and health hazards of

Chapter 9 Future trends............................................................................. 143

Chapter 10 Conclusions............................................................................... 147

sources of reliable and up-to-date information to support textile profes-

Dr. Saminathan Ratnapandian is a professor at the Ethiopian Institute

PET polyethylene terephthalate

shrinkage, wrinkling and damage to the buttons, bids and sequins or

Cleaning of textile materials

2.1 Wet cleaning (using water)

2.1.1 Washing with a machine

The care instructions should be always followed while washing, dry-

The care labels work as a major source of information on the clothing

Guide to apparel/textile care symbols

Normal Permanent Delicate/ Hand wash

Wash Water (Maximum) (200°F) (160°F) (140°F) (120°F) (105°F) (65°F-85°F)

Any bleach Only non-chlorine bleach

Dry Drip dry

Iron-dry or steam In the shade

200°C 150°C 110°C

Dryclean-normal cycle Dryclean-additional instructions

Figure 2.1 ASTM care instructions used for apparel (symbols).

Table 2.1 Care instructions used in apparel (words)

Table 2.1 (Continued) Care instructions used in apparel (words)

a cation (positive ion). Most of the synthetic detergents commonly used

Table 2.2 Components and functions of a synthetic detergent

Table 2.3 Functions of various components of a surfactant

the effectiveness of carbonates is debated, they are environmentally safe

• Lowering surface and interfacial tension,

Low-temperature and warm-water washing is a common practice

corn) or alcohols [99–101]. These new detergents perform effectively in

2.1.4 Other washing aids

Cleaning of textile materials

A combination of lye, water, ammonia and a kind of clay was initially

2.2.1 Dry cleaning solvents

1. Help in the removal of water-soluble soils as they carry moisture,

The detergents can be introduced into the dry cleaning machines by

2.3 Dry cleaning versus wet cleaning

2.3.1 Benefits of wet cleaning

2.3.2 Limitations of wet cleaning

• Shrinkage, wrinkling, surface changes, felting, loss of lustre and

• The clothes may undergo change in the dimensions leading to

2.3.3 Benefits of dry cleaning

2.3.4 Limitations of dry cleaning

5.5.3 Silk items��115

2.1 Wet cleaning (using water)

2.1.1 Washing with a machine

2.1.4 Other washing aids

2.2.1 Dry cleaning solvents

2.3 Dry cleaning versus wet cleaning

2.3.1 Benefits of wet cleaning

2.3.2 Limitations of wet cleaning

2.3.3 Benefits of dry cleaning

2.3.4 Limitations of dry cleaning

2.6 Cleaning of protective textiles

2.6.1 Cleaning of firefighter’s clothing

2.6.2 Cleaning of body armour

2.6.3 Cleaning of chemical-protective clothing

2.6.4 Cleaning of other protective clothing

2.7 Effects of cleaning on clothing properties

2.7.1 Effects of wet cleaning

2.7.2 Effects of dry cleaning

2.7.3 Precautions during dry cleaning

3.1.1 Top-loading washing machines

3.1.2 Front-loading washing machines

3.1.3 Top- versus front-loading washing machines

3.1.5 Dry cleaning machines

3.3 Equipment used for pressing

4.1 Definition of a care label

4.2 Terminologies used in care labelling