Hotels’ Architecture. Publicly Accessible Apace as Part of a Contemporary City.

Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis DOI: 10.23817/2019.wnzewn-9

ORCID: 0000-0003-1329-0994
The E. Geppert Academy of Art and Design in Wrocław

The Polish School of Poster

Abstract: The article highlights the ideas of exteriority and interiority as ex-
pressed by the graphic design genre of poster. The role of poster is antici-
patory and precedent to the crucial artistic experience. However, while be-
ing a work of art itself, the poster also becomes an artistic and experiential
event. Such was the case of the posters created in the 1950s and 1960s in Po-
land by the outstanding artists whose works are known under a generic name
of the Polish School of Poster. Posters by Henryk Tomaszewski, Jerzy Flisak,
Jan Lenica, Wojciech Fangor, Jan Młodzożeniec, among others, are remarkable
for their style based on metaphor and allusion, original lettering and paint-
erly technique as well as humour and understatement. The influence of the
poster on the public also falls within the scope of the study.

Keywords: exterior, interior, poster, Polish School of Poster, metaphor, ambi-

guity, painterly style

Polska Szkoła Plakatu

Streszczenie: Artykuł analizuje graficzny gatunek plakatu i jego oddziały-
wanie w obrębie zjawiska artystycznego znanego jako Polska Szkoła Plakatu.
Pojęcia wnętrza i zewnętrzności są wyznacznikami jego ewaluacji. Rolą pla-
katu jest informowanie; antycypuje on i poprzedza kluczowe doświadczenie
artystyczne. Plakat, będąc również dziełem sztuki, staje się wydarzeniem ar-
tystycznym i empirycznym. Takie rozróżnienie odnosi się do plakatów stwo-
rzonych w latach 50. i 60. w Polsce przez wybitnych artystów należących do
Polskiej Szkoły Plakatu. Plakaty Henryka Tomaszewskiego, Jerzego Flisa-

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 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

ka, Jana Lenicy, Wojciecha Fangora, Jana Młodzożeńca wyróżniają się stylem
opartym na metaforze i aluzji, oryginalnym liternictwie i malarskim warsz-
tacie, a także humorem i niedopowiedzeniem. Miejsce i sposób oddziaływa-
nia plakatów na odbiorców są również tematem artykułu.

Słowa kluczowe: zewnętrzność, wnętrze, plakat, Polska Szkoła Plakatu, me-

tafora, dwuznaczność, styl malarski

Il. 1. Zbyszko Siemaszko: Warszawa Śródmieście railway station, 1963

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 The Polish School of Poster

The title of the conference highlights the ideas of exteriority and

interiority in art as well as the concept of common space created by
human activity, mainly in urbanized areas.1 Interior Exterior – Com-
mon Space may be interpreted according to the art medium and dis-
cussed from the perspectives of scientific expertise, such as psycholo-
gy, sociology, or anthropology. This article concentrates on the artistic
media and in particular one genre–poster– as being especially perti-
nent to interior and exterior spaces. Posters are displayed in exteri-
or spaces, they inform and invite the public to participate in events,
which when chosen and viewed, create a unique personal experience.
The role of the poster is, therefore, anticipatory and precedent to the
crucial artistic experience. However, while being a work of art itself,
the poster also becomes an artistic and experiential event. Such was
the case of the posters created in the 1950s and 1960s in Poland. This
phenomenon became largely known as the Polish School of Poster.
The poster is believed to be the essence of graphic design. It ap-
pears to include both image and type, although a poster may be wholly
text or image. An example of an evoc-
ative text-based poster was created
by Wojciech Fangor for Andrzej Waj-
da’s film Ashes and Diamonds (1958).
The handwritten text, framed though
as a painting, in a three-colour pal-
ette scheme, clearly renders the com-
plexities of the film.
To create a sense of harmony, im-
age and text have to conform to cer-
tain rules. The theory of art distin-
guishes seven elements of composi-
tion, that is: colour, line, shape, solids,
Il. 2. Wojciech Fangor: Ashes and value, texture, and space which work-
Diamonds (1958) ing together contribute significantly
1
The concept of public space was introduced into the 20th century political thinking and
philosophy by Hannah Arendt in her Human Condition (1958) where it was thoroughly
analyzed in relation to vita activa, among other concepts. Available at: http://sduk.us/
afterwork/arendt_the_human_condition.pdf., p. 16.

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 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

to the visual impact of the poster. The image is supplemented by

the informative text which may also contribute to the artistic appeal
of the poster. The text conveys the information by means of various
typographical elements, such as typefaces, leading, weight, revers-
ing-out etc. However, the most dominant and characteristic ingredient
of the posters of this period is the handwritten text which represents
the artist’s signature or the personal touch of someone who claims
that “I have made it on my own”. This approach was necessary as the
artists involved during those years were unable to access the basic
equipment commonly found in designer workshops.
Historically, the emergence of the Polish School of Poster occurred
in the 1950s when the political and cultural situation in Poland re-
laxed after the death of Stalin. The dreary aesthetics that dominated
the country after World War II were eventually overturned and art-
ists were able to envisage more novel approaches and put them into
practice. This led to a general explosion of artistic creativity, for ex-
ample: in film and theatre productions, music concerts, and fine arts
exhibitions, of both Polish and foreign provenance, which in turn were
announced, and to some extent reviewed and analyzed, by a graphic
design genre – the poster created by the outstanding Polish artists.2
The history of the Polish School of Poster, however, involves a number
of unexpected paradoxes, contradictions and disclosures. Artists as-
sociated with the Polish School of Poster did not consider posters sim-
ply as a commercial or advertising medium. They sought genuine-
ness and refinement in this form. Dorota Folga-Januszewska suggests
in her latest book entitled Here It Is: The Art of Polish Poster (2015) that
this phenomenon emerged as the artists, being educated in the var-
ious academies of fine arts, became conscious of the limits imposed
on them by traditional approaches to the genre of poster. Further-
more, they rebelled against the limits of advertising, the psychology

2
Franciszek Starowieyski in one of his interviews claimed that his posters provided the pub-
lic with his own interpretations of films or theatre productions. Therefore, their inform-
ative or decorative purpose was diminished for the sake of an authorial commentary and
extra meaning. Comp. Skowrońska I., Franciszek Starowiejski–artysta, skandalista, kole-
kcjoner, available at: https://niezlasztuka.net/o-sztuce/franciszek-starowieyski-artys-
ta-skandalista-kolekcjoner/.

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 The Polish School of Poster

of advertising and propaganda techniques, and even the actual de-

sign techniques. She claims that the crucial contribution of the Polish
School of Poster to the created image in poster design was the strength
of poetry.3 4
The grey, half-ruined streets of post-war Poland became the first
art gallery, a venue for exhibiting posters and inviting passers-by
to participate in cultural events. Henryk Tomaszewski’s statement
that “the gallery of the poster is the street” aptly reflects the develop-
ing relationship between the post-
er and the space within which it ap-
peared in the post-war period.5
At the same time anoth-
er perspective was arising as to
the sphere of their influence and
display and caused the artists
to pose the questions again: What
is the proper space for posters
and what is their proper venue?
Józef Mroszczak, then Dean of the
Graphic Design Faculty of Warsaw
Academy of Fine Arts, deliberated
on these questions and came to the
simple conclusion that people dis-
Il. 3. Jan Lenica: Wozzeck (1964)
played posters in their homes be-
cause it affected them in a positive way.6 Thus the aesthetic function
of posters prevailed. According to the urban legend, copies of the 1964
Wozzeck poster by Jan Lenica that had been displayed on the streets
of Warsaw, quickly disappeared overnight. These posters were not

3
D. Folga-Januszewska, L. Majewski, Oto sztuka polskiego plakatu, BOSZ, Olszanica, 2018,
p. 252.
4
Poetry is often defined as a condensed (verbal) expression of human feelings or ideas.
In case of the discussed posters, poetry involves literary references, visual and audible
images which appeal to various compartments of imagination and endow the poster with
rich meaning. Prof. Jan Lenica claimed that posters should also sing.
5
This information is available at: https://www.poster.pl/polish_poster_artists.html.
6
D. Folga-Januszewska, L. Majewski, Oto sztuka polskiego plakatu, BOSZ, Olszanica, 2018,
p. 262

103
 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

removed by official censors but stolen by people who were desper-

ate for something stunningly colourful and flamboyant to decorate
their homes.7

What were the characteristics of the Polish School of Poster

which made it stand out from the dominant European trends?

There was a general distrust of the established commercial func-

tion of the poster which caused artists to seek inspiration in other do-
mains. The art of painting was the catalyst for the unique style of the
Polish School of Poster. The poster had its origin in painting and art-
ists, even in the later phases of poster design, returned to painting
and were inspired by contemporary painting techniques, such as, un-
usual forms, stunning colour schemes and challenging juxtapositions.
Metaphor was more often employed than symbols which were con-
sidered too exploited and conventionalized, while signs were regard-
ed as too obvious and plain. The use of metaphor also allowed artists
to seek associations, to convey unexpected combinations and to iden-
tify hidden similarities between ideas. As Folga-Januszewska says:
“The Polish poster was a window opened to imagination and ambigu-
ity, to double meaning”,8 and consequently this brought humour, iro-
ny and surreal elements to the poster art form. Typography more of-
ten relied on hand-written style than standard typeset typefaces and
occasionally artists employed expressive collage lettering. In this way
the poster eventually became an influential art form intended to cul-
tivate art rather than to succumb to the pressures of advertisement.9

7
Comp. L. Majewski, The Poster is there to Seduce, [in:] Vogue Polska, 2018, available at:
https://www.vogue.pl/an/prof-lech-majewski-the-poster-is-there-to-seduce.
­8
D. Folga-Januszewska, L. Majewski, Oto sztuka polskiego plakatu, BOSZ, Olszanica, 2018,
p. 250.
9
As the Polish film establishment was not concerned about commercial aspects of the stu-
dio demand the poster became artist-driven. Posters became part of fine art, and instead
of being led by the lowest common denominator in public taste, artists shaped the society’s
taste. – writes Guity Novin in A History of Graphic Design, available at: http://guity-novin.
blogspot.com/2012/11/chapter-62-modern-graphic-design-in.html.

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 The Polish School of Poster

A number of artists are in particular associated with

the Polish School of Poster:

Henryk Tomaszewski is exceptionally diverse in terms of styles

and his posters sometimes leave the observer with the impression
that they have been created by different artists. A painter by profes-
sion, he was a leading figure of the Polish School of Poster and a re-
nowned professor at the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts. The beginning
of his career is marked by a departure from the Western film poster
tradition that focused on film stills, portraits of actors and, typical-
ly, bold lettering used to advertise the films and promote box-of-fice
success.
In Tomaszewski`s New York Times obituary, James Victore, a poster
designer, was quoted as saying: “rather than illustrating actual scenes
[Tomaszewski] suggested the mood of the films by applying filmmak-
ing technique”. This approach was applied to a diversity of other art
disciplines, for example, theatre and circus performance or sculpture
whose distinctive techniques and methods he tried to emulate in his

Il. 4. Henryk Tomaszewski: The Odd Man Il. 5. Henryk Tomaszewski: Edward II
Out (1947) (1986)

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 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

posters. 10 Therefore, one of Tomaszewski’s acclaimed film posters

The Odd Man Out (1947) features an image of the leading character,
played by actor James Mason, captured at a low vantage perspective
and outlined against the solid red background, while at the same time
strongly cropped. The lettering utilizes an interesting variety of styles
that do not distract the viewer from the main figure.11

Il. 6. Henryk Tomaszewski: Henry Moore’s exhibition (1959)

Another style is illustrated in the poster Tomaszewski created

for Henry Moore`s exhibition in Warsaw (1959). The white cut let-
ters imitate simple sculptural forms with open spaces characteris-
tic of Moore`s style. The second “O” in the sculptor’s name functions
as a plinth supporting his iconic statue Mother and Child, whereas
the modest lettering in black and white is unobtrusively squeezed
between consecutive letters. In contrast, Tomaszewski’s poster for
the theatrical production of Christopher Marlow’s Edward II (1986)

10
S. Heller, Henryk Tomaszewski, Leader of the Polish Poster School, dies at 91, The New
York Times, Sept. 14, 2005, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/14/arts/
henryk-tomaszewski-leader-of-the-polish-poster-school-dies-at-91.html.
11
Painterly in style, Tomaszewski`s image references to the crucifixion and martyrdom as por-
trayed in religious painting; with Johnny painted on a blood red background – a very dif-
ferent reading of the film`s noir atmosphere. This opinion was expressed by Nigel Arthur
in The Polish Poster Art for classic British Films, available at: https://www.bfi.org.uk/
news-opinion/news-bfi/features/polish-poster-art-classic-british-films.

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 The Polish School of Poster

is a humorous minimalist composition entirely based on a graphic

style which clearly brings out the meaning of the play.

Il. 7. Jerzy Flisak: Hitman (1960) Il. 8. Jerzy Flisak: Brutti, Sporchi
e Cattivi (1978)

Jerzy Flisak’s poster style is often described as clumsy, deliberate-

ly ugly, non-aesthetic, and almost casual.12 His posters Hitman (1960)
and Brutti, Sporchi e Cattivi (1978) display similar rhythmical repe-
tition of shapes, the unusual inclusion of text and a great deal of wry
humour even though the former appears to have a more immediate
appeal with its minimal forms and graphic ambiguity of the nega-
tive space.
Wojciech Fangor`s Black Carmen (1959) is often described as an
ingenious combination of graphic elements and photography which
results in a simple and direct communication of the film plot it seeks
to represent. The horizontal orientation of the poster is unusual but
lends itself perfectly to the carefree attitude of the reclining wom-
an. Her outstretched female silhouette indicated by freehand curvy
lines is interestingly juxtaposed with bold vertical and oblique yel-
low strokes.13
12
Comp. Guity Novin, A History of Graphic Design, available at: http://guity-novin.blogspot.
com/2012/11/chapter-62-modern-graphic-design-in.html.
13
See other posters where a similar designing approach was used, e.g. posters by Wojciech
Zamecznik to the film Cette Sacrée Gamine or by Jerzy Jaworowski to Albi.

107
 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

Il. 9. Wojciech Fangor: Black Carmen (1959)

Roman Cieślewicz is another artist who made use of a collage tech-

nique. His poster for Pier Paolo Pasolini’s film Afabulazzione exploits
a photographical portrait of Pasolini transformed by lines running
through it. These are diagonal and colourful and also convey informa-
tion. They may be read as artist`s thoughts or inspirations or merely
as film strips and they undoubtedly add dynamism to the otherwise
bleak photograph.
Jan Lenica and Jan Młodożeniec also belonged to the first genera-
tion of the Polish School of Poster. Jan Lenica is credited with coining
the term the Polish School of Poster14 and his richly coloured, expres-
sive, vivid and eye-catching poster Wozzeck was discussed earlier
in this article. Another Lenica poster The Blue Bird (1957) gives an an-
gry and gloomy interpretation of Frederico Fellini`s film. The dom-
inant figure of the eponymous bird (or priest) is set against a black

14
The term was first used in Graphis in 1960. Prof. Jan Lenica authored many theoretical
texts on poster art.

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 The Polish School of Poster

background constructed of nervous, irregular cross-hatched lines that

enhance the ominous impression of the whole.

Il. 10. Roman Cieślewicz: Afabulazzione Il. 11. Jan Lenica: The Blue Bird (1957)
(1984)

The End of the Night (1957) by Jan Młodożeniec is a well-balanced

and well-conceived composition of pictorial and textual elements
in black and white that are unified by the idea of negative space. His
meticulous and clear-cut style is visible in other posters he created.

Il. 12. Jan Młodożeniec: The End of the Night (1957)

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 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

The second generation of poster designers were either disciples

of their predecessors or emulated the work of the Polish School of Post-
er, for example: Waldemar Świerzy, Franciszek Starowieyski, Stasys
Eidrigevičius, all of whom made diverse and important aesthetic con-
tributions to the field of poster design. It is important to note that
during this time the “first generation” artists continued to be prolific
in terms of their output and their styles continued to evolve.

Il. 13. Waldemar Świerzy: Sunset Il. 14. Waldemar Świerzy: Blow up
Boulvard (1957) (1966)

Waldemar Świerzy was a full-fledged graphic designer who de-

signed posters, book covers and illustrations, stamps and record
sleeves for which he received many international awards.15 His style,
however, is much indebted to painting, especially to modern abstract
trends. Sunset Boulvard (1957) is one of his most recognisable post-
ers. It focuses quite traditionally upon a central human figure. This
is a technique he used in nearly all his outstanding posters includ-
ing a memorable gallery of jazz musicians. His designs consistently
15
Waldemar Świerzy in 1959 won Grand Prix Toulouse-Lautrec at the First International
Film Poster Exhibition in Versailles for the Red Inn poster, followed by the third prize for
Two Stories of Happiness at the same event in 1962. In 1970, he received the 1st prize at
the Biennale de Sao Paulo and in 1975 and 1985 his posters for The Promised Land.

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 The Polish School of Poster

concentrate on the portrait of the person presented and this dictat-

ed the painting style and technique, the metaphor employed or sim-
ply an expression spontaneously captured. The poster Blow up (1966)
is composed of colourful enlarged pixelated dots and shows the cor-
respondence between the film subject matter and the pop art style
he chose to use. Ewa Gorzadek established the relationship between
Świerzy`s techniques and how they were perceived in the exterior
street spaces when she wrote: “From close up these posters resem-
ble a multi-coloured mish-mash of abstract items such as pasta-like
lines, splashes, smudges, spots, dots and streaks giving the impres-
sion of randomness. They become legible only when seen from a cer-
tain distance, the gay mish-mash then revealing a human face or fig-
ure, and the artist`s intention becoming clear”.16

Il. 15, 16, 17. Franciszek Starowieyski: Mademoiselle (1970); Samuel Zborowski (1980);
The MoMA Exhibition (1985)

Franciszek Starowieyski drew inspiration from baroque art and

had an uncanny penchant for the macabre and the surreal. His post-
ers reveal a virtuoso draughtsmanship, haunting imagery frequent-
ly combining death and erotic motifs, which is wittily manifested
in the poster Mademoiselle (1970), attention to detail and master-
fully rendered chiaroscuro effects. In his poster Samuel Zborowski
16
E. Gorzadek, in culture.pl, available at: https://culture.pl/en/artist/waldemar-swierzy.

111
 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

(1980) the formal composition and the use of hexagonal shape reflects
the tradition of coffin portraits of Polish noblemen in the 17th and 18th
centuries. Starowieyski was the first Polish artist to give a solo exhi-
bition in MoMA in 1985 for which he created a specific event poster.
Stasys Eidrigevičius`s posters are influenced by the 20th centu-
ry traditions of painting and bring to mind the conventions of cub-
ism and surrealism. The pup-
pet-like figures, such as rep-
resented in the poster Uncle
Vania (1989) have an eerie
blank gaze and are executed
by means of a monochromatic
palette, the use of sculptur-
al forms and with a meticu-
lous attention to the irregu-
lar texture. The entire image
remains in the mind of the
viewer as a unique form
of poster art.

Eventually, the circus

Il. 18. Stasys Eidrigevičius: Uncle Vania (1989)
poster is a curious and con-
spicuous theme associat-
ed for several decades with the Polish School of Poster. All the art-
ists discussed in this article appeared to use the circus poster as a
non-ideological platform for illustrating their unique style and hu-
mour. There are innumerable variations upon this theme, for exam-
ple: Świerzy`s nonsensical monochrome Bear (1974), Hilscher`s vi-
brant and gaudy Zebra (1979), Młodożeniec`s mischievous depiction
of Clown with a Slingshot (1974) combined with a bright lettering col-
lage, and Tomaszewski`s use of his favourite shape - the circle - in his
minimalist and condensed poster Circus (1965).
This discussion has focused so far on the intrinsic qualities of the
Polish School of Poster, that is, the internal or centripetal route the ar-
tists followed. However, to conclude it is worth adopting the opposite

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 The Polish School of Poster

Il. 19. Waldemar Świerzy: Bear (1974) Il. 20. Hubert Hilscher: Zebra (1979)

Il. 20. Jan Młodożeniec: Clown with Il. 21. Henryk Tomaszewski: Cyrk
a Slingshot (1974) (1965)

exterior or centrifugal perspective to illustrate how the values espo-

used by the Polish School of Poster expanded and grew internationally.
As early as 1952 and 1953, two studios of poster art opened in the
Warsaw Academy of Fine Art directed respectively by prof. Henryk

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 Dorota Kopacz-Thomaidis

Tomaszewski and prof. Józef Mroszczak. The artists, associated with

the Polish School of Poster, won international awards and participated
in exhibitions and competitions in Poland and abroad. Some Polish art-
ists went abroad to teach in renowned foreign art schools and published
books and articles on the theory and practice of the poster. Both Len-
ica and Fangor taught at Harvard University, Lenica also in Berlin and
Kassel, and Świerzy at the University of Mexico.17 In 1966, the first Bi-
ennale of Poster was held in Warsaw and in 1968, the Museum of Post-
er was established in Wilanów to display a permanent collection as well
as organise exhibitions and reviews. This expansion was described by
Zdzisław Schubert (1978): “irrespective of its short life in the streets
as its primary function, (the poster) has succeeded in entering muse-
ums, to become an object of artistic confrontations; it has entered nu-
merous private collections and become an export item”.18 19 In addition,
evidence of mainstream interest in poster design is reflected in its in-
fluence on other media. An example of the phenomenon of poster de-
sign being incorporated into film footage and imagery in American film
productions can be seen in Meyers film What Women Want? (2010)
in which the Hilscher’s poster Circus (1965) and Tadeusz Trepkowski’s
poster LOT (1953) are featured. Another film Beginners (2011) by Mike
Mills featured a graphic designer`s home interior decorated with An-
drzej Krajewski’s poster Woman Times Seven (1968) and Maria Ihnato-
wicz’s posters La Horse (1971) and Wielka Majówka (1991).
Unlike the prevailing movements in Europe, in particular the Swiss
post-Bauhaus international typographic style, the Polish School of Po-
ster offered an artist-driven, painterly approach to the art of poster,
based on ambiguity and metaphor.20 Furthermore, contrary to its
intrinsic features, this utilitarian graphic design genre did not try
to exert pressure or influence the general public but instead ventured

17
The full list of schools can be found at https://culture.pl/pl/artykul/polska-szkola-plakatu.
18
For example: private collections of Krzysztof Dydo in Cracow or Martin Scorsese in the USA.
19
Z. Schubert, The Polish Poster, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza RSW, Warszawa, 1978, p. 14.
20
The International Typographic style was in favour of simplicity, legibility and objectivity
achieved by means of sans-serif typography, grids and asymmetrical lay-outs. The hall-
mark of the style is also photography used in place of illustrations as an evidence of infor-
mation clarity and trustworthiness. The whole design is meant to convey the ideas of ob-
jectivity and functionality.

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 The Polish School of Poster

to evaluate modern ideas, phenomena and artistic events. The poster

was originally conceived to exist in the public space but turned out
to fit the private space equally well. Thus it became a medium which
is not only glimpsed while passing by in the streets but is also gazed
upon and contemplated in private spaces.21 Wherever posters are di-
splayed they are undoubtedly created to engage and amuse and this
may be the most important legacy of the Polish School of Poster.

Bibliography:

Arendt H., The Human Condition, available at: http://sduk.us/afterwork/arendt_

the_human_condition.pdf, accessed 12.07.2019.
Arthur N., Polish Poster Art for Classic British Films, available at: https://www.
bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/polish-poster-art-classic-british-
-films, accessed 10.07.2019.
Folga-Januszewska D., Majewski L., Oto sztuka polskiego plakatu, BOSZ, Olszani-
ca, 2018.
Gorzadek E,. in culture.pl, available at: https://culture.pl/en/artist/waldemar-
-swierzy, accessed 9.07.2019.
Guity Novin, A History of Graphic Design, available at: http://guity-novin.blog-
spot.com/2011/06/chapter-37-polish-school-and-polish-art.html#One, acces-
sed 09.07.2019.
Heller S., Henryk Tomaszewski, Leader of the Polish Poster School, dies at 91,
The New York Times, Sept. 14, 2005, accessed 15.07.2019.
Majewski L., The Poster is there to Seduce, [in:] Vogue Polska, 2018, available at:
https://www.vogue.pl/an/prof-lech-majewski-the-poster-is-there-to-seduce,
accessed 10.07.2019.
Schubert Z. The Polish Poster. Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza RSW, Warszawa,
1978.
Skowrońska I., Franciszek Starowieyski – artysta, skandalista , kolekcjoner, ava-
ilable at: https://niezlasztuka.net/o-sztuce/franciszek-starowieyski-artysta-
skandalista-kolekcjoner/, accessed 13.07.2019.

Websites:
https://culture.pl/pl/artykul/polska-szkola-plakatu, accessed 13.07.2019.
https://www.poster.pl/polish_poster_artists.html, accessed 13.07.2019.

21
Such a duality of external and internal functioning of poster might conform to Hannah
Arendt`s distinction between vita activa and vita contemplativa. However, such an argument
is difficult to prove as Hannah Arendt`s philosophical thinking did not concern visual arts.

115