ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

The air we breathe, the water we drink and the place we live in may be polluted with unwanted
toxic substances. The tremendous increase in industrial activity during the last few decades and the
release of toxic industrial wastes into the environment, have been of considerable concern in the
recent years from the point of view of environmental pollution.

It is well known that the outcome of the human activity in the last 200 years on nature (after the
industrial revolution) is very damaging and disrupts natural phenomena and ecological balance.
Many incidents and issues like the death of thousands of people in Minamata in Japan after eating
fish from the local Bay (mercury poisoning), Itai-Itai’ disease (due to cadmium pollution), Bhopal
gas tragedy(due to poisonous gas, MIC), London smog in 1952, the emergence of new ocean
currents like El-Nino, Global warming, Depletion in Ozone umbrella, the nuclear accidents of
Three mile island, Chernobyl and recently in Fukushima, Japan have forced mankind to have a
second look on the impact of industries on nature. Thus, environmental pollution on one hand and
deforestation and population explosion on the other, are threatening the very existence of life on
earth. Hence to stimulate awareness of the environment and to enhance political attention and
public action United Nations General Assembly in 1972 established June 5th as World
Environment Day.

Pollutants and Contaminants

The term pollution was derived from the Latin word ‘pollotioneum’ which means to make dirty. A
substance present in the environment in greater proportion than its natural abundance and resulting
in harmful or detrimental effect is called a pollutant and this phenomenon is called pollution. For
example, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone and nitrogen oxide are present in air, but if
their percentage increases because of human activities, they are likely to cause pollution. In
addition to this, there are certain substances which are not present in the environment, but the
release of which as a result of chemical reactions can lead to pollution. They are called as
contaminant. Examples: oil spills in sea, methyl isocyanate (MIC) –the gas responsible for Bhopal
gas tragedy.

The major forms of environmental pollutions, their cause, effects and control measures are
discussed below:
 AIR POLLUTION

The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope held to earth by gravity. It extends from earth’s surface to
about 1000 km. The composition of the air varies from place to place. The composition is Nitrogen
78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon less than 1%, and others include carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone,
helium, methane etc in trace amount.

Composition of air

The main layers of atmosphere from the surface of earth upwards are troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere. As far as atmospheric pollution is concerned, only troposphere and
stratosphere are important. Troposphere extends to a height of about 10 km from the sea level. It
contains air, water vapour, clouds etc. The pollution in this region is caused by poisonous gases,
fumes and smog. Examples include photochemical smog, acid rain*, global warming and green
house effect*.

Stratosphere, which is the seat of ozone is above troposphere. It extends from the height of 10 to
50 km above the sea level. It is the ozone layer at stratosphere that acts as the protective
blanket of the earth from the injurious effects of the ultraviolet rays from the sun. Ozone layer
depletion* is the pollution that affects the stratosphere.

The World Health Organization defines air pollution as “the presence of materials in the air in
such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.”Or it is the occurrence or
addition of foreign particles, gases and other pollutants into the air which have an adverse effect
on human beings, animals, vegetation, buildings, etc.
 Pollutants are classified into primary and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants: they are emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source and retains the
same chemical form. Examples are carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter(SPM).
Secondary pollutants: they are formed by the inter mingling and reactions of primary pollutants.
Examples are photochemical smog, acid rain, PAN etc.

The sources of air pollution are classified into two groups: Natural and Man- made sources.
Natural process of air pollution includes dust storms, forest fires, ash from volcanoes, decay of
organic matter, pollen grains floating in air etc. Manmade sources include population explosion,
deforestation, urbanization and industrialization.

Causes of Air Pollution

Important causes of air pollution include:

Pollutants emitting from vehicles, carbon monoxide formed by improper or

incompletecombustion which are emitted from vehicles is a major pollutant.
Pollutants from industries, like sulphur dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen oxide,
chlorine,asbestos dust, hydrocarbons and chemicals deplete the quality of air.
Use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.
Particulate matter from mining activities.
Household cleaning products, carpets, paints emit toxic chemicals into the air and cause
indoorair pollution.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM) produced due to burning of coal.
Nuclear power plants pollute air by releasing radioactive radiation.
Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests increases the amount of carbon
dioxide inthe atmosphere.
Acid deposition due to acid rain may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life.
Use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers
pollute air bydepleting the ozone layer.
Smoking pollutes air by emitting carbon monoxide and nicotine.

Effects of Air Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

 It affects respiratory system causing breathing difficulties and diseases such as bronchitis,
asthma,lung cancer, tuberculosis and pneumonia.
  Inhaling carbon monoxide results in respiratory problems, muscular weakness, mental
impairment, and dizziness in human beings. At high concentration, it will harmfully affect
the plants causing leaf drop, reduction in leaf size, and premature aging.
 Carbon dioxide causes mild narcotic effects and affects respiratory systems. Increased
concentration in the atmosphere causes green house effect and global warming.

 Air pollution causes acid rain which damages crop plants, trees, buildings, monuments,
statues and metal structures. It also makes the soil acidic.

 Ozone layer depletion due to which ultraviolet radiations can reach the earth and cause
skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
 Excess nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere results in respiratory problems and bronchitis. It
also causes harmful effects on nylon, rayon and causes cracks in rubber.
 Excess sulphur oxides are extremely harmful to plants and animals. It causes eye irritation,
respiratory problems, lung cancer etc. In plants, it kills leaf tissues, reduces plant
productivity, and bleaches leaf pigments.

 Pesticides like DDT which are toxic, enter into our food chain and gets accumulated in the
body causing kidney disorders, problems of brain and circulatory system.

 Excess pollen and microbes in the atmosphere directly damage the vegetation, food articles
and cause diseases in plants, animals and human beings.

Control Measures of Air Pollution

The atmosphere has several built-in self-cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational
settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control
of contaminantsat their source level is a desirable and more effective method.

Use of public transportation facilities and using unleaded petrol or using fuels with low
sulphurand ash content.
Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.
Planting trees along busy streets remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise.

Renewable and non- polluting sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy etc.
should beused.

Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to emission control standards.

 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the downwind of the
city. It should also be fitted with equipment for removal and recycling of wastes.
Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by industries.

Tall chimneys should be installed in factories.

Better designed equipment and smokeless fuels should be used in houses and industries.

Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. So conserve energy by switching off fans
and lights when not in use.

Understand the concept Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

Use energy efficient devices like LEDs, CFL lights etc.

Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide. Example: Phaseolus vulgaris, Daucus carota

Growing plants capable of metabolizing nitrogen oxides and other gaseous pollutants. Example: Vitis,
Pimis, Pyrus etc.

CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYERDEPLETION

Climate Change
Climate change is a change in the global or regional climate patterns. It is caused by factors such as
biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by the earth, platonic and volcanic eruptions.
Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of climate change often referred to
as ‘Global Warming’.
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) Fourth Assessment, climate change will
create more stress on the sustainable development capabilities of countries like India. IPCC studies shows
that in near future, the global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4° to 3.8°C. Warming will be
greatest over land areas and at high latitudes. The projected rate of warming is greater that has occurred in
last 10,000 years.
Reasons for Climate Change:
 Global concentration of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere
 Unscientific land usage
 Pollution
 Deforestation
The predictions for the Indian subcontinent suggest that there would be an increase in precipitation in the
summer monsoons and decrease in rainfall during the winters. This could lead to increase in floods in the
summer monsoons and droughts in the winter season. India ranks second among the world’s countries with
the highest population in the Low Elevation Coastal
Zone (LECZ). Mumbai, Visakhapatnamand Kochi have shown a sea-level rise of slightly less than 1
mm/year, while Chennai showed a rate of decrease. A sea level rise of even 1 mm would pose stress for
the inhabitants of the coastal regions. A rise in temperature is likely to accelerate the hydrological

cycle, altering rainfall and magnitude. Climate change could have an impact on soil moisture,
groundwater and surface water availability, and occurrences of floods and droughts.
Effects:
1. Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 9 to 88cm by the year 2100.This will seriously affect
various Nations especially Nile delta in Egypt, Ganga -Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh, Maldives Island,
etc.
2. It leads to different types of health problems. It may affect the
distribution of vector species (eg: mosquitos) which in turn will increase the spread of diseases like Malaria
and Dengue. Contaminated water, damaged sewage system, etc. are also the reasons for the above illness.
3. Human societies will be severely affected by extreme climatic conditions such as droughts and floods.
The situation of non-availability of food, shelter and safe drinkingwater will lead to the disaster of
mankind.
4. It will seriously affect the agricultural production and also cause reduction of food leading to
starvation and malnutrition.
5.It leads to destruction of our biodiversity and ecosystem.
How to control and what are the strategies to be adopted?
1. People should be enlightened. Our misuse of natural resources is main reason for this. We need to protect
it by creating public awareness.
2. Monitoring infectious diseases to detect early changes in incidence of diseases and take proper
measures to prevent it.
3. Take environmental management and institutional measures to reduce risk and to face disaster
preparedness for floods, droughts and health related consequences.
4. Enact proper legislations specially to control pollution and protect environment.
Global Warming
Global warming means increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and the
oceans. Climate change results from the global warming and caused in turn the presence and accumulation
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH 4), are
released into the air by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas as well as biomass. The
emission of these greenhouse gases is a main reason for global warming. Global warming is also caused by
land use change, for example in the burning of forests that reduces forest cover and leads to deforestation.
The IPCC warned that by the end of the 21stcentury, it is possible that the earth’s temperature would rise
by 2.40 to 6.40C.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
held in Kyoto in 1997 agreed on a plan to reduce the emission of CO2 and there-by control
greenhouse gas emissions.
Acid Rain
Due to the burning of fossil fuel (coal, oil & natural gas) chemicals such as Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen
dioxide, etc. are formed in the atmosphere, and they mix with atmospheric air and other chemicals
resulting in sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates which are highly
soluble in water. During the rains, these oxides react with large quantities of water vapour of the
atmosphere and becomes acidic resulting in a condition called acid rains. Eventually, the rain hits earth
and the acid pollutants changes into dry particles and become acidic deposits.
Effects:
1. Dissolves and washes away nutrients in thesoil.
2. Dissolves naturally occurring toxic substances
and pollutes water.
3.Destroys our aquatic ecosystems by making
water acidic and this affects plant and animal life.
4. It affects wildlife, species and the entire
ecosystem.
5. Acid deposition damages buildings,
automobiles, and other structures made of stone
and metal and causes extensive damage and ruins
historic buildings.
6. Adversely affects human life by creating health
issues.

What are the solutions?

Acid rain is a potential threat that affects the existence of mankind. Acid rain can be controlled up to a
certain extent by avoiding or limiting the use of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide that leads to air
pollution and also by reducing the burning of fossil fuels. Using of public transportation instead of private
motor vehicles brings down the atmospheric pollution and also prevent acid rain. If industries use smoking
stacks, atmospheric pollution can be prevented by blocking smoke.
 Ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion is yet another challenge that needs to be addressed. It is one of the main
reasons for global warming. Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen and forms a
layer 20 to 50 km above the surface of the Earth. Ozone is highly poisonous gas with a strong
odour. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is vital to all life as it protects the earth from the sun’s
harmful ultravioletradiation (UVR). UVR are high energy electromagnetic
waves emitted by the Sun which on entering earth’s atmosphere can lead to various
environmental and health issues such as Asthma and Bronchitis. It is this ozone layer in the
atmosphere that prevents ultraviolet rays falling from the sun to the earth.
The studies conducted in 1970 by the scientists confirm that Chlorofluro Carbons (CFC) used as
the refrigerators and aerosol spray propellants, pose a threat to the ozone layer. It is proved in
Antarctic and Austria that ozone layer there becomes thinner.
Ozone depletion causes disease such as skin cancer, cataracts, etc. It also affects our agricultural
practices and food products. It leads to the increase percentage of certain dioxide in the
atmosphere. Reducing the quantity of CFC is the remedy for preventing ozone layer depletion.
The world has come forward for this and has enacted various laws. But apart from CFC, bromine
an industrial component, and halocarbons and nitrous from fertilisers and many such chemical
elements are also responsible for ozone depletion.

WATER POLLUTION

Water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. It is essential for
the survival of any form of life. Water pollution is a major global problem, both in developed and
developing countries, as more and more wastes are being disposed in oceans, rivers and lakes. This
increase in pollution is harming our food supplies, drinking water and environment. Water
pollution is defined as the “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life”.

Point and non-point sources:

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance,
such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage
treatment plant to rivers, lakes etc.
Non-point source pollution (NPS) refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
 contaminants gathered from a large area. Run-off and under-drainage from agricultural land into
rivers are typical examples.

Causes of Water Pollution

Important causes of water pollution include:

Sewage and waste water: Raw sewage contaminates water with pathogens.
Microorganisms causing degradation of sewage take up most of the oxygen present in
water. Untreated sewage water is a major problem in developing countries with
insufficient sanitation.
Industrial waste: Many industrial plants use fresh water to dispose their waste, polluting
rivers, lakes, and oceans. Toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides
are released into water bodies. They also cause thermal pollution of water.
Organic contaminants: They include detergents, disinfection byproducts like
chloroform, food processing wastes, insecticides, herbicides, petroleum products,
industrial solvents, cosmetic products etc.
Inorganic contaminants: They include industrial discharge, ammonia from food
processing waste, fertilizers containing nutrients like nitrates and phosphates,
heavy metals from motor vehicles, acid mine drainage, runoff from construction
sites. The major inorganic pollutants in water are arsenic, cadmium, lead,
chromium, cyanides, nitrates, phosphates etc.
Radioactive waste: Produced during industrial, medical, and scientific processes, and
through mining and refining of nuclear fuels like Uranium and Thorium. Nuclear
processing plants give off wastes that can pollute the marine environment.
Oil Pollution: Large oil spill events account for only 12% of total oil pollution. The
remaining is through routine shipping, land run-off, and intentional oil dumping.
Eutrophication: It occurs when ocean waters and other aquatic habitats are enriched with
excess nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrogenous compounds caused by agricultural
runoff. Excess nutrients cause algal blooms in the ocean, lakes and other freshwater
bodies.
Run-off from many different sources (non-point source pollution):Rainfall and snowmelt
can wash natural and man-made pollutants into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and coastal waters.
Agricultural Run-off: Agricultural pollutants include excessive nutrients, ammonia and
nitrates, pathogens, antibiotics and hormones, heavy metals and salts. Manure, animal
bedding, wasted feed, soil, dust, hair and feathers can be mixed together and can end up in
waterways.
Effects of Water Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

Organic pollutants like sewage, industrial waste, wastes from slaughtering units, paper
mills and tanneries, run off from agricultural activity etc causes the depletion of oxygen.
Low oxygen levels
cannot support most marine organisms and hence the natural ecological balance in rivers
and lakes is disturbed.
Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within the
wildlife in ecosystems. Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and persistent. They
will remain in the water bodies for a fairly long time and results in environmental hazards.
Pesticides, show biomagnification* by reaching the food chain. Organophosphorous
pesticides cause Eutrophication*resulting in algal bloom and lowering of DO, thereby
threatening aquatic life.

Excess fluoride in water causes defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis, while arsenic
can cause significant damage to the liver and nervous system.

Oil spills in the water cause animals to die when they ingest or encounter it.

Excess sediments in water cause cloudiness reducing photosynthetic ability, which

disrupts theaquatic food chain.

Drinking contaminated water causes health problems like cancer, reproductive problems,
typhoidfever, stomach sickness and skin rashes in humans.

Excess radioactive materials in water cause genetic mutations, birth defects and cancer.

Excess of nitrates in drinking water produces Blue baby syndrome, a disease that affects
the oxygen carrying capacity of infant's blood, usually resulting from the consumption of
high levels of nitrate.

Control Measures

Setting up effluent treatment plants to treat waste water.

Planting more trees will reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide.

Oxidation pond can be useful in removing low level radioactive wastes.

Sewage pollutants are to be subjected to chemical treatment to convert them into non-toxic
substances.
 Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these
laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and
technological advancements.

No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any
natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.

Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of

wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.

Thermal pollution can be reduced by employing techniques like cooling ponds, wet/dry
cooling towers etc.

Water hyacinth (plant) can purify polluted water. It can also filter out heavy metals like
cadmium,mercury, lead, nickel as well as other toxic substance from industrial waste.

The government has undertaken several projects to clean the rivers, the first of which was
the Ganga Action Plan.

Increase public education and awareness around the world concerning the causes and
impacts of water pollution.

Eutrophication*

Eutrophication is the enrichment of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically

compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorous and other nutrients from detergents,
fertilizers, sewage and agricultural runoff. Eutrophication can be a natural process in lakes,
occurring as they age through geological time. The process of eutrophication can be both
natural and human-induced.

Steps involved in Eutrophication include:

(i) Excess nutrients are applied to soil.

(ii) Some nutrients leach into the soil where they will remain for years or get
drainedinto the water bed.
(iii) The excess nutrients result in algal bloom.
(iv) Algal bloom blocks the sunlight from reaching the bottom of the water
body.
(v) Plants beneath the algal bloom die due to non-availability of sunlight.
(vi) Algal bloom dies and sinks to the bottom of lakes.
 (vii) Bacteria decomposes the dead remains, using up the oxygen for respiration.
(viii) Due to decomposition water gets depleted with oxygen, larger life forms
like fishsuffocate to death.
(ix) Water body cannot support any forms of life.

Human activities can accelerate the rate at which these nutrients enter the ecosystem.
Phosphorous is regarded as the main culprit of eutrophication. With the phasing out of
phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s, industrial/domestic run-off and agriculture
have emerged as the dominant contributors to eutrophication.

Biomagnification or bioaccumulation*

It is the process by which a pollutant or pesticide moves up the food chain, works their
way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are
eaten by large birds, animals or humans. The substances/toxins become concentrated in
tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Each successive step up in the food
chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals like mercury or
persistent organic pollutants like DDT. Bioaccumulants are usually accumulated and
collected in certain part of living organisms so that their concentration increases because
the substances are slowly metabolized or excreted.

Substances that biomagnify include DDT, hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyles,

monomethyl mercury and heavy metals. For example, DDT is stored up in the fatty tissues
of breast so that the breast milk is contaminated by DDT. The shell fish collects and stores
heavy metals like cadmium.

Process of Biomagnification includes:

(i) Release of toxic chemicals and pollutants into environment.

(ii) Absorption of toxins by phytoplankton (small plants that float on sea) – once
absorbed, the toxin stays in their tissues without being excreted or broken
down.
(iii) Consumption of phytoplankton by zoo plankton (small marine animals that
float in sea) – hence they take up the toxin, which stay locked in the organism
tissue without being excreted or broken down.
(iv) Small fish consume the zooplankton.
 (v) Large fish consume the smaller fish.
(vi) The top food chain organism consumes the fish – these toxins get accumulated
in the liver of sea birds, dolphins, humans etc.

Effects of Biomagnification
(i) Impact on human health.
(ii) Reproduction and development of marine creatures. (iii)Destruction of the coral
reefs.

(iv)Disruption of the food chain.

Water Quality parameters

The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. The parameters that are
important to drinking water are alkalinity, colour, pH, taste, odour, dissolved metals,
microorganisms like fecal coliform, dissolved metals, dissolved organic compounds, heavy metals,
pharmaceuticals etc. The water quality parameters important in environmental concerns are
salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), nitrate, orthophosphates,
COD (Chemical oxygen demand), pesticides, pH, temperature, total suspended solids (TDS) and
turbidity.

(i) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in an aqueous solution. DO enter
water through the air or as a plant by-product. From air, oxygen can slowly diffuse across the
water surface from the surrounding atmosphere.

Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic life. It is an important parameter in assessing the water
quality because it influences both plant and animal population in water. It is expressed in parts per
million (ppm) or mg/L. The optimum value of DO in water is 4-6 ppm. Low value of DO indicates
water pollution. Pollutants like sewage, industrial waste, wastes from slaughtering units, paper
mills and tanneries, run off from agricultural activity etc reduces DO. All these materials undergo
bacterial activity in the presence of DO, converting the carbon in the waste to carbon dioxide, thus
deoxygenating the water. Aquatic life is made impossible in water with low DO. Dissolved oxygen
should be analyzed immediately after collecting the sample. Hence, this is a field test that should
be performed on site.

Consequence of unusual DO level include fish mortality, fish kill, gas bubble disease (bubbles
block the flow of blood through blood vessels causing death), creation of dead zone (it is an area of
water with little or no dissolved oxygen), water column stratification (which is the separation of
water body into layers) etc.

(i) Biological Oxygen demand [BOD] and Chemical Oxygen Demand [COD]

N Biological Oxygen demand Chemical Oxygen Demand [COD]

o [BOD]
1 It is an important parameter It is an important parameter used in
used in estimating the degree of organic
estimating the degree of organic pollution in wastewater
pollutionin wastewater
2 BOD is milligram of oxygen used COD is an index of inorganic and
by microorganism to decompose organic content of water. It is the
the organic material in one liter of
amount of oxygen required to
waste water degenerate all pollution in a chemical
way (by adding oxidizing agents and
heating).
3 It measures the dissolved oxygen It measures all organic compounds
consumed by organisms to oxidize that can bechemically oxidized.
organiccompounds
4 BOD will be lower than COD COD will be higher than BOD

5 BOD is only a measurement of COD refers the requirement of

consumed oxygen by aquatic dissolved oxygen for both the
microorgan oxidation of organic and
isms to inorganic constituents
decompose or oxidize organic
6 BOD measurements take five COD measurements can be made in
days to a few
complete Hours
7 Less reproducible results COD is more scientific, more
reproducible
and accurate
8 Increased BOD can be due to Increased COD can be due to
domestic industrial waste
sewage, petroleum residues and
organicwastes etc
9 The determination of BOD Determination of COD is precise,
is time saves time and is completely chemical
consuming and depends on in nature
biochemicalfactors
5.1.2. Quality of Drinking Water

The following parameters must be followed before water is supplied for drinking
 It must be colourless and free from any odour or smell.
It must be free from suspended particles and turbidity.
It must be free from microorganisms.
Its pH must be between 6 to 9.
It may have harmless dissolved salt to impart good taste.
It must be free from harmful chemicals.
SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a very important constituent of the lithosphere. It is a complex physio-biological system

containing water, mineral salts, nutrients and dissolved oxygen. It is a resource for which there is
no substitute. Fertilizers are not a substitute for a fertile soil. Several factors contribute for the
formation of soil like weathering of rocks due to temperature changes, abrasion, wind, moving
water, glaciers, etc. Climate and time are also important in the development of soil. Soil is a natural
body consisting of layers of various thicknesses called soil horizon. Depending upon the type of
soil there are different horizons like O, A, B and C.

The top layer or surface layer is called O horizon. It consists mostly of dead leaves, twigs, animal
waste, fungi and other organic wastes. Normally it is brown or black in colour. Below the O layer
is A horizon, also called surface soil. This layer has maximum fertility because it contains
microbes and microorganisms. Below A horizon is B, also called subsoil which contains less
organic materials and fewer organisms than surface soil. The parent rock is called C horizon which
is below B. It contains inorganic materials and large unbroken rocks.

Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil,
in high enough concentrations to pose risk to human health and ecosystem. Soil pollution is the
adverse alternation in the properties of the soil due to dumping of solid
and semi-solid waste from agriculture, industry and urban areas. It also results because of washing
down of pollutants by rain and faulty sanitation in the soil. However, soil pollution is different
from air and water pollution in following respects

o Soil pollutants do not get dispersed unlike air andwater pollutants.

o The pollution is localized unlike air and waterpollution.
o The pollutants remain at a particular place forrelatively longer period.

Causes of Soil Pollution

Important causes of soil pollution include:

Agrochemicals: Agricultural activities involving the diffusion of herbicides,

 pesticides,insecticides and fertilizers.

Industrial wastes: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the soil
pollution in the last century due to increased mining and manufacturing units. It
also includes the release of harmful gases and chemicals.

Petroleum wastes: Contamination of soil by petroleum products is a current problem in

several countries in the world. Oil leakage during transportation and storage of petroleum
liquids in underground tanks are the main cause.

Electronic wastes or E-waste: it is a complex, non-biodegradable waste which is generally

dumped in soil. They have large quantities of lead, cadmium, arsenic etc. Electronic waste
include cell phones, computers, gadgets, printers, radio, camera, video games, scanners,
DVDs, Land phones etc.

Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices.

Indiscriminate dumping of untreated domestic waste on land .

Improper septic system, leakages from sanitary sewage, underground tanks and
underground pipelines.

Accidental oil spills which can happen during storage and transport of chemicals.

Construction and mining activities.

The storage of waste in landfills, as the waste products may leak into groundwater or
generate polluted vapors.

Radioactive waste from laboratories, nuclear reactors and nuclear explosions.

Soil erosion results in the loss of topsoil and makes the soil less fertile and reduces it water
holding capacity.

Effects of Soil Pollution

Some of the serious problems caused by soil pollution are:

Reduction in soil fertility.

Soil pollution has major consequences on human health. Consumption of crops and plants
grownon polluted soil cause health hazards. This could explain small and terminal illness.

Imbalance in the flora and fauna of the soil.

Excess use of chemical fertilizers may result in reducing the ability of plants to fix
nitrogen.
 Increase in salinity of the soil makes it unfit for cultivation.
Pollutants in soil cause alteration in soil structure, causing death of many soil organisms
whichcan affect the food chain.
Decline in the microorganisms found in the soil creating additional problems of soil
erosion.

Emissions of toxic gases and foul odour from the landfills pollute the environment and
causesserious health effects.

Contamination of underground and surface drinking water.

Control Measures

Reducing the use of chemicals and fertilizer and encouraging the use of biopesticides in
the place of toxic chemical pesticides.

Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be
recycled and reused.

Prevention of erosion and silting.

Create dumping ground away from residential area.

Launching extensive afforestation and community forestry programmes

Proper treatment of liquid wastes from industries and mines.

People should be trained regarding proper sanitary practices.

Effective treatment of domestic sewage by suitable biological, chemical and adopting

modernmethod of sludge disposal.

Public awareness programmes should be implemented to educate people on health hazards

due tosoil pollution.

Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides which are fatal to plants and animals.

Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

Bioremediation: It uses microorganisms (yeast, fungi or bacteria) to breakdown, or

degrades hazardous substances into less toxic or nontoxic substances (such as CO2 and
H2O).

Waste water from industries should not be used for irrigation without eliminating toxic
chemicals from the effluent. This will also reduce the concentration of unwanted substances
 in the soil.

Enforcing environmental audit for industries and promoting ecolabelled products.

Municipal waste should be properly collected, segregated, treated and disposed

scientifically inland fills.

MARINE POLLUTION

Seas are the unlimited source of water and main source of food and sustenance for persons living
in coastal areas. When the marine water is polluted, it affects the animals and other food chain
components. Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substance to marine
environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human
health, obstruction to marine activities, and lowering the quality of sea water.

Causes of Marine Pollution

While the cause of marine pollution may be similar to that of water pollution, there are some very
specificcauses that pollutes marine water.

 Toxic chemicals like chemical run-off from industries, industrial wastes, household cleaners,
nuclearpower stations etc.
 Rivers carry waste in the drainage and joins sea/ocean. The drainage includes sewage
effluents,sludge, industrial effluents, agrochemicals, plastics, metal scraps etc.
 Petroleum and oil washed off from roads normally enter sewage system and finally into the
seas.
 Oil spillage is usually an accidental form of releasing oils by ships, which can devastate marine
life.
 Testing of atomic weapons, space aircrafts, missiles and other radioactive wastes when
dumped inseas, cause heavy loss to aquatic life.
 Oil drilling in seas, tourism activities and heat released from industries.
 Plastic bags, aluminium cans, trash and other human waste constitute major marine pollutant.
 Greenhouse gases from human fossil fuel consumption are making sea more acidic.

Effects of Marine Pollution

Important effects of marine pollution include:

 Oil is the most dangerous pollutant when afloat on sea or mixed with water, a great threat to
marine life specially fish, birds, invertebrates and algae. Oil also affects sensitive flora, fauna,
phytoplankton,zoo plankton, and other animals.
  Oil slicks damage salt marshes and mangrove ecosystem and liquid oil contaminates birds’
plumageand its water repellant properties diminishes.
 Presence of sewage and other bio-matter in sea will result in oxygen depletion, which destroys
marinelife.
 Toxic chemicals make the sea/ocean more acidic which harms marine animals, plants and
corals.
 Plastic materials are dumped into seas by commercial ships or from drainage. Animals take it
throughtheir food in stomach which may cause ulcer or reduced hunger.
 Heavy metals like mercury, lead, factory materials, mineral oils, are also hazard to marine
life whenmixed with sea water.
 Presence of detergents is responsible for the high mortality of marine animals.
 Marine pollution affects the food chain in seas. Serious diseases like cancer are caused when
affectedanimals are consumed by man from ocean.

Control Measures

 Recycling the plastics and proper disposal is our key responsibility to reduce marine pollution.
 Authorities should take effective measures to check oil leakage from ships and tankers.
 Urban and coastline corporations should check the dumping of wastes from human
activities andmunicipalities.
 Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of the final product before
discharging intosea.
 Port authorities should take anti-pollutant measures to reduce pollution.
 Cleaning oil from surface water and beaches can be done by spraying chemical dispersants,
suctiondevice or by spreading high density powder over oil spill.
 Developmental activities in coastal areas should be minimized.
 Nuclear explosion and nuclear activities in sea should be minimized.
 Drilling should not be allowed in coastal areas.

NOISE POLLUTION

Sound that is unwanted, unpleasant or that disrupts the activity of living beings is called noise.
When there is lots of noise in the environment, it is called noise pollution. The word noise comes
from the Latin word nauseas, meaning seasickness. The unwanted, unpleasant sound which
causes irritation to ears and pollution caused by heavy noise is called noise pollution.
 The unit of sound intensity is Decibel (dB), which is the standard for the measurement of noise.
It is not an absolute physical unit, but it is a ratio expressed as logarithmic scale relative to a
reference sound pressure level. People are generally exposed to noise levels ranging from 65 to 80
dB which is the tolerable noise level forthe human ear. Exposure to noise level greater than 80 dB
leads to stress and is referred as noise pollution. The sensitivity of the ear is lost if the sound
intensity exceeds 150 dB level.

Cause of Noise Pollution

There are several sources of noise that contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise pollution.

Industries/ Factories
Poor urban planning
Construction activities
Household chores
Transportation/ vehicles
Playing of loud speakers during festivals/ social events
Fire crackers
Microphones
Television
Loud music
Home appliances
Barking dogs
Service sirens

Effects of Noise Pollution

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is the physical damage to our ears causing
temporary or permanent hearing loss. People suffering from this condition will be unable to detect
weak sounds. 125 dB give the sensation of pain in the ear and 150 dB might kill a human being.
The various effects of noise pollution in human beings can be classified as auditory and non-
auditory effects.

1. Auditory effects:

The impairment of hearing which may cause immediate auditory fatigue finally leading to deafness
is known as auditory effects.

2. Non-auditory effects:

These effects include interference with speech communication, ill-temper, mental disorientation,
 violent behaviour and a series of health hazards.
In addition to hearing loss, the effect of noise on human being can be physiological or
psychological in nature.

The physiological disorders include progressive hearing loss, nausea, dizziness, hypertension,
reduced heart beat, variations in blood pressure and breathing problems. The continuous noise can
generate resonance in the skull and affect the brain and nervous system. It can have an impact on
thinking and coordination of limbs and induce pain and numbness. Moderate noise/ vibration can
lead to pain, numbness and cyanosis (blue coloration in fingers). Severe vibrations results in
damage to bone, joints with swelling and stiffness. Exposure to low frequency noise can reduce
heart beat, variation in blood pressure and breathing difficulties.

It is difficult to assess psychological noise effects on human beings. The psychological effects
include sleep disturbances, physical and mental fatigue, lower efficiency, reduced work rate,
increased absenteeism, forgetfulness, higher potential for accidents and injuries. Children exposed
to excess noise show signs of behavioral disorder in later age. Recent reports suggest that blood is
thickened by excessivenoise.

The effect on living beings can be summarized as:

 Health issues – Effect psychological health, aggressive behaviour, stress, fatigue, hypertension,
work efficiency and behaviour etc.

 Pediatric problems – hearing problems associated with children.

 Gynecological problems – pregnant women are vulnerable to high noise levels.

 Heart problems – hypertension and cardiovascular problems.

 Hearing problems – auditory fatigue caused by noise levels above 80 dB.

 Sleep disorders – exposure to noise reduces duration of sleep, diminish quality of sleep,
Psychic disorders.

 Wild life issues - noise bring about changes in the behavioral aptitude of birds and animals.
They become inefficient in hunting and hence disturb the balance of ecosystem. For example,
noise pollution discourages the annual visit of migratory birds to Alipore Zoo at Kolkata.

Control Measures

Noise produced from different sources has created a catastrophe. Hence necessary steps should be
taken to minimize the level of noise and protect the living world from detrimental effects.

Create public awareness.

 Antipollution laws should be enacted and enforced.

Planting coniferous trees (they have pointed leaves which reflect minimum sound).
Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles.
Reduction of traffic density in residential areas and giving preference to public transport
system.

Preference to petrol engines over diesel engines.

The use of microphones should be controlled and regulated.

Ban on fire crackers.

Proper lubrication and sound proofing of machineries.

Minimum use of loudspeakers.
Creation of green vegetation covers in highway, streets and industrial areas.
Usage of ear plugs and mufflers.
Buildings can be designed with noise absorbing materials on walls, windows and ceilings.

THERMAL POLLUTION

It is defined as the sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural body of water like
oceans, lakes, rivers or ponds by human influence. It can also be defined as the degradation of
water quality by any process that changes ambient temperature of water. Many industries
generate their own power and use water to cool their generators. This hot water is released into the
system from where it was drawn, causing a warming trend of surface water. It creates a disturbance
in the oxygen level of water bodies. This will disturb the marine life and local ecosystems.

Causes of Thermal Pollution

Important causes of thermal pollution include:

1. Nuclear power plants: They emit a large amount of unutilized heat and traces of toxic
radio nucleotides into nearby water streams. Emission from nuclear reactors and
processing instrumentsare also responsible for increasing the temperature of water bodies.

2. Industries: Industries generating electricity require large amount of cooling water for heat
removal. Industries like textile, paper-pulp and sugar industry also release heat in water,
but to a lesser extent.
 3. Coal- fired power plants: Some thermal power plants use coal as fuel. Coal- fired power
plants constitute one of the major sources. Their condenser coils are cooled with water
from nearby lakes or rivers and discharges hot water.
4. Hydroelectric power plant: The generation of hydroelectric power may result in the
release of warm water into water bodies.
5. Domestic sewage: It is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams without waste
treatment. The municipal water sewage normally has a higher temperature than receiving
water.

6. Deforestation and soil erosion: Removal of trees along the shore line increases solar
incidence

7. Natural and Geothermal activities: Natural geothermal activities like volcano can
stimulate lavaand can cause a rise in water temperature, leadingto thermal pollution

8. Chemical pollutants discharged into water: There are factories that discharge their
chemicalwaste directly into natural water bodies.

Effects of Thermal Pollution

Important effects of thermal pollution include:

The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases with increase in temperature.

The increase in temperature increases toxicity of poison (pesticides, detergents, chemicals)
present in water.
A rise in temperature changes the physical and chemical properties of water.
The physiology, metabolism and biochemical process of aquatic organisms are affected
withincrease in temperature.

It influences the reproductive cycle, digestion rate, respiration rate and many enzymatic
activitiesof living organisms.

Economic and environmental damage.

Thermal pollution may permit the invasion of organisms that are tolerant in warm waters
and arehighly destructive in nature.

The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all.

Thermal pollution results in low dissolved oxygen levels thereby perishing aquatic
organisms.

Control of Thermal Pollution

Heat must be removed from the condenser cooling water prior to their disposal into water bodies
Cooling ponds: This is the simplest and cheapest method which cools water to a
considerably low temperature. Heated effluents on the surface of water in cooling ponds
maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume.
Spray ponds: In spray ponds, the water is sprayed in the cooling ponds with the help of
spray nozzles to convert it into fine droplets which provide more surface area to facilitate
efficient heat transfer to atmosphere.

Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-through cooling.
The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for cooling
purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through
evaporation.

Plantation of trees upon the banks of rivers, seas and other water bodies: Trees not only
help in controlling thermal pollution but also aid in a better environment
Recycling used water:New ideas to be developed on recycling the used water in factories.
Every plant or industry should make it a rule that water used as coolant will not be spilled
back into water bodies.
Co-generation: Co-generation is also a wonderful idea to combat thermal pollution. In the
process of co-generation, the useless heat from hot water can be recycled and used smartly
in many tasks by industries.

NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Nuclear pollution is the pollution that contains radioactive materials. It can spread in air,
land or water. It is created by the mishandling and inappropriate storage of nuclear fuels,
contaminated tools, insecure transportation of highly radioactive materials, nuclear explosions etc.
It is the only type of pollution which “we can’t see, we can’t smell and we can’t touch”. The effect
of which may not show up in this decade, this generation or in this century. However, the nuclear
impacts on us are far beyond our imagination.

Nuclear energy is both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is used. We use
the science of radioactivity in the treatment of cancer, diagnosis of diseases, electricity generation,
industrial, commercial, food processing and agriculture applications. Approximately 17 % of
electricity generated in the world comes from nuclear power plants. However, on the other hand, it
is impossible to forget the hazards caused by the nuclear explosion at Hiroshima and Nagasaki
(1945), Three Mile Island accident (1979), Chernobyl disaster (1986), Tokaimura nuclear
 accident(1999), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster(2010).
The two main sources of nuclear pollution are natural and manmade. Natural sources include
cosmic rays from outer space, emission from radioactive materials from earth’s crust. Manmade
sources include nuclear waste produced during mining and processing from nuclear power plants,
nuclear weapon, use of radioisotopes in medical, industrial and research applications.

Causes of Nuclear Pollution

Important causes of nuclear pollution include:

Nuclear waste comes from nuclear power stations. They release tritium (an isotope of
hydrogen) into air and water. Tritium has a half-life of 12.3 years and emits beta particles.
Inhalation of tritium can cause mutation.
Cosmic rays from outer space.
Mining and refining of radioactive materials like uranium and thorium.
Nuclear fuel cycle (used in many industrial, medical and scientific processes).
The advent of nuclear medicines to cure and for precise diagnosis, with the help of radio
isotopes.
Use of various radioactive derivatives to produce nuclear weapons for mass destructions
Use of radio isotopes in industrial activities and various detectors.
Nuclear accidents or any leaks.
Disposal of nuclear wastes.
Nuclear tests carried out by defense sectors.
Radioisotopes coming from scientific research institutions contains various radioactive
materialswhich causes water pollution.
Television set, radiographic equipment’s.

Fallout: The radioactive pollution that will spread through the earth’s atmosphere is called fallout.
The best example of fallout is the nuclear bomb attack at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan in 1945
by US during World War II. As a result of these nuclear bomb explosion, more than two lakh
people died owing to radiation effect and cancer.

Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Important effects of nuclear pollution include:

The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate
of diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and
climatic conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects.
 As long as the radiations continue, nuclear wastes are dangerous for living being. The
effects may be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generation)
damage.
No physical, chemical or biological process can influence the process of radioactive
emissions.The unstable nuclei have to decay and acquire a stable state.

Exposure of human beings to low doses of radiations, may begin to suffer from fatigue,
nausea,vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.

Exposure of human beings to medium doses of radiation may result in bone marrow
disorder, reduction in blood cells,reduction in natural resistance against germs and failure of
blood to clot.

Higher radiation doses will kill the organisms by damaging tissues, brain etc.

Radiations may cause skin burns which may lead to skin cancer.

Radiation at pelvic regions of pregnant ladies, cause damage to the fetus. Infants between
eight and fifteen weeks of pregnancy who were exposed to the atomic attack at Hiroshima
and Nagasaki during World War II were reported to have a greater incidence of brain
damage with side effects including lower Intelligent Quotient (IQ) and severe mental
retardation in some cases.

The radiation weakens the immune system of the body.

Delayed effects of radiation include cataracts, leukaemia, malignant tumours,

cardiovascular disorders, premature ageing and reduced life span.
In spite of all these hazards, nuclear reactors and tests are still continuing and increasingly
large amounts of radioactive wastes are accumulated every day while no solution to the
problem of their safe disposal is in sight till date.

Control Measures

Control of natural radioactive pollution may not be possible. On one hand, the peaceful uses of
radioactive materials are so wide and effective that modern civilization cannot go without them; on
the other hand, there is no cure for radiation damage. The only option against nuclear hazards is to
check and prevent radioactive pollution. For this:

Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective. Low level wastes should be
subjected to treatment for the removal of radioactivity and then discharged to water bodies
or landfills.
 Medium level wastes (e.g., filters, reactor components, etc.,) are solidified and mixed with
concrete in steel drums before being buried in deep mines or below the sea bed in concrete
chambers.
High level wastes should be concentrated, contained (ceramics) and stored out of the reach
of human environment or buried deep into earth or stored in deep salt mines.
Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels,
fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped.
There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in
the risk areas.
Prevention of erosion of radioactive waste disposal sites.
Prevention of any drilling activity in and around the waste disposal site.
Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should only be applied when absolutely
necessary.
Nuclear tests should be banned.
Nuclear reactor should be perfectly maintained to avoid accidental leakage.
High chimney and ventilations should be used at working places where radioactive
contaminationis high.
Protective garments must be worn by the workers who work in the nuclear power plants.
The nuclear power plants must follow all the safety instructions.
Production of radio isotopes should be minimized.
In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be employed along with underground drainage.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Industrialization across the world has brought a lot of good as well as bad things as well. One of
the negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation.

According to Britannica, “Solid-waste management is the collecting, treating and disposing of

solid material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper
disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn
can lead to pollution of the environment and to the outbreaks of vector-borne disease”
Human and animal activities generate different kinds of wastes. These wastes are generally in solid
form, and may cause pollution of land, water and air unless treated and disposed off. The process
of collection, transportation, treatment and disposal can be grouped under solid waste management.
The increase in the quantity of solid waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological
advancement.

5.1.3. Causes of formation of solid waste

Sou Waste generators Types of solid waste

rces
Food wastes, cloth, waste paper,
cardboard, plastics, textiles,
Urban / leather, yard wastes, wood, glass,
Residenti Single and multifamily metals, ashes, special wastes like
dwellings
al wastes consumer electronics, batteries,
used oil, tires and household
hazardous wastes.

Light and heavy manufacturing, Packaging, food wastes,

Industrial fabrication, power and chemical hazardous chemical wastes,
factories. ashes, medical wastes and special
wastes.

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,

Commerc Stores, hotels, restaurants,
food wastes, glass, metals,
ial / markets, office buildings,
medical wastes,hazardous wastes.
institution schools, hospitals etc.
al

Constructi New construction sites, road Wood, steel, demolition

on and repair, renovation sites, materials, concrete, dirt, metals
demolitio demolition of buildings etc.
n

Street cleaning, landscaping, Street sweepings, tree trimmings,

Municipal parks, beaches, other general wastes from parks,
services
recreational areas and beaches, plastics and other
wastewater treatment plants. recreational areas.
 Process Heavy and light manufacturing
Industrial process wastes, scrap
(manufact units, refineries, chemical
materials.
uring,etc.) plants, power plants, mineral
extraction and processing.

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

Agricultu Crops, dairies, feedlots, farms. wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g.,
re
pesticides).

Effects of Waste Pollution

Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate
surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition and may create unsanitary
conditions. This may lead to the outbreak of epidemic, producing foul smell and becoming
a breeding ground for disease vectors.
Burning of industrial and domestic wastes (plastics, batteries) produce furans and dioxins
which are harmful to human beings.
Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
Solid waste from industries like toxic metals, hazardous wastes and chemicals, when
released to the environment can cause biological and physicochemical problems to the
environment and may affect the productivity of the soil in that particular area.
Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes results in the accumulation of
toxic substances in the food chain through the plants and animals that feed on it.
Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health hazards for the neighborhood.
Improperly operated incineration plants cause air pollution.
Improperly managed and designed landfills attract all types of insects and rodents that
spread disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a safe distance
from all human settlements.
Recycling wastes also carries health risks if proper precautionsare not taken.
Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, especially during
landfill operations.
Intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on thewaste.
Skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste and from infected
wounds.
Incineration operators are at risk of chronic respiratory diseases including cancer and
skin diseases.

Control Measures
i) Sanitary Landfill: This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Disposing
of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, in abandoned or unused places. In this method
garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay, sand or plastic liner. The
liners protect the
ground water from being contaminated. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of sand,
clay, top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

Advantages: Simple, economical, cheap equipment, no residue or by-products, skill labour not
required, segregation of waste not required, natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.

Disadvantages: Large area is required, continuous evolution of foul smell from the site, use of
insecticide is required, may cause ground water pollution, cause fire hazard due to formation of
methane gas in wet weather.

ii) Incineration: It is the hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is a thermal process (controlled
combustion) in which the waste material is converted to heat, gas, steam and ash, which can be
used for electrical generation and domestic heating. It is suitable for hazardous, organic and
medical wastes. Combustible substance should be separated and removed before incineration
process. Wet municipal waste should be preheated before incineration process. It reduces the
volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of the original volume.

Advantages: Safest and hygienic method, requires very little space, residue is only 20-30% of the
original amount and can be used as cement clinker after treatment, an incinerator plant of 3000
tones per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

Disadvantages: Its capital and operating cost is high, operation needs skilled personnel, formation
of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air pollution, ordinary
incinerators cannot be used for radioactive wastes.

iii) Composting: It is a popular method by which bulk organic matter is converted into fertilizer
by biological action. Microorganisms like fungi, bacteria convert degradable organic waste into
broken, odourless mass called humus, which is a good fertilizer. Separated compostable waste is
dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with soil of 20 cm and left
for decomposition. Sometimes, actinomycetes are introduced for active decomposition. Biological
action will start within two to three days. Good quality environmental friendly manure is formed
from the compost and can be used for agricultural purpose.

Advantages: Environmentally effective than landfill and incineration, manure can be sold thereby
reducing cost of disposing wastes, recycling can be done, this method can be used to treat several
industrial solid wastes, controls growth of weeds in garden, make soil easier to cultivate.

Disadvantages: Non-consumables have to be disposed separately; the technology has not caught-
up with the farmers and hence does not have an assured market.
iv) Vermi Composting:It has become very popular in the last few years. In vermi composting,
earthworms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the
worms makes the compost rich in nutrients. It is very useful biofertilizer and soil conditioner.
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

Pollution is a man-made disease that can be cured only by man and remedies adopted by them.
Incomplete and inefficient technology coupled with increased population is the main cause of man-
made pollution. In fact, the role of individuals in prevention of pollution is of critical importance
because it is the individual that makes a community or country.

Environment awareness programme should be organized and individuals should be encouraged to

modify the life style and living habit, if that are not healthy for environment. Over population and
pollution are potent ecological forces impinging upon man by affecting the quality of the
environment.

The main causes of pollution in developing countries

i. Increasing population
ii. Illiteracy and poverty
iii. Rapid industrialization
iv. Failure in pollution management

Ways in which an individual/NGO can help in prevention of pollution

 Development of nonpolluting sources of energy.

 Effective use of water resources.
 Usage of cloth bags instead of plastics.
 Usage of rechargeable batteries.
 Avoid burning plastics.
 Switch off electrical appliance when not in use.
 Make use of public transport system.
 Periodic pollution check should be done for vehicles by approved authorities.
 Reuse items whenever possible.
 Use renewable source like solar heaters, solar cookers etc.
 Cells, batteries, pesticide containers should be disposed properly.
  Quit smoking.
 Reduce the use of air conditioners, refrigerators etc.
 Reduce deforestation.
 Use handkerchief instead of paper tissues.
 Purchase recyclable, recycled and environmentally safe products.
 Organize environmental awareness programme.
 Implement environment protection law.
 Use unleaded gasoline in your cars.
 Never use open fires to dispose of wastes.
 Do not litter in public places.
 Organic waste should be dumped in places far from residential areas.
 Use of chemical pesticides, weedicides, insecticides etc. should be minimized. Promote the
use ofbio-pesticides, bio-fertilizers etc.
 Non -biodegradable waste should be collected and disposed for recycling processes.
 Start individual or community vermin-composting plant in your neighborhood and
motivatepeople to join.
 Advocate organic farming.
 Develop respect for all forms of life.

CASE STUDIES

Case study: Love Canal incident [New York]

It was the most widely quoted example for ground water pollution. In 1978, residents of love canal
neighborhood in New York city noticed high rates of cancer and alarming number of birth defects.
This was found to be due to the organic solvents and dioxins from an industrial land fill. These
contaminants have infiltrated into water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate
air. During 1930- 53, New York city municipal waste and industrial waste was dumped in love
canal dumping site. Later this site was filled up with soil and sold to build an elementary school
and residential area. Survey of air sample around the area showed the presence of 26 different
organic compounds including chloroform, benzene, toluene, perchloroethylene etc. Eight hundred
families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media
coverage.
Case study: Minamata Tragedy [Japan]

A case of human mercury poisoning which occurred in May 1956 in the Minamata in Japan, which is a
typical example of the pollution related health damage. A large plastic plant located near the
Minamata Bay used a mercury containing compound in a reaction to produce polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), a common plastic material. The left-over mercury was dumped into the Bay along with other
waste from the plant. Though mercury was in its inorganic state when dumped, the microorganism at
the bottom of the bay converted the mercury into its organic form. This organic mercury entered into
the tissues of fish which were in turn consumed by the people living in the
area. The contaminated fish thus caused an outbreak of poisoning, killing and affecting several people.
Mothers who had eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to infants who showed the signs of mercury
poisoning. Mercury poisoning is thus called ‘Minamata Diseases’.

Case study: Exxon Valdez oil spill- worst oil spill disaster [Alaska, US]

On March 24, 1989 Exxon Valdez, a tanker in an attempt to avoid iceberg, ran aground and released
11 million gallons of crude oil into a wide channel in Prince William Sound near Valdez in Alaska. It
was the worst environmental disaster in Alaska history, and occurred in a very sensitive coastal
ecosystem. It contaminated 1300
miles of shoreline and stretching over 470 miles from the crash site. The site was in a remote location
and lack of oil skimming equipment and ineffective chemical dispersants made a speedy response very
difficult. The cleaning operation involved 11,000 people and 1000 boats. The fast spreading oil proved
deadly for wild life in the region. Countless fishes, along with more than 2,50,000 sea birds and
thousands of otters and seals perished. Exxon spent more than $2 billion for cleaning up the spill, but
some oil still remains. In a civil case Exxon was hit with a $ 5 billion civil judgment for its role in the
accident.

Case study : Kuttanadu Wetland [ Kerala, India]

It is a low-lying area near the coast and is known as the rice bowl of Kerala. Kuttanadu is a wetland
ecosystem located in the southern coastal part of Kerala State, and spread across the districts of
Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta; that is in an extreme state of ecological decay and
environmental degradation. Wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems and play a significant
role in the ecological sustainability of a region.

Kuttanadu is a complex system of brackish lagoons, marshes, mangroves, reclaimed land and a
network of canals. Vembanadu Lake is identified as an important bird area, which supports the third
largest wintering waterfowl of the country. It is also one of the 15 mangrove areas. The most
significant eco- system services of Vembanadu include fishery, agriculture, navigation, port facility,
tourism and coir industries. The environmental conditions of this lake are in a steady state of decline
due to various anthropogenic activities which leads to severe livelihood crisis for the dependent
communities. The major ecological consequences in this region is the fall in soil fertility, increased
incidence of pest and diseases, use of large quantities of pesticides, and extinction of mangroves that
used to function as favoured nursery areas of fishery resources.

All this makes water pollution the major environmental problem of Kuttanadu region. The residues of
pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides, animal and human wastes etc accumulate in water.
Pollutants from industrial and agro-chemical residues, municipal sewage, effluents from motor boats,
and coir retting to open water bodies, deteriorates the quality of the lake ecosystem. Kuttanadu area is
found to have very high occurrence of cancer of the lip, stomach, skin and brain, lymphoma, leukemia,
vision and multiple myloma. The other health problems include breathing problems, dehydration,
vomiting, cramps and diarrhea.This intense pollution and environmental degradation is adversely
affecting the flora and fauna of the area. For example, many of the fish varieties that were common in
the area are already extinct.
Case Study : Tehri Dam Project, Uttarakhand
The Tehri dam project is located at the confluence of Bhagirathi and Bhilganga rivers in the
Himalayan region of the state of Uttarakhand. The Tehri dam is the highest dam in India and one of
the highest in the world. The construction of the dam in 1972 was one of the giant steps of political
leaders to convert the state into an ‘Urja Pradesh’ (energy state). The dam has come under criticism
for several reasons, such as economic viability, environmental degradation, safety concerns, and
population displacement. Scientists, environmentalists and local people were against the construction
of this dam. Construction of the dam at such a location has resulted in massive population dislocation.
Environmental activist Sundarlal Bahuguna led the Anti-Tehri dam movement for years. This region
was the site of a 6.8 magnitude earthquake in October 1991. If a catastrophe occurs, the potentially
resulting dam-break would submerge numerous towns downstream.
Case Study: Narmada BachaoAndolan (NBA)
The Narmada Valley Development Project is the single largest river development scheme in India. It
is one of the largest hydroelectric projects in the world and displaces more than 41,000 families (over
200,000 people) in the three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. Over 56 per cent of
the people affected by the dam are adivasis. Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar
Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The SSP in the Narmada
River Valley is one of the largest and most controversial of the large dams in India.The 30 large, 135
medium and 3000 small dams planned on the river and her tributaries, are collectively called the
Narmada Valley Development Project (NVDP). For the last two decades, the people affected by this
project have been challenging many issues related to the dam, primarily displacement and
rehabilitation.

Case Study: Chernobyl Nuclear Accident

The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident, according to United Nations (UN), was ‘the greatest
technological catastrophe in human history’. It occurred on 26thApril 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear
power plant near Pripyat. It was then part of the USSR. There was a sudden and unexpected power
surge. Nearly 7 tons of irradiated reactor fuel was released into the environment. We humans cannot
protect ourselves from such radiation because we are biologically not equipped to do so. Its effects are
silent but deadly. Six years of the accident there has been a hundredfold increase in thyroid cancers in
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Apart from cancers, blood disorders and immune system problems are
also seen,
Chernobyl survivors face a high number of mental disorders. Effects on them are similar to those that
have occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Chernobyl fatalities are disturbing not only because of
their sheer magnitude but also because they exhibit environmental injustice on a global scale. On the
one hand, the Soviet, the French, UN agencies and many proponents of nuclear power claim that
Chernobyl caused only a smaller number of causalities but IAEA (International Atomic Energy
Agency), places the number of Chernobyl fatalities are more than what they claimed. In 1995
UNESCO warned that the radioactivity released by Chernobyl would never disappear completely
from the biosphere.
Case Study: Bhopal Disaster
Union Carbide India Limited’s (UCIL’s) Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh plant operated for barely 15 years
(1969-1984), but it has left behind a legacy like no other industrial plant. This plant caused the
world’s worst industrial disaster that killed thousands. Over 5,00,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate gas and other chemicals. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the city
located near the plant. People affected by the gas leak on the fateful nights of December 2-3, 1984 are
still suffering and dying. What most people don’t realize is that the legacy of that plant continues to
spill toxins into the city’s land and water. In 2009 a study by Centre for Science and Environment
pointed towards widespread contamination of soil and groundwater in and around the Union Carbide
plant site.