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century. One felicitous compound Collins has borrowed from James
Thomson, but in doing so he has invested it with a new and beautiful
suggestiveness. Thomson had written of
(“Summer,” 946)
(“Evening,” 37)
where the poetic and pictorial force of the epithet is perhaps at its
maximum.[174]
Collins, however, has not contented himself with compounds
already in the language; he has formed himself, apparently, almost
half of the examples to be found in his poems. His instances of
Types I, as of Types V and VI, are commonplace, and he has but few
examples of Type II, the most noteworthy being “scene-full world”
(“Manners,” 78), where the epithet, irregularly formed, seems to have
the meaning of “abounding in scenery.” Most of his instances of Type
III are either to be found in previous writers, or are obvious
formations like “war-denouncing trumpets” (“Passions,” 43).
Much more originality is evident in his examples of Type IV, which
is apparently a favourite method with him. He has “moss-crowned
fountain” (“Oriental Ecl.,” II, 24), “sky-worn robes” (“Pity,” II), “sedge-
crowned sisters” (“Ode on Thomson,” 30), “elf-shot arrows” (“Popular
Superstitions,” 27), etc. Some instances here are, strictly speaking,
irregular formations, for the participles, as in “sphere-descended,”
are from intransitive verbs; in other instances the logical relation
must be expressed by a preposition such, as “with” in “moss-
crowned,” “sedge-crowned”; or “by” in “fancy-blest,” “elf-shot”; or “in”
in “sphere-found,” “sky-worn.” He has some half-dozen examples of
Type VII, three at least of which—“gay-motleyed pinks” (“Oriental
Eclogues,” III, 17), “chaste-eyed Queen” (“Passions,” 75), and “fiery-
tressed Dane” (“Liberty,” 97)—are apparently his own coinage, whilst
others, such as “rosy-lipp’d health” (“Evening,” 50) and “young-eyed
wit,” have been happily used in the service of the personifications
that play so great a part in his Odes.
There is some evidence that the use of compounds by certain
writers was already being noticed in the eighteenth century as
something of an innovation in poetical language. Thus Goldsmith, it
would seem, was under the impression that their increasing
employment, even by Gray, was connected in some way with the
revived study of the older poets, especially Spenser.[175] This
supposition is unfounded. Gray, it is true, uses a large number of
compounds, found in previous writers, but it is chiefly from Milton—
e.g. “solemn-breathing airs” (“Progress of Poesy,” 14; cp. “Comus,”
555), “rosy-bosomed hours” (“Spring,” I), or from Pope—e.g. “cloud-
topped head” (“Bard,” 34) that he borrows. Moreover, he has many
compounds which presumably he made for himself. Of Type I he has
such instances as “the seraph-wings of Ecstasy” (“Progress,” 96),
“the sapphire-blaze” (ibid., 99), etc.; he has one original example of
Type II in his “silver-bright Cynthia” (“Music,” 32), and two of Type III,
when he speaks of the valley of Thames as a “silver-winding way”
(“Eton Ode,” 10), and he finds a new epithet for the dawn in his
beautiful phrase “the incense-breathing Morn” (Elegy XVII). Of Type
IV, he has some half-dozen examples, only two of which, however,
owe their first appearance to him—the irregularly formed “feather-
cinctured chiefs” (“Progress,” 62) and “the dew-bespangled wing”
(“Vicissitude,” 2). The largest number of Gray’s compound epithets
belong to Type V, where an adjective is used adverbially with a
participle: “rosy-crowned loves” (“Progress,” 28) and “deep-toned
shell” (“Music,” 23). One of Gray’s examples of this class of
compound, evidently formed on a model furnished by Thomson,
came in for a good deal of censure. He speaks of “many-twinkling
feet” (“Progress,” 35), and the compound, which indeed is somewhat
difficult to defend, aroused disapproval in certain quarters. Lyttleton
was one of the first to object to its use, and he communicated his
disapproval to Walpole, who, however, at once took sides for the
defence. “In answer to your objection,” he wrote,[176] “I will quote
authority to which you will yield. As Greek as the expression is, it
struck Mrs. Garrick; and she says that Mr. Gray is the only poet who
ever understood dancing.” Later, the objection was revived in a
general form by Dr. Johnson. “Gray,” he says,[177] “is too fond of
words arbitrarily compounded. ‘Many-twinkling’ was formerly
censured as not analogical: we may say ‘many-spotted’ but scarcely
‘many-spotting.’” The incident is not without its significance; from the
strictly grammatical point of view the epithet is altogether irregular,
unless the first element is admitted to be an adverb meaning “very
much” or “many times.” But Gray’s fastidiousness of expression is a
commonplace of criticism, and we may be sure that even when he
uses compounds of this kind he has not forgotten his own clearly
expressed views on the language fit and proper for poetry.
Johnson also objected to another device by which Gray had
sought to enrich the vocabulary of poetry, as reflected in his use of
the “participal” epithet in -ed.[178] If this device for forming new
epithets cannot be grammatically justified, the practice of the best
English poets at least has always been against Johnson’s dictum,
and, as we have seen, it has been a prolific source of original and
valuable compound epithets. Of this type Gray has some six or
seven examples, the majority of which, however, had long been in
the language, though in the new epithet of “the ivy-mantled tower”
(Elegy IX) we may perhaps see an indication of the increasing
Romantic sensibility towards old ruins.
Though not admitted to the same high rank of poets as Collins and
Gray, two of their contemporaries, the brothers Warton, are at least
of as great importance in the history of the Romantic revival.[179]
From our present point of view it is not too fanciful to see a reflection
of this fact in the compound epithets freely used by both of the
Wartons. Thomas Warton is especially noteworthy; probably no other
eighteenth century poet, with the exception of James Thomson, has
so many instances of new compound formations, and these are all
the more striking in that few of them are of the mechanical type,
readily formed by means of a commonplace adjective or adverb.
Instances of compound substantives (Type I) are almost entirely
lacking, and the same may be said of the noun plus adjective
epithets (Type II). There are, however, a few examples of Type III
(noun plus present participle), some of which, as “beauty-blooming
isle” (“Pleasures of Melancholy”), “twilight-loving bat” (ibid.), and “the
woodbines elm-encircling spray” (“On a New Plantation”), no doubt
owe something to the influence of Thomson. Instances of Type IV
are plentiful, and here again there is a welcome freshness in
Warton’s epithets: “Fancy’s fairy-circled shrine” (“Monody Written
near Stratford-on-Avon”), “morning’s twilight-tinctured beam” (“The
Hamlet”), “daisy-dappled dale” (“Sonnet on Bathing”). One instance
of this class of compound epithet, “the furze-clad dale,” is certainly
significant as indicative of the changes that were going on from the
“classical” to the Romantic outlook towards natural scenery.[180]
Of the other class of compound epithets, Warton has only a few
instances, but his odes gave plenty of scope for the use of the
“participial epithet” (Type VII), and he has formed them freely: “Pale
Cynthia’s silver-axled car” (“Pleasures of Melancholy”), “the coral-
cinctured stole” (“Complaint of Cherwell”), “Sport, the yellow-tressed
boy” (ibid.). No doubt many of Thomas Warton’s compound
formations were the result of a conscious effort to find “high-
sounding” terms, and they have sometimes an air of being merely
rhetorical, as in such instances as “beauty-blooming,” “gladsome-
glistering green,” “azure-arched,” “twilight-tinctured,” “coral-
cinctured,” “cliff-encircled,” “daisy-dappled,” where alliterative effects
have obviously been sought. Yet he deserves great credit for his
attempts to find new words at a time when the stock epithets and
phrases were still the common treasury of the majority of his
contemporaries.
His brother, Joseph Warton, is less of a pioneer, but there is
evident in his work also an effort to search out new epithets. His
compounds include (Type II) “marble-mimic gods” (“The Enthusiast”);
(Type III) “courage-breathing songs” (“Verses, 1750”), with many
instances of Type IV, some commonplace, as “merchant-crowded
towns” (“Ode to Health”), others more original, as “mirth and youth
nodding lily-crowned heads” (“Ode to Fancy”), joy, “the rose-
crowned, ever-smiling boy” (“Ode Against Despair”), “the beech-
embowered cottage” (“On The Spring”). Moreover, there are a
number in “The Enthusiast,” which reflect a genuine love of Nature
(“thousand-coloured tulips,” “pine-topp’d precipice”) and a keen
observation of its sights and sounds.
It is not forcing the evidence of language too much to say that a
similar increasing interest in external nature finds expression in
some of the compound epithets to be found in much of the minor
poetry of the period. Thus Moses Mendez (d. 1758)[181] has in his
poem on the various seasons (1751) such conventional epithets as
we may perhaps see that the free use of compound epithets was not
compatible with the mechanism of the couplet as illustrated in the
greater part of Pope’s practice; they would tend to weaken the
balanced antithesis, and thus spoil the swing of the line.
The most formidable rival of the heroic couplet in the eighteenth
century was blank verse, the advent of which marked the beginning
of the Romantic reaction in form. Here Thomson may be regarded as
the chief representative, and it is significant that the large number of
compound epithets in his work are terms of natural description,
which, in addition to their being a reflex of the revived attitude to
natural scenery, were probably more or less consciously used to
compensate readers for the absence of “the rhyme-stroke and flash”
they were accustomed to look for in the contemporary couplet. “He
utilizes periodically,” to quote Saintsbury again,[194] “the exacter
nature-painting, which in general poetic history is his glory, by putting
the distinctive words for colour and shape in notable places of the
verse, so as to give it character and quality.” These “distinctive words
for colour and shape” were, with Thomson, for the most part,
compound epithets; almost by the time of “Yardley Oak,” and
certainly by the time of “Tintern Abbey,” blank verse had been fully
restored to its kingdom, and no longer needed such aid.
CHAPTER VII
PERSONIFICATION AND ABSTRACTION IN
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY POETRY
(“First Epistle”)
And then the poet describes Death as being present always and
everywhere, and especially
But Young has not, like Milton, been able to conjure up a definite
and convincing vision, and thus he never achieves anything
approaching the overwhelming effect produced by the phantom of
Death in “Paradise Lost,” called before us in a single verse:
(ll. 180-181)
or the grief of the poet as he ever meets the shades of joys gone for
ever:
The ghosts
Of my departed joys: a numerous train.
Here the poet has come near to achieving that effect which in the
hands of the greatest poets justifies the use of personification as a
poetic figure. The more delicate process just illustrated is distinct
both from the lifeless abstraction and the detailed personification, for
in these cases there is a tinge of personal emotion which invests
these shadowy figures with something of a true lyrical effect.
The tendency, illustrated in the “Night Thoughts,” to make a purely
didactic use of personification and abstraction is found to a much
greater extent in Akenside’s “Pleasures of the Imagination,” first
published in 1744, to be considerably enlarged in 1767. The nature
of Akenside’s subject freely admitted of the use of these devices,
and he has not been slow to avail himself of them.
Large portions of the “Pleasures of the Imagination” resolve
themselves into one long procession of abstract figures. Very often
Akenside contents himself with the usual type of abstraction,
accompanied by a conventional epithet: “Wisdom’s form celestial” (I,
69), “sullen Pomp” (III, 216), etc., though sometimes by means of
human attributes or characteristics we are given partial
personifications such as:
(l. 216)
(138 foll.)