

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is divided into four section. The first section presents the review of relevant
theories. In the second section, related studies are reviewed. The third section presents the
hypotheses while the fourth section presents the operational definition of terms.
2.2 Theories related to Academic Performance

2.2.1 Walbergs theory

Walbergs theory of academic performance was developed by Walberg (1981). The theory posits
that psychological characteristics of individual students and their immediate psychological
environments noinfluence educational outcomes (cognitive, behavioral, and attitudinal)
(Reynolds &Walberg, 1992). Further, Walbergs research identified nine key variables that
influence educational outcomes as: student ability/prior achievement, motivation,
age/developmental level, quality of instruction, classroom climate, home environment, peer
group, and exposure to mass media outside of school (Walberg, Fraser, &Welch, 1986).
In recent decades, studies of learning environments have been concerned with conceptualization
and theory development. Student ratings have also been traditionally included in faculty and
course evaluation in higher education settings. Research on learning environments (Fraser,
Walberg, Welch, &Hattie, 1987; Fullarton, 2002) show that psychosocial characteristics of
classroom learning environments demonstrate incremental validity in predicting student
achievement. These psychosocial characteristics (such as self-concept, attitudes, behaviors,
intrinsic motivation, and overall student engagement in learning) are useful in curriculum
evaluation studies, and can provide teachers with useful information to arrange more optimally
functioning classrooms.
Researchers working on the assessment of learning environments have also developed and
validated constructivist-based, personal forms of learning environment measures to tap
studentsindividual, rather than collective perspectives of classroom life (Fraser, Fisher,
&McRobbie, 1996; Rugutt, Ellett, Culross, 2003). Learning environment has often been studied
for the purposes of ensuring maximum student achievement in his/her education endeavors.
Further, learning is a highly individual process which occurs within a larger environment.
Learning is thus mediated by an individuals interactions with and perceptions of the external
environment (Olivier, 2001).
Research has shown that academic environments contribute to gains in student abilities, interests,
and attitudes (Feldman, 1988; Feldman, Ethington, &Smart, 2001). Holland (1997) noted that
environments foster the development of competencies, motivate people to engage in different
activities, and reward people for their display of values and attitudes. Environment therefore
influences personal and professional self-perceptions, competencies, attitudes, interests, and
values.
Holland (1997) further indicated that a college students experiences include, but are not limited
to: (a) a students search for academic environments that match their patterns of abilities,
interests, and personality profiles; (b) effects of academic environments on students social
behavior in an effort to acquire the desired abilities, interests and values; and (c) a student
achievement to include a function of personality type and the academic environment.
Most research has focused on student and faculty interactions in the classroom context (Kuh
&Hu, 2001). Few studies, however, have examined the relation between student-faculty
interaction outside of classroom and student involvement in learning (Kuh, 2001). Determining
whether faculty or the student have an impact on student overall academic performance is
important. By implications, this theory indicates that individual and environmental factors that
affect studentsperformance and educators and policymakers should consider the various
individual and environmental factors that affect studentslearning outcomes and design
interventions that address them.

Theories related to emotional regulation

2.2.2 Appraisals Theory
Appraisal theories are a broad category of theories which have the view that emotions emerge
from our appraisal of external and internal events to cause an emotional outcome (Kolb,
Whishaw, &Teskey, 2016). However, appraisal in the context of emotion refers to evaluating
what the external or internal stimuli means to a given individual (Etkin et al., 2011).
Appraisal theories differ from each other in the way that they have different criteria for appraisal
and what is appraised (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Also, appraisal is subjective (within our
awareness), since individuals evaluate the meaning of a stimulus in relation to themselves,
therefore, appraisal may lead to individual differences in how we react to emotional stimuli
(Etkin et al., 2011).
One version of appraisal theory was put forward by Richard Lazarus in which emotions can
be seen as the outcome of a calculation (Lazarus, 1993). In other words, if an individual
encounters with a stimulus, he or she would calculate the benefit versus the risk in relation to
harm, thus, the emotion would be the outcome of the calculation (Lazarus, 1993). Within this
theory, both environmental and personal factors are important when individuals are considering
the benefit versus risk when encountering a stimulus, thus, it is not only the stimuli itself that
generate the given emotion (Lazarus, 1993).
This theory suggests that the emotional outcome comes after the cognitive appraisal has taken
place, but also that the step before an emotional outcome may take place outside our awareness
(unconscious) and automatically (Lazarus, 1993). In the case of meeting a bear, the individual
spots the bear, which leads to cognition and a fast calculation of benefit versus risk. The
individual realizes that he or she is in danger and then feels afraid, leading to a response, which
may be to run away. Thus, within this view, we make decisions about stimuli related to our
wellbeing (Lazarus, 1993).
The use of learning strategies alongside emotional regulation can support students self-
regulation of both negative emotions (anxiety or disappointment) and positive emotions
(overexcitement or overconfidence) that are considered intrusive and act as barriers towards
academic performance but equip them with effective strategies in order to cope with the
pressures of everyday life (John, O. P., and Gross, J. J. 2007)
In relation to academic setting, the way students appraised their daily activities in relative to
their emotions can improve their academic performance. A student who forgo his breakfast for
class has a high emotional regulation because he has appraised the emotion of not eating
breakfast in morning than going to class thereby standing a chance of having high academic
performance. Positive learning emotions include interest, curiosity, wonder, passion, creativity,
engagement and joy. These activate the reward system of the brain, make the experience
desirable, and aid in focus, attention, and performance. Positive emotional states can enable
students to broaden their perspective, see alternatives, persist through challenges and respond
effectively to criticism and failure thereby improving their performance (John, O. P., and Gross,
J. J. 2007).

Theories related to Self-efficacy

2.2.3 Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory by Bandura, is a learning theory which has come out on the ideas that
people learn by watching what others do, and that human thought processes are central to
understanding personality (Bandura, 1999). The theory Bandura expanded from social learning
theory soon became known as social cognitive theory, (Bandura, 1999). This theory provides a
framework for understanding, predicting and changing human behavior (Green &Peil, 2009).
Moreover, social cognitive theory places a heavy focus on cognitive concepts. It is also focused
on how children and adults operate cognitively on their social experiences and how these
cognitions then influence behavior, performance and development.
Self-efficacy in Bandura theory introduced context of an explanatory model of human
behavior, in which self-efficacy causally influences expected outcomes of behavior
(Bandura,1977). Self-efficacy exert diverse effects through cognitive, motivational, emotional,
and decisional processes. Self-efficacy affect whether individuals think optimistically or
pessimistically, in self-enhancing or self-debilitating ways. They play a central role in the self-
regulation of motivation through goal challenges and outcome expectations successfully (Mark
&Campbell, 2011). Moreover, it clarifies that people tend to engage in activities based on their
sense of competence &/or past success.
Betz, (2007), supported Banduras basic assumptions of Social cognitive theory and pointed that
behavior is directed toward particular goals, behavior eventually becomes self-regulated,
cognition plays important role in learning, performance and self-efficacy beliefs
Self-efficacy is derived from the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory (Schunk
&Pajares, 2006). The social-cognitive approach emphasizes human achievement dependent upon
one's behaviors, personal factors, and environmental conditions (Bandura, 1986). As a
framework to study students self-efficacy in community, universities, technical colleges, social
cognitive theory is most connected to human achievement within academia. Social cognitive
theory encompasses students who obtain information to assess their level of self-efficacy from
their performance, experiences, othersinfluences, and physiological reactions. Students self-
efficacy influence task choice, effort, persistence, performance, resilience, and achievement
(Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1995).
Students with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to perform a task, work harder, persist
longer when confronted with adversity, and achieve at high level in school. A students self-
efficacy beliefs can affect whether a student uses learning and motivational strategies to improve
performance. Researchers have shown that high achievers are more likely to use learning and
motivation strategies than low achievers which improve their performance (Zimmerman et al.,
2017). Thus, self-regulated learners are distinguished by their use of self-control strategies to
improve their performance.
One of the primary features of Banduras model is the specification of four sources of efficacy
information, or learning experiences, leading to the development of self-efficacy expectations. It
remains important as it is part of Banduras social cognitive theory, (Betz 2007). In other words,
some researchers like Betz (2007), Mccormick, and Martinko, (2004), supported self-efficacy
based on banduras idea and suggested that self-efficacy can have effect on behavior &cognition
in the following ways: Activity choice, Goal setting, Effort and persistence, achievement,
learning and performance. They concluded that people with high efficacy are more likely to view
difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided while people
with low efficacy more likely to avoid challenging tasks and finally they focus on personal
failings and negative outcomes. (Mark &Campbell, 2011).
According to the Social Cognitive theory, self-efficacy is one of the most important variables
that predicts academic performance (Bandura, 1999). Collins (1982) demonstrated in a clear way
the importance of self-efficacy belief and skill application on academic performance. The study
showed that students may perform poorly on tasks not necessarily because they lack the ability to
succeed, but because they lack belief in their capabilities due to low self-efficacy. Bandura
(1989) also found that self-efficacy increases academic performance in a direct and an indirect
way, by influencing individualsgoals. Self-efficacy, together with the goals, influences academic
performance. Individuals with a high level of self-efficacy assign higher goals to themselves and
exercise more effort and willingness to have them accomplished, likewise, individuals with high
self-efficacy perform better than individuals with low self-efficacy (Bandura 1989).

2.3 EMPERICAL REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

2.3.1 Emotional Regulation and Academic Performance
Arif et al (2023) conducted a study on Emotional Regulation. The authors stated that one of
the factors that predict academic performance is emotional regulation. The study aimed to
investigate emotional regulation as Predictor of Academic Performance among Undergraduate
Students in Pakistan. There were 300 participants (119 males and 181 females) with age range of
18-29 years selected randomly from a public sector in Faisalabad city, Pakistan. Design of the
study was a cross sectional survey. To assess participantsemotional regulation, the emotional
regulation questionnaire (ERQ) was used while academic performance was measured through
the percentage of obtained marks in the last semester or last degree (whichever was applicable).
The statistical analysis was determined using the hierarchical regression and a Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient (r). Results revealed a significant correlation between emotional
regulation and academic performance. Emotional regulation was found to be a significant
predictor of academic performance. Gender differences was significant in the scores, male score
was significantly higher on emotional regulation compared to female scores. Hence, concluded
that positive emotional regulation leads to better academic performance. The findings are useful
for policy makers, university authorities, studentscounsellors and mental health professionals.
Further research will help to clarify this discovery.
Hafiz (2015) conducted a research aimed at finding out the relationship between emotional
regulation and academic performance among psychology undergraduates from international
university of Malaysia. Two tools were used namely: emotional regulation scale (ERQ) and
Academic performance questionnaire (APQ). A fairly representative data of 127 respondents
between ages 21-25 years. Statistical analysis was determined using regression. The analysis
indicated a significant positive relationship between emotional regulation and academic
performance. The comparison of people with positive and negative emotional regulation with
respect to academic performance supports this findings.
Patricia et al (2022) examined the relationship between Emotional regulation and Academic
performance in Nairobi County, Kenya. The study adopted a correlational research design in
order to establish the relationship between the variables. Purposive, stratified and simple random
sampling procedures were used to select location, level and participants respectivelywith their
age mean between 18-30years. A total of 738 students selected from eight different universities
in Nairobi County were used. Academic performance was measured from their examination
grades obtained from school records while emotional regulation was measured using emotional
regulation questionnaire. A Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) was used for
data analysis. The result of the findings revealed that emotional regulation was positively and
significantly correlated to academic achievement. The implication here is that, as emotional
regulation improved, a commensurate improvement in academic performance was observed.
Therefore, the study recommended that educators should consider students emotional regulation
skills to foster use of proper emotional control strategies in order to enhance academic
performance.
Al-badareen (2016), conducted a study aimed at finding out the relationship between
emotional regulation and academic performance among undergraduate students in Saudi Arabia.
Purposive sampling techniques was used to sample 220 (150 males and 70 females)
undergraduate students from three different faculties. Emotional Regulation questionnaire (ERQ)
was the instrument used to measure students emotional regulation, academic performance was
measured using studentssemester results. A Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)
was the statistics used for analysis. The results showed a significant positive relationship
between emotional regulation and academic performance among university students.
2.3.2 Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance
Suleiman &Adekunle (2021) conducted a study on Impact of Self-Efficacy on Academic
Performance of University Science Students in Katsina State, Nigeria. A descriptive survey
research design was adopted where 320 randomly selected students from mathematics, physics,
chemistry, and biology departments in the four universities in the state were selected. General
Self-Efficacy Scale and students CGPA record were used as data collection tools which were
analyzed using frequency count, percentage, Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Linear
Regression and ANNOVA. The study revealed that self-efficacy had a positive significant
relationship with academic performance. The study also revealed that that students with high
self-efficacy had high academic performance than students with low self-efficacy. Hence, the
study recommended that school counselors should improve self-efficacy to enhance academic
performance of students
Kolo et al. (2017) examined the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance
among Nigerian college students. Simple random and stratified sampling techniques were
employed to select a total of 334 participants from different departments. Their aged ranged
between 19-34 years. General Self-efficacy questionnaire and students semester results were
used as data collection for both self-efficacy and academic performance. The researcher
employed ANNOVA and Pearson Product Moment Correlation for statistical analysis. The
findings showed that Students who had high self-efficacy perform better in academics than those
who had low self-efficacy. The findings also revealed that there was a positive significant
relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance among Nigerian college students
Matovu, (2020) designed a study on self-efficacy as predictor of academic performance among
university undergraduate students in Uganda. Total number of 293 undergraduate students
comprised of 140 female and 153 male were drawn from public and private universities using
stratified and purposive sampling techniques. Studentssemester grade was used to measure
academic performance while general self-efficacy questionnaire was used to measure self-
efficacy. The research was designed as a descriptive correlative survey and data was analyzed
using a Pearson correlation test. The results revealed a positive significant correlation between
self-efficacy and academic performance.
Bwenvu, (2023) conducted a study on the relationship between Self-efficacy and Academic
Performance at Makerere University. The study employed a cross-sectional design which helps
to collect data. A total number of 117 students participated in the study comprising of 55 male
and 62 female. An online survey instrument was used to collect data for self-efficacy whereas
academic performance was measured based on the Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)
obtained by the students. A Pearson correlation used to establish the relationship between self-
efficacy and academic performance of undergraduate students. Findings revealed that there was
no significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance of students in
Makerere University. Hence, university authorities should motivate students to have higher self-
efficacy and other factors that may affect their academic performance
Honicke and Broadbent (2016) investigated the influence of self-efficacy on academic
performance through a systematic review by integrating research studies done in the last 12 years
focusing on relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance of university students.
Out of the 59 eligible papers, thirty three studies were conducted in the united states of America
(USA), five in the United Kingdom (UK), four in Belgium, three in Netherlands, two in turkey
and Australia, and one in each of Bangladesh, Canada, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Norway,
Philippines, Spain, Taiwan and United Arab Emirate. Both qualitative and quantitative studies
were employed. A Pearson correlation coefficient, ANNOVA and regression were used for data
analysis. The study established that out of the 59 eligible papers, majority of studies had
established a positive correlation between self-efficacy and academic performances. Therefore,
given the paucity of longitudinal studies identified in this review, further research into how these
variables relate over time is necessary in order to establish causality and uncover the complex
interaction between self-efficacy and academic performance of students.
Thirty-threstudies were conducted in the USA, five in the United Kingdom (UK), four in
Belgium, three in the Netherlands, two in Turkey and Australia, and one in each of Bangladesh,
Canada, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Norway, Philippines, Spain, Taiwan and the United Arab
Emiratese.
Rudina (2013), investigated the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance
among Albanian students from two major universities in Tirana, Albania. The data was collected
from 180 students (102 females and 78 males) selected from first, second and third level studies.
The age of the participants ranged from 19 -31 years with a mean age of 22 years. Both
universities and participants were selected randomly. Self–efficacy was measured using the short
form of the General Self-Efficacy and the grade point average (GPA) at the end of the first
semester of the 2012- 2013 academic year was used to measure the academic performance of the
participants. The data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive
statistics used were means and standard deviation, inferential statistics were t-test for
independent samples used to compare the mean of self-efficacy and performance and Pearson
correlation coefficient used to determine the relationship between self-efficacy and academic
performance. T-test was used to compare male and female participants in self-efficacy and
academic performance and the result revealed that gender had a significance difference. It was
concluded that male and female in universities differ in self-efficacy. To determine the
relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance, a Pearson product moment
correlation test was conducted. The result of the findings showed that there was a significant
relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance of undergraduate students. From
the findings, it was recommended that different authorities as lecturer or counseling services at
the universities have to improve studentsself - efficacy and to support them to face academic
requirements with high level of self-esteem and by doing so, they can improve the academic
performance of students.
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
From the literature review, researches have been conducted on each of the variables, but few
research has been conducted to determine the joint predictor of the independent variables on the
dependent variable, which is the main aim of the present study. Also, most of the researches
reviewed have been conducted in the contemporary western culture. Therefore, this research is a
home base study that will enlighten the public on emotional regulation and self-efficacy as
predictor of academic performance among university student.
2.4 HYPOTHESES
I. Emotional regulation will significantly predict academic performance among university
students
2. Self-efficacy will significantly predict academic performance among university students
3. Emotional regulation and self-efficacy will jointly predict academic performance among
university students
2.5 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Academic performance: Academic performance refers to the level of achievement and success
that students attain in their educational pursuit, making it the most significant tool to evaluate
studentsprogress and abilities in a particular academic institution (York et al., 2015). This is
operationally defined as good academic performance and poor academic performance. This was
measured using academic performance scale developed by (Christopher et al, 2015). A total
score was calculated from the 8 items, the range being 8 to 40. A score of 20 is the middle point
which is the norm of the scale. This implies that scores of 20 and above depicts good academic
performance while scores of 19 and below depicts poor academic performance
Emotional Regulation: This involves the competence to properly understand, appraise and
analyze the emotional appearance and inner emotive state on oneself (Thompson, 1994). This is
operationally defined as positive emotional regulation and negative emotional regulation. This
was measured using emotion regulation scale developed by Gross &John (2003). A total score
was calculated from the 10 items, the range being 10 to 70. A score of 35 is the middle point
which is the norm of the scale. This implies that scores of 35 and above depicts positive
emotional regulation while scores of 34 and below depicts negative emotional regulation
Self-efficacy: This is a belief in a persons ability to succeed in a particular situation or to
accomplish a particular task (Bandura, 2012). This is operationally defined as high self-efficacy
and low self-efficacy. This was measured using general self-efficacy scale developed by
Schwarzer &Jerusalem (1995). A total score was calculated from the 10 items, the range being
10 to 40. A score of 20 is the middle point which is the norm of the scale. This implies that
scores of 20 and above depicts high self-efficacy while scores of 19 and below depicts low self-
efficacy

CHAPTER THREE
METHODS
This chapter presents the design of the study, population, sample and sampling techniques,
instruments for data collection, validity of instruments and method of data analysis.
Design
This study adopted a cross sectional survey design. This is because participants were drawn from
different groups of population of interest. Cross sectional survey design draws from the
population at one point in time and the sample is regarded as a cross section of the population,
thereby making it possible to explore the relationship between related variables and make
inferences about the population of interest at that point.
Setting
This study was conducted in University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, using students of the
institution. Uyo is the capital of Akwa Ibom state, south-south Nigeria. Uyo which is the capital
city of the state lies between latitudes 4°58'N and 5°04'N and longitudes 7°51'E and 8°01'E. It is
one of the most well-known local government area in Akwa Ibom. As mentioned earlier, it is the
states capital and arguably the biggest of them all. Uyo is also host to one of the Nigerias federal
University of Uyo.
Participants
A total number of two hundred and five students which were made up of 89 (44.1%) males and
113 (55.9%) females were selected from department of English, department of linguistic,
department of theatre art, department of history and international studies in Faculty of Arts,
university of uyo. The ages of the participants were between 18 – 41 years, and their mean age
was 17.60. The criteria for participating in this study was being a student in any of the four
selected department of the university. The department were selected using simple random
sampling. The researcher adopted a method called balloting in the selection process by writing
the names of all the 5 department on a piece of paper and fold them, he randomly pick the 4
department that were used in the study. By that way the researcher provided equal chances for all
the department to be involved in the study. Participants were selected using purposive sampling
technique
Instruments
Three instruments were used to collect data in this study. They included; the academic
performance scale (Christopher et al, 2015), General self-efficacy scale (Schwarzer &Jerusalem
(1995)), the emotion regulation scale (Gross and John, 2003).
Questionnaires were used for data collection. The questionnaire was divided into four (4)
sections: A, B, C and D.
Section A Focused on the demographics variable including gender, age, marital status, year
of study, type of home
Section B contained the emotion regulation scale developed by Gross &John (2003). The
emotion regulation scale is 10 item questionnaire designed to measure individual differences in
two emotion regulation processes. The scale uses 7-point likert format ranging from 1= Strongly
Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Somewhat Disagree, 4= Neutral, 5= Somewhat Agree, 6= Agree, 7=
Strongly Agree. The norm of the scale is 35. Therefore university students who score above the
norm will have positive emotional regulation, while scores below 35 denotes negative emotional
regulation. With the highest obtainable score being 70, which the lowest obtainable score is 10.
The scale has a high reliability coefficient alpha value of 0.90.
Section CContained the General self-efficacy scale developed by Schwarzer &Jerusalem
(1995). The General self-efficacy scale is 10 item questionnaire designed to measure individuals
emotion, optimism and work satisfaction. The scale uses 4-point likert format ranging from 1=
Not at all true, 2= Hardly true, 3= Moderate true, 4= Exactly true. The norm of the scale is 20.
Therefore university students who score above the norm will have high self-efficacy, while
scores below 20 denotes low self-efficacy. With the highest obtainable score being 40, which the
lowest obtainable score is 10. The scale has a high reliability coefficient alpha value of 0.90.
Section DContained the academic performance scale developed by (). The academic
performance scale is 8 item questionnaire designed to measure performance of students. The
scale uses 5-point likert format ranging from 1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Neutral, 4=
Agree, 5= Strongly Agree. The norm of the scale is 20. Therefore, university students who score
above the norm will have good academic performance, while scores below 20 denotes poor
academic performance. With the highest obtainable score being 40, which the lowest obtainable
score is between 0-8. The scale has a high reliability coefficient alpha value of 0.89.
Procedures.
The main study was conducted at the University of Uyo. Before responding to the items on the
instrument, participants were briefed on the purpose of the study and were informed that
participation was voluntary, they were also instructed to read the questions carefully and respond
to it with sincerity as it was not a test, so there are no wrong or right answers. Participants were
also assured of maximum confidentiality as their responses will be used only for academic
purpose.
The first point of questionnaire administration was at department history and international
studies. 50 copies of the questionnaire were administered, 49 were retrieved while 1 copy was
not retrieved. The next point of administration was at department of linguistic, 50 copies of the
questionnaire were administered and all the 50 copies were retrieved. The next point of
administration was at department of English, 47 were retrieved while 3 copy were not retrieved.
The last point questionnaire administration was at department of mass communication, 49 were
retrieved while 1 copy was not retrieved.
Two hundred and five (205) copies of the questionnaire were administered, two hundred (200)
were retrieved and five (5) copies were not retrieved. A total of two hundred (200) filled
questionnaire were collated for data analysis
Statistics
The data obtained from this study were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics included: frequency counts, percentage, cumulative percentage, mean and
standard deviation. Inferential statistics adopted for hypothesis testing was multiple regression.