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Reverse Osmosis
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Reverse Osmosis
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Kailash Chandra Khulbe
Takeshi Matsuura
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
# 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own
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Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER 1 Introduction—Do RO Membranes Have Pores?.................................................. 1

1.1 Research Before 2000 ............................................................................. 3
1.1.1 Preferential Sorption-Capillary Flow (PS-CF) model .................. 3
1.2 RO Transport Mechanisms...................................................................... 5
1.3 Electron Microscopic Image, Evidence for the Absence of Pores?....... 6
1.4 RO Transport Models.............................................................................. 8
1.5 Support to the Pore Model? .................................................................. 15
1.6 Research after 2001............................................................................... 16
1.6.1 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PALS) .............................. 16
1.6.2 Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulation ...................................... 18
1.7 Conclusions and Future Directions ....................................................... 21
References..................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 2 RO Membrane Preparation ...................................................................................25

2.1 Preparation of Cellulose Acetate Membrane by Phase
Inversion Technique .............................................................................. 25
2.2 Preparation of Ultrathin Membrane ...................................................... 28
2.3 Thin-Film Composite (TFC) Membrane .............................................. 32
2.4 Surface Modification of TFC Membrane ............................................. 39
2.4.1 Use of Hydrophilic Amine Monomer ....................................... 40
2.4.2 Additives to the Aqueous Phase................................................ 40
2.4.3 Change of Solvent for Organic Phase....................................... 41
2.4.4 Soaking ...................................................................................... 41
2.4.5 Post Surface Treatment by Aqueous Solutions......................... 41
2.4.6 Coating....................................................................................... 42
2.4.7 Plasma Treatment ...................................................................... 42
2.4.8 Grafting ...................................................................................... 42
2.4.9 Surface Modifying Macromolecules ......................................... 43
2.4.10 Surface Pattern Formation......................................................... 43
2.5 Thin-Film Nanocomposite (TFN) Membrane ...................................... 43
2.6 Biomimetic Membrane.......................................................................... 44
2.7 Inorganic Membrane ............................................................................. 46
2.8 Summary................................................................................................ 48
References..................................................................................................... 49
v
vi Contents
CHAPTER 3 RO Membrane Characterization ...........................................................................57

3.1 Characterization by Membrane Transport ............................................ 57
3.2 Characterization by Membrane Morphology........................................ 59
3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) ....................................... 59
3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) ................................ 65
3.2.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) .............................................. 66
3.2.4 Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS) ............... 69
3.2.5 Neutron Scattering (NS) .............................................................. 70
3.2.6 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Spectroscopy ............ 71
3.2.7 Wide-Angle X-Ray Scattering (WAXS) and Small-Angle
X-Ray Scattering (SAXS) ........................................................... 72
3.3 Characterization by Membrane Surface Chemistry.............................. 74
3.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy-Attenuated
Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR) ..................................................... 74
3.3.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) .......................................... 76
3.3.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)................................... 76
3.3.4 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy ..................................... 78
3.3.5 Raman Spectroscopy (RS)........................................................... 78
3.3.6 Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) .................. 80
3.4 Other Characterization Techniques....................................................... 80
3.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)......................................... 80
3.4.2 Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (PAS) ............................................. 81
3.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) .................................. 81
3.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) ........................................... 81
3.4.5 Contact Angle Measurement ....................................................... 82
3.4.6 Zeta Potential Measurement........................................................ 83
3.4.7 Graft Density ............................................................................... 83
3.4.8 Tensile Strength Measurement.................................................... 84
3.5 Summary of RO Membrane Characterization Methods ....................... 85
References..................................................................................................... 86
CHAPTER 4 RO Membrane Transport ......................................................................................91

4.1 Solution-Diffusion Model ..................................................................... 91
4.1.1 Solvent Transport Equation......................................................... 93
4.1.2 Solute Transport Equation........................................................... 94
4.2 Solution-Diffusion-Imperfection Model ............................................... 95
4.3 Irreversible Thermodynamics................................................................ 95
4.4 Pore Flow Model by Gl€uckauf ............................................................ 97
4.5 Finely Porous Model ............................................................................ 99
4.6 Surface Force-Pore Flow Model ......................................................... 102
Contents vii
4.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulation......................................................... 104

4.7.1 Construction of Membrane........................................................ 105
4.7.2 Reverse Osmosis........................................................................ 106
4.7.3 Simulation Results..................................................................... 107
4.7.4 Solute Transport ........................................................................ 109
4.8 CNTs MD Simulation ......................................................................... 112
References................................................................................................... 115
CHAPTER 5 RO Membrane Module ....................................................................................... 117

5.1 Module Description ............................................................................. 117
5.1.1 Module Type.............................................................................. 117
5.1.2 Feed Spacer................................................................................ 122
5.1.3 Permeate Spacer ........................................................................ 123
5.1.4 Endcap ....................................................................................... 124
5.1.5 Larger Modules.......................................................................... 124
5.2 Studies on the Spacers......................................................................... 124
5.2.1 Computation and Experiments .................................................. 124
5.2.2 Module Observation .................................................................. 124
5.2.3 Module Imaging by Particle Image Velocimetry ..................... 126
5.2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics................................................. 131
5.2.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging ..................................... 132
5.2.6 Small-Angle Neutron Scattering Imaging................................. 136
5.2.7 Fouling Monitoring by Ultrasonic Time-Domain
Reflectometry............................................................................. 136
References................................................................................................... 139
CHAPTER 6 Hybrid System ..................................................................................................... 143

6.1 Reverse Osmosis-Evaporator .............................................................. 143
6.2 Microfiltration-RO............................................................................... 143
6.3 Ultrafiltration (UF)-RO ....................................................................... 144
6.4 Nanofiltration (NF)-RO....................................................................... 145
6.5 Forward Osmosis (FO)-RO ................................................................. 146
6.5.1 Seawater Desalination ............................................................... 146
6.5.2 Wastewater Treatment............................................................... 147
6.5.3 Simultaneous Wastewater and Seawater Treatment................. 149
6.6 Pressure-Retarded Osmosis (PRO)-RO............................................... 150
6.7 Pervaporation (PV)-RO ....................................................................... 152
6.8 RO-Reverse Electrodialysis, RO-Electrodialysis Reversal,
and RO-Ion Exchange ......................................................................... 155
References................................................................................................... 158
viii Contents
CHAPTER 7 RO Economics ...................................................................................................... 163

7.1 General Trend in the Water Production Cost ..................................... 163
7.2 Energy Consumption ........................................................................... 167
7.3 RO Process Economy.......................................................................... 170
7.4 Calculation Method of Water Cost ..................................................... 171
7.5 Case Study ........................................................................................... 176
7.6 Megaton Project of Japan.................................................................... 182
References................................................................................................... 184
CHAPTER 8 RO Membrane Fouling ....................................................................................... 189
8.1 Types of Fouling ................................................................................. 191
8.1.1 Colloidal Fouling ....................................................................... 192
8.1.2 Organic Fouling ......................................................................... 193
8.1.3 Scaling ....................................................................................... 194
8.1.4 Biofouling .................................................................................. 195
8.2 Prevention and Control of Membrane Fouling................................... 196
8.2.1 Modification of Membrane Surfaces ........................................ 198
8.2.2 Pretreatment of RO Feed and Other Methods .......................... 203
8.3 Fouling Prevention of Seawater.......................................................... 208
8.3.1 Seawater Characterization ......................................................... 208
8.3.2 Pretreatment of Seawater........................................................... 213
References................................................................................................... 217
CHAPTER 9 RO Applications ................................................................................................... 221
9.1 RO for the Production of Potable Water ............................................ 221
9.2 Industrial Use....................................................................................... 222
9.2.1 Ultrapure Water ......................................................................... 222
9.2.2 Agricultural Use ....................................................................... 225
9.2.3 Food Industry............................................................................. 229
9.2.4 Petroleum Industry .................................................................... 233
9.2.5 Mining Industry ......................................................................... 234
9.3 Space Applications .............................................................................. 242
9.4 Other Applications............................................................................... 244
9.4.1 Hydrogen Production................................................................. 244
References................................................................................................... 246
CHAPTER 10 Organic Solvent NF (OSN)................................................................................ 249
10.1 OSN Membranes .............................................................................257
10.2 OSN Membrane Applications .........................................................265
10.3 Organic Liquid RO..........................................................................274
References.................................................................................................275
Index ............................................................................................................................... 285

Preface
Since the first cellulose acetate membrane for seawater desalination was announced more than
half a century has passed. Even though reverse osmosis (RO) is considered as a well-established
separation process, RO is still continuing its steady growth both in the commercial market and as
a popular research topic. For example, according to the Membrane Technology 2011 prediction
[Membrane Technology (2011) volume 2011, page 7], the annual sales of RO will grow to about
40 billion dollar by 2020, due to increasing demand for clean and processed water and manda-
tory government regulation. Remarkable progress has also been made in the area of membrane
preparation and characterization.
This book was written as a comprehensive review of progress in all aspects of RO. It should be
emphasized that the book has not been written as an introduction to RO. Readers are expected to
have a sufficient amount of background knowledge on RO and all the related subjects. For this
reason, the recent progress in each chapter is summarized in tables with thorough description of
only a few examples.
Chapter 1 is reproduction of one of the latest articles published in Desalination. The central
theme of the chapter is the membrane “pore” around which the progress during the past 50 years
has been revolving, irrespective of whether the researcher is “for” or “against” the presence of
pores at the top dense layer of the RO membrane. The article starts from the 1950s when the
development of cellulose acetate membrane was launched on the basis of the preferential
sorption-capillary flow (PS-CF) mechanism, which later went into direct confrontation with
the sorption-diffusion (S-D) model in which pores are considered as imperfection of the
membrane. It is further shown in this chapter how the advanced characterization instrument
has revealed the heterogeneous structure of the top surface of the RO membrane and begun
to measure its “pore size” and “pore size distribution.” The advanced transport theory based
on molecular dynamics (MD) simulation also revealed the presence of the multimodal pore size
distribution.
In Chapter 2, it is told that many cellulosic materials were fabricated by the phase inversion
technique and tested for their RO performances in the early stage of RO membrane develop-
ment. But the cellulose acetate membrane was eventually replaced by the thin-film composite
(TFC) polyamide membrane fabricated by in situ polymerization. Thus, TFC membrane devel-
oped by Cadotte in the 1980s is now dominating in the commercial market. Many research
papers have been published to improve TFC membranes by changing the monomer combination
for in situ polymerization. Surface modification of the TFC membrane has also been attempted
to enhance the RO performance and to mitigate membrane fouling. The latest progress in RO
membrane fabrication was made by the development of nanocomposite membranes (NCMs) in
which hydrophilic nanoparticles are incorporated in the TFC membrane to enhance both
ix
x Preface
membrane performance (flux and selectivity) and fouling resistance. The report on the long-
awaited inorganic RO membranes still rarely appears in the literature.
Chapter 3 is for membrane characterization. This is the area where the fastest progress has been
observed by the use of advanced characterization techniques. The prices of the characterization
equipment are reasonable nowadays and the characterization facility is available in many lab-
oratories worldwide. Currently, characterization by SEM, TEM, AFM, XPS, EDX, FTIR, DSC,
TGA, and by the measurement of contact angle and zeta potential is routine laboratory exer-
cises. The publication has become difficult without reporting detailed characterization results,
particularly when thin-film nanocomposites (TFNs) are developed. Although it is questionable
how the characterization method has contributed to the improvement of membrane perfor-
mance, it should be admitted that a deeper insight has been obtained for the chemical and phys-
ical structure of the RO membrane, which has undoubtedly contributed to advancement of
material sciences. In this chapter, the principle of each characterization method is described
with some examples of applications for the membrane characterization.
Chapter 4 is for membrane transport. The equations for the solution diffusion model, the irre-
versible thermodynamic model, and the pore flow model are derived in this chapter. It is
explained how the dual pore size distribution, including “network pore” and “aggregate pore”
have emerged from the transport analysis based on the pore model. The presence of the multiple
pore size distribution was later confirmed by the advanced membrane characterization tech-
niques, as shown in Chapter 1. Recently, practically no report can be found in the literature
on the derivation of simple transport equations by which RO flux and selectivity can be pre-
dicted. Instead, it is more fashionable to study the membrane transport based on molecular
dynamic simulation (MDS). The studies on solvent (water) and solute transport by MDS were
attempted for both TFC and TFN membranes.
Chapter 5 is for membrane module. TFC RO membrane is installed mostly in the spiral wound
module. The only hollow fiber module left in the commercial market is cellulose triacetate
membrane of Toyobo. As for the progress of the spacer design, it was made inside the industry.
Although the improved spacer should have contributed immensely to the reduction of concen-
tration polarization and fouling while minimizing the pressure drop in the module, the results are
seldom reported in the literature. The academic research has been mostly focused on advanced
methods such as computational fluid dynamics, imaging by particle image velocimetry, and
nuclear magnetic resonance. An attempt was made to monitor the real-time fouling by applying
ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry at the canary cell.
Chapter 6 is for the RO system. Even though many system designs have been made to minimize
the water production cost by optimizing series/parallel combination of RO modules, the design
and construction of the hybrid system is currently gaining importance. One of such examples is
microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF)/RO hybrid in which MF or UF is used for the pre-
treatment of the feed stream before entering into the RO module. The emerging membrane
Preface xi
processes such as forward osmosis (FO) and pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) are now com-
bined with RO to reduce the energy consumption and improve the product water quality.
The treatment of highly concentrated RO brine by membrane distillation (MD) is also very
important to increase the production of drinking water as much as possible from seawater while
alleviating the environmental impact caused by the release of concentrated brine back into
the ocean.
Chapter 7 is for RO economics. In this chapter, it is described how the water production cost has
decreased from early days of more than 2 US$/m3 to the current 0.5 US$/m3 by the progress of
RO technology. The main contribution to the cost reduction was made by the dramatic increase
of the market, the improvement in membrane performance, and especially the reduction in
energy consumption by the use of advanced energy recovery system such as pressure exchanger.
The breakdown of energy requirement was also attempted to discuss if the further advancement
in the membrane performance is indeed required. Some examples of water production cost esti-
mation were also shown in this chapter.
Chapter 8 is for membrane fouling. This chapter was added since membrane fouling is consid-
ered as the main culprit to prevent the further applications of RO and other membrane processes.
Since the fouling mitigation by the development of novel RO membranes or by the modification
of the RO membrane surface was already discussed in Chapter 2, this chapter is more focused on
the pretreatment of the feed stream into the RO module. The advancement was made mainly
inside the industry based on the water chemistry and there are not many reports in the literature.
In general, membrane fouling is classified into different categories and the appropriate preven-
tion method should be considered for each category. Especially, more detailed description was
made for seawater desalination.
As it was shown in Chapter 9, RO applications are mainly in water treatment or separation of

aqueous solutions. This has not changed since the onset of RO process, even though the amount
of water production has increased enormously. Few new areas of RO applications were explored
with a notable exception of RO applications in space. Since there are other good books available
on RO applications, only few typical examples are shown in this chapter.
Finally, Chapter 10 is for the treatment of organic solvents. Even though the separation of
organic mixtures by RO has been the dream of membrane researchers since the onset of RO,
this area remains practically unexplored due to the insufficient membrane selectivity between
organic compounds and the poor durability of polymeric membranes in the organic environ-
ment. Durability can be improved significantly by the use of ceramic materials but desired selec-
tivity can not necessarily be achieved. For this reason, current research in this field is mostly for
the development of NF and its applications. In this chapter, the thorough description of organic
solvent nanofiltration (OSN) was made, hoping that a breakthrough will be made in organic
solvent reverse osmosis (OSR) in the nearest future.
xii Preface
The book was written for engineers, scientists, professors, graduate students as well as general
readers in universities, research institutions, and industry who have some experiences and back-
ground in R&D of RO. It is therefore the authors’ wish to contribute to the further development
of membrane science and technology in general and RO in particular by showing the future
directions in the R&D of the field.
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Kailash Chandra Khulbe
Takeshi Matsuura
Introduction—Do RO Membranes
Chapter
1
Have Pores?
ACRONYM
AFM atomic force microscopy
CA cellulose acetate
DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide
FO forward osmosis
MD molecular dynamics
MF microfiltration
MPD metaphenylene diamine
NF nanofiltration
PA polyamide
PALS positron annihilation spectroscopy
PRO pressure retarded osmosis
PS-CF preferential sorption-capillary flow
RO reverse osmosis
SANS small-angle neutron scattering
S-D model: solution-diffusion model
SEM scanning electron microscope
SWCNTs single walled carbon nanotubes
TFC thin film composite
TMC trimesoyl chloride
UF ultrafiltration
When one of the coauthors (TM) arrived at Dr. Sourirajan’s laboratory at the
National Research Council of Canada in October 1968, Dr. Sourirajan gave
him a manuscript of the book “Reverse Osmosis,” which was later published
in 1970 [1]. He read the book eagerly and was especially fascinated by
the chapter, where Sourirajan wrote how he had launched his reverse
☆
This chapter was taken from the paper “Progress in transport theory and characterization
method of reverse osmosis (RO) membrane in the last 50 years, desalination, available
online September 30, 2017”.
Reverse Osmosis. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811468-1.00001-3

# 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction—Do RO Membranes Have Pores?
osmosis (RO) research. According to the book, the invention of the Loeb-
Sourirajan RO membrane for seawater desalination was made on the basis of
the Preferential Sorption-Capillary Flow (PS-CF) model. As the name of the
model implies, pores are required for the transport of water through the RO
membrane.
In the 1960s, the solution-diffusion model (S-D model) was presented by
Lonsdale [2] and it soon became the mainstream of the RO transport model.
Since Lonsdale regarded the pores as the defects of the nonporous semiper-
meable membrane, S-D model has been used for a long time to justify
the nonexistence of pores in the perfect dense layer of the RO membrane.
It should, however, be pointed out that the S-D model is neutral on this issue
and does not say anything about the presence or the absence of pores.
It might also be noteworthy to mention that many researchers seemed to
believe the presence of pores in the RO membrane deep in their mind.
One of the coauthors (TM) remembers the Gordon Conference held in
the 1980s where many heated discussions were exchanged on the presence
or the absence of pores in the RO membrane. In one of the conferences
W. Pusch, Max Planck Institute, Germany, asked the conference partici-
pants if they were pore-philic or pore-phobic. To my surprise, more than half
raised their hands to show that they were pore-philic.
In Sourirajan’s laboratory, attempts were continued to interpret the exper-
imental data based on the pore model, which eventually led to the concept
of the bimodal pore size distribution comprising the “network pore” and
“aggregate pore” [3, 4]. However, when the bimodal distribution was pro-
posed in 1984, it was almost completely ignored by the membrane commu-
nity, evidenced by very few citations the paper received. Computer did not
count the number of citations those days but we could feel how unpopular
the theory was.
In the meantime, the membrane characterization techniques were making
remarkable progress. In the 1960s and 1970s, the only characterization tool
was scanning electron microscope (SEM) that did not allow the resolution
below 10 nm when the polymeric membrane surface was investigated.
Needless to say that it was impossible to observe the sub-nanometer pores
at the membrane surface and, therefore, the top skin layer was generally
thought to be dense and homogeneous.
In 1994, a paper on the characterization of cellulose acetate (CA) RO mem-
branes by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) appeared all of a sudden.
In the paper S. Krause, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York,
concluded that SANS data could be explained by the bimodal distribution of
pores in the dense skin layer of CA RO membrane.
1.1 Research Before 2000 3
As the industrial membrane fabrication method shifted from the phase inver-
sion technique of CA membrane to thin-film composite (TFC) polyamide
membrane, so did the membranes as the object of membrane characteriza-
tion. Nowadays most of the characterization methods are applied to TFC
polyamide membranes.
Particularly, positron annihilation spectroscopy (PALS) gained popularity
in the beginning of the millennium to characterize the synthetic polymeric
membranes for various applications. In the PALS papers the term “free
volumes” is often used instead of “pores.” But irrespective of the chosen
term, the measured size is indicative of the channel through which the mate-
rial transport occurs. Kwak’s group at Seoul National University character-
ized the polyamide TFC membrane by PALS and concluded that the
bimodal pore size distribution was observed, assigning these distinctive
groups of the pores to the “network” and “aggregate” pores.
At almost the same time progress was also made in the membrane transport
theory. Instead of interpreting the experimental data of membrane perfor-
mance by a set of simple transport equations, it is more fashionable nowa-
days to use the molecular dynamics (MD), by which the structure of the
polymeric membrane and the material transport through the membrane is
simulated by using a set of computer software. It is particularly interesting
to note that many of the MD simulation have resulted in the polymeric
membrane structure with bi- or multimodal pore size distributions.
Both the characterization and MD simulation, in which sophisticated instru-
ment or computer software, respectively, is used, describe the membrane
structure and the membrane transport very much in detail. However, they
have not necessarily offered a clear guideline to improve the membrane
performance. In this respect, a paper recently published by Araki et al. is
interesting as it shows the disappearance of aggregate pores in the nanocom-
posite TFC membrane in which single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
are incorporated.
In this chapter the progress made in the understanding of the RO membrane
structure and the RO membrane transport is reviewed in historical perspective.
1.1 RESEARCH BEFORE 2000

1.1.1 Preferential Sorption-Capillary Flow
(PS-CF) model
According to Sourirajan’s book, the following fundamental equation called
the Gibbs adsorption isotherm [1] was the basis for the earliest development
of RO membrane at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA).
Table 1.1 The Thickness of Pure Water Layer at the Air/Sodium

Chloride Solution Interface [5]
NaCl Concentration (molality) Pure Water Layer Thickness (nm)
0 0.56
0.747 0.38
1.603 0.34
2.435 0.24
Size of water molecule ¼ ca 0.1 nm.
1 ∂σ
Γ¼ (1.1)
RT ∂ ln a
where Γ is the surface excess, R the universal gas constant, T the absolute
temperature, σ the surface tension, and a is the activity.
The equation predicts the presence of a very thin pure water layer at the sur-
face of saline water. Table 1.1 summarizes the thickness of pure water layer
at the air/aqueous sodium chloride interface calculated by Eq. (1.1), assum-
ing a step function for the salt concentration vs the distance from the inter-
face [5]. The table shows that the thickness ranges from 0.24 to 0.56 nm,
depending on the concentration of sodium chloride.
Prof. Yuster challenged for the first time to skim the pure surface water layer
mechanically but failed. Believing in the presence of pure water layer at the
interface, Sourirajan continued the challenge but by a different approach.
Sourirajan tried to collect the pure water layer through a membrane under
pressure applied on the saline water. Sourirajan’s attempt was rewarded by
an immediate success. He was able to collect desalinated water as the per-
meate of the membrane! After the initial few attempts with cellulose and
silicone-coated cellulose membranes, a commercial CA membrane from
Sartorius was used, which resulted in a high salt rejection, enabling drinking
water production from seawater. However, the flux of water was miserably
low, with few drops of permeate collected in a day, and the membrane was
thought to be practically useless. It is noteworthy that Reid and Breton
obtained, quite independently, similar experimental results of seawater
desalination by using a CA membrane at the University of Florida [6]. It
took another 4 years for Loeb and Sourirajan to develop the CA membranes
with fluxes of practical usefulness, which opened up the avenue to the novel
membrane desalination process, called RO.
According to the PS-CF model, desalination by RO membrane occurs in the
following way: when salty water, for example, sodium chloride solution, is
1.2 RO Transport Mechanisms 5
Preferential sorption-capillary flow

model
Seawater
Purewater layer
ti
Membrane
Pore (r > ti)

Pore (r = ti)
n FIG. 1.1 PS-CF model.
in contact with the surface of a membrane, an interfacial pure water layer is

formed at the solution/membrane interface. Assuming an analogy between
the sodium chloride solution/air interface and the sodium chloride solution/
membrane interface, the thickness of the pure water layer, ti, should be as
low as a fraction of nanometer. In the presence of a pore, the diameter of
which is smaller than or equal to 2ti, the pure water layer will flow through
the pore under the pressure applied on the sodium chloride solution and
appear on the other side of the membrane as permeate (see Fig. 1.1). If
the pore size is larger than 2ti, the sodium chloride solution will flow through
the center of the pore, which leads to the leakage of sodium chloride into the
permeate.
On the basis of the above model, an appropriate chemical property of the
membrane surface that allows the formation of the pure water layer at the
membrane/solution interface, as well as the presence of the pores of appro-
priate sizes at the membrane surface, constitute the indispensable twin
requirements for the desalination of salty water.
1.2 RO TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

Several RO transport mechanisms were proposed, as discussed extensively
by Merten [7–9] at almost the same time as the PS-CF model was presented.
Let us now look into some of them.
According to Reid and Breton [6, 10, 11], the mass transport through the CA
membrane is caused by two mechanisms: (1) the molecules which can asso-
ciate with the membrane through hydrogen bonding, that is, water, combine
with the membrane and are transported through it by alignment-type diffu-
sion; (2) those which cannot enter into hydrogen bonding with the mem-
brane, that is, salts, are transported by hole-type diffusion. Consequently,
according to their mechanism, the presence of holes (pores) in the

membrane contributes to the leakage of the salt through the membrane
and hence should be avoided.
The solution (sorption)-diffusion (S-D) mechanism, which was favored by
Lonsdale et al. [2, 12–15], is currently the most broadly accepted mecha-
nism. According to the S-D model, both water and salt are sorbed in the
membrane at one side, diffuse through the membrane and desorbed at
the other side. Both sorption and diffusion coefficients are the values unique
for the membrane material when they are completely nonporous and perfect
[2, 12–15]. Any imperfectness that arises due to the presence of pores will
cause the leakage of the salt and should be avoided.
Banks and Sharples [16–18] also considered that the mechanism of RO was
one of diffusive flow through the pore-free layer on the membrane surface.
According to Michaels et al. [19], water transport in RO membrane occurs
by molecular diffusion through the polymer matrix, and solute transport
by parallel mechanisms involving sorption, activated diffusion, and
hydrodynamic flow.
According to Sherwood et al. [20], water and solute cross the membrane by
parallel processes of diffusion and pore flow.
The RO process has also been interpreted in terms of nonequilibrium
thermodynamics [21–23].
In all the RO transport models mentioned above, except for those based on
nonequilibrium thermodynamics that do not require any specific transport
mechanisms, pores are considered to be culprits who make the membrane
imperfect and allow the leakage of the salt.
Sourirajan’s PS-CF mechanism was therefore in direct collision against the
ones that were generally accepted in the 1960s, and hence considered at best
as controversial.
1.3 ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC IMAGE, EVIDENCE

FOR THE ABSENCE OF PORES?
In 1964 Riley took the first SEM picture of a freeze-dried RO membrane
[24, 25] and observed the asymmetric structure of its cross section, that
is, a thin dense layer that lies on top of a much thicker porous support layer.
When a picture was taken from above the top surface, no pores smaller than
10 nm could be observed. Since it is the top dense layer that governs the
mass transport of the membrane, Riley’s SEM picture was used to justify
the requirement of “nonporous” and “perfect” membrane to enable the
1.3 Electron Microscopic Image, Evidence for the Absence of Pores? 7
“semipermeability” of the RO membrane. It is interesting to note that the

discussions were made in 1960s based on the resolution of 10 nm that could
be achieved for the polymeric membrane by SEM at that time.
In 1970 Schultz and Asunmaa [26] took high-resolution SEM pictures that
showed more details of an ultrathin dense CA membrane of thickness 60 nm.
As shown in Fig. 1.2, circular unit cells with an average diameter of 18.8 nm
were compacted in irregular manner at the membrane surface. Assuming
that the spaces between the unit cells are filled with water and subtracting
the thickness of the monolayer of immobilized water at the unit cell wall, the
pore radius was calculated to be 1.85 nm. They also found a similar structure
at the top surface of an asymmetric RO membrane. It is noteworthy that
the pore size obtained by Schultz and Asunmaa was very large compared
to those that were later obtained by many other methods.
A more detailed analysis of the membrane surface was made by Paner et al.
in 1973 [27]. Fig. 1.3 shows the cross-sectional structure of a polyamide
n FIG. 1.2 Surface SEM image of ultrathin cellulose acetate membrane. (From R.D. Schultz, S.K. Asunmaa,
Ordered water and the ultrastructure of the cellular plasma membrane, in: J.F. Danielli, A.C. Riddiford, M. Rosenberg
(Eds.), Recent Progress in Surface Science. Academic Press, New York, N.Y., 1970, pp. 291–332.)
n FIG. 1.3 Cross-sectional image of polyamide-hydrazide membrane. (From M. Panar, H.H. Hoehn, R.R.
Hebert, The nature of asymmetry in reverse osmosis membranes. Macromolecules 6 (1973) 777–780.)
hydrazide RO membrane near the surface. The image shows that the surface
is covered with a closest monolayer packing of micelles with diameters from
40 to 80 nm. Beneath the monolayer there is a porous layer where the spher-
ical micelles are irregularly packed with void spaces of 7.5–10.0 nm. In the
surface monolayer, the micelles are contacting with each other, compressed,
deformed, and few void spaces exist between the micelles. Most interest-
ingly, a similar structure was found at the surface of the polyamide hydra-
zide solution prior to its casting to a thin film.
According to Kesting [28], “nodule,” which Schultz and Asunmaa observed
as “micelle,” is the aggregate of sphere-shaped “individual
macromolecules.” Further according to Kesting, the void spaces between
the macromolecular spheres form the pores of the RO membrane, while
the void spaces between the nodules correspond to those of ultrafiltration
(UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes. Therefore, even the SEM images
were interpreted in two different ways. One group of researchers used the
image as an evidence for the absence of pores [24, 25], while the other
group used it as an evidence for the presence of pores at the RO membrane
surface [26–28].
1.4 RO TRANSPORT MODELS

The RO transport models were also made based on the absence or presence
of the pores. The S-D model is considered as the most popular model that
does not require the presence of any pores, as already mentioned. Briefly,
the model comprises the following three steps for the transfer of both solvent
(water) and the solute (salt) through the membrane: (1) absorption to the
membrane, (2) diffusion through the membrane, and (3) desorption from
1.4 RO Transport Models 9
Membrane
Absorption Desorption
Diffusion
n FIG. 1.4 S-D model.
the membrane (Fig. 1.4). The chemical potential gradient from the upstream
side to the downstream side of the membrane is the driving force for the
mass transfer. When the difference in hydrostatic pressure is greater than
the difference in osmotic pressure between the upstream and downstream
sides of the membrane, a chemical potential difference of water across
the membrane drives water against natural direction of water flow by
osmosis.
Thus the water transport through the membrane is given by.
NA ¼ LðΔp Δπ Þ (1.2)
where NA is the water flux through the membrane (subscript A denotes

water), L the water permeability coefficient, Δp the transmembrane pressure
difference, and Δπ is the osmotic pressure difference between the upstream
and downstream sides of the membrane.
L is given by
DSV
L¼ (1.3)
RTl
where D is the diffusivity of water in the membrane, S the water solubility in
the membrane, V the partial molar volume of water, and l is the thickness of
the skin layer of the membrane. Thus, among the three steps given in
Fig. 1.4, steps (1) and (3) are represented by S and step (2) by D.
Assuming that the passage of water and salt through the membrane are inde-
pendent of each other, salt transport through the membrane occurs by the
concentration difference between the upstream and the downstream side
of the membrane as the driving force.
Then, the salt transport through the membrane is given by.

NB ¼ B Cfs Cp (1.4)
where NB is the salt flux (subscript B denotes salt), B the salt transport
parameter, and Cfs and Cp are the salt concentration at the membrane
surface on the feed side and in the permeate, respectively. B is further
given by.
DB KB
B¼ (1.5)
l
where DB is the diffusivity of salt through the membrane and KB is the par-
tition coefficient of salt between the solution and the membrane. Thus, KB is
a parameter representing steps (1) and (3) and DB step (2).
Lonsdale has also shown how the permeation flux and selectivity can be
calculated when L and B are given. (The details of the derivation of the
equations are given in Chapter 4.)
There are also a number of papers in which the RO transport is discussed
assuming the presence of pore. One of those is the Gl€
uckauf model [29].
Suppose water phase of dielectric constant D (dimensionless) and the poly-
mer phase of dielectric constant D0 are in contact with each other and there is
a pore of radius r in the polymer phase. When an ion enters the pore, the
potential of the ion steadily increases and it reaches a maximum value at
the mean distance of the ionic cloud, 1 =κ , according to the Debye-H€ uckel
model. When this distance is exceeded, an ion of the opposite charge will
enter the pore, reducing the potential of the first ion due to the ion-pair for-
mation. The work required to bring the particle to the distance of 1 =κ from
the pore entrance was approximated by the work required to bring the ion
into the cavity of spherical shape as shown in Fig. 1.5. The work, Δ W00 , is
then given by
NZ 2 E2 ð1 αÞQ
ΔW 00 ¼ (1.6)
8πD 8:854 1012 r + αbQ
where Q is D/D0 and α is the fraction of solid angles over the whole sphere,
as shown in Fig. 1.5, which can be given by
1=2
α ¼ 1 1 + κ2 r2 (1.7)
and b is the ionic radius.

The probability of finding the ion at this energy level is exp(Δ W00 /RT).
Thus, the concentration in the pore is c2 exp(Δ W00 /RT). [c2 is the feed
Jα
s 1-α
J (1-α)
s s1
R
Ion
Membrane
n FIG. 1.5 Gl€uckauf model.
concentration and the same as Cfi in Eq. (1.4).] Assuming that the concen-
tration in the pore is equal to the permeate concentration, c3,
!
NZ2 E2 ð1 αÞQ
c3 ¼ c2 exp (1.8)
8πD 8:854 1012 r + αbQ
Eq. (1.8) predicts that the permeate concentration c3, (1) increases with
increasing ionic radius b, (2) increases with increasing value of α, that is,
of c2 (κ increases with an increase in c2), (3) increases with increasing
pore radius, r, (4) decreases with increasing value of Q, that is, D/D0 , and
(5) decreases with increasing ionic charge Z, all of which are in agreement
with the trends found in the RO experimental results.
Another paper based on the pore model was published by Jonsson and
Boesen in 1975 [30]. When Eq. (1.10) of their paper is slightly modified,
the solute separation, f 0 , is given by the following equation:

uτδ
exp
D
f0 ¼ 1 (1.9)
b uτδ
1+ exp 1
K D
where u is the water velocity in the pore, τ the tortuosity factor, δ the mem-
brane thickness, and D is the diffusivity of solute in water. b and K are the
friction parameter and the ratio of solute concentration between the inside
and outside of the pore, respectively. It is worth noting that both b and K
are given as the function of the ratio (solute radius/pore radius). In other
words, the above equation requires pore radius to be solved.
Later Eq. (1.9) was further modified by considering the interaction force
working between the solute and the pore wall and the following equation
was derived:
8 2 3 9
>
> >
>
<ð R 6 expðuðr Þδ=DÞ 7 = ð R
f0 ¼1 6 7 uðr Þrdr = uðr Þrdr
> 4 bðr Þ 5 >
>
: 0 1+ ½expðuðrÞδ=DÞ 1 >
; 0
eφðrÞ=RT
(1.10)
where r is the radial distance from the pore center and R is the pore radius. The
analogy between Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10) is quite obvious. The difference is that
u and b are now given as the function of r and the potential function φ(r) is
introduced to express the interaction force working between the solute and the
pore wall. Furthermore, the solute separation was given as an average of all
pores when the pore size distribution was taken into account as follows:
ð∞ ð R
Y ðRÞ c3 ðr ÞuðrÞrdr dR
1 ∞
f0 ¼1 ð∞
0
ðR (1.11)
c2
Y ðRÞ uðr Þrdr dR
∞ 0
where
c3 exp ðuðr Þδ=DÞ
¼ (1.12)
c2 bðr Þ
1+ ½ exp ðuðr Þδ=DÞ 1
eφðrÞ=RT
and Y(R) is the Gaussian distribution function.
Eq. (1.11) allows us to obtain the pore size distribution of a membrane by
fitting the calculated to the experimental solute separation data. It was soon
found that a bimodal Gaussian distribution made the best fit for the tested
CA membranes (Fig. 1.6) [3, 31]. The bimodal pore size distribution is con-
sistent with the existence of two kinds of pores at the membrane surface,
namely the polymer network pores and the polymer aggregate pores; the for-
mer kind arises from the spaces between the polymer segments constituting
the polymer network within each supermolecular polymer aggregate in the
film casting solution, and the latter kind arises from the spaces between
the neighboring such as supermolecular polymer aggregate themselves
(4) (Fig. 1.7).
Furthermore, it was found that the pore size changes by annealing of the CA
membrane at high temperatures, as illustrated in Table 1.2.
30
77°C
25 67°C
Unshrunk
20
Y (Rb) × 10–10, m–1
30
15
Y (Rb) × 10–10, m–1
Unshrunk
20
10
10
77°C
67°C
5
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0 10
Rb × 1010, m
n FIG. 1.6 Bimodal pore size distribution of cellulose acetate membrane. (From K. Chan, L. Tinghui, T.
Matsuura, S. Sourlrajan, Effect of shrinkage on pore size and pore size distribution of cellulose acetate
reverse osmosis membranes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 23 (1984) 124–133.)
Polymer
segment
Polymer
aggregate
Aggregate pore Network pore
n FIG. 1.7 Network pore and aggregate pore.
Another model was proposed by Singh et al. in 1998 [32]. The model is based
on the sieving mechanism, that is, the solute rejection is either 100% or 0%
depending on whether the solute radius is larger or smaller than the pore
radius, and the pore size distribution is given by the log-normal distribution
function. Although the log-normal distribution had been employed in a
Table 1.2 Effect of Annealing on Pore Radii

Radius of annealed membrane, ×1010 m
Radius of unannealed membrane, ×1010 m Annealed 67°C Annealed at 77°C
70.9 58.3 55.5

69.9 56.9 50.5
68.9 49.9 46.5
67.9 47.7 43.5
66.9 44.9 40.3
65.9 42.9 34.9
64.9 40.2 24.3
63.9 36.0 8.4
62.9 25.4 8.4
61.9 9.2 8.4
60.9 9.2 8.4
59.9 9.2 8.4
58.9 9.2 8.4
57.9 9.2 8.4
50.9 9.2 8.4
40.9 9.2 8.4
30.9 9.2 8.4
20.9 9.2 8.4
10.9 9.2 8.4
9.9 9.2 8.4
The table shows that the pore of 70.9 1010 m of an unannealed membrane became 58.3 and 55.5 1010 m after
annealing at 67 and 77°C, respectively, etc.
From K. Chan, L. Tinghui, T. Matsuura, S. Sourlrajan, Effect of shrinkage on pore size and pore size distribution of cellulose
acetate reverse osmosis membranes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 23 (1984) 124–133.
number of publications before Singh, all of them were for UF membranes.

Singh et al.’s work was very unique since the applicability of the log-normal
distribution was extended to nanofiltration (NF) and RO membranes and also
to the pore sizes measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM). According to
their method a straight line is drawn through the selectivity vs solute diameter
plots on a log-normal probability graph. From the straight line the mean pore
diameter is obtained as the solute size that corresponds to 50% separation and
the standard deviation from the ratio of the solute sizes corresponding to
84.13% and 50% separation (see Fig. 1.8). Singh et al. used ethylene glycol
solute of molecular weight that goes down to as low as 1000 Da in their
experiments, and obtained a pore diameter as low as 0.7 nm for the sulfonated
polyphenylene oxide NF/RO membrane they have prepared. Later the
method was applied to a number of RO membranes using the solute of molec-
ular weight as low as that of sucrose (342 Da).
1.5 Support to the Pore Model? 15
99.9
99
Solute separation, %
90
70
50
30
10S r2 = 0.95
10
15S r2 = 0.94
12S r2 = 0.95
1 10S r2 = 0.96
0.1
1 10 100
Solute diameter (nm)
n FIG. 1.8 Log-normal distribution.
1.5 SUPPORT TO THE PORE MODEL?

The mainstream of RO transport was the S-D model throughout all those
years and this situation remains unchanged until now.
Nevertheless, a strong support of the pore theory came all of sudden from
Krause’s group in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, in
1994 by a paper on characterization of CA membrane by SANS [33, 34].
They prepared ultrathin CA membranes and transferred them to the top of a
substrate layer after layer to make a multilayer (1000 layers) sample,
which was then subjected to SANS studies. The scattered intensity I(Q)
was obtained as a function of Q, which is called the scattering vector and
defined as

4π θ
Q¼ sin (1.13)
λ 2
where λ is the wavelength of incident radiation and θ is the scattering angle.

Analyzing I(Q) vs Q plot obtained from the multilayer sample swollen in
D2O, they found that the membrane pore sizes were typically 1–1.5, 10,
20, and 55 nm and concluded that in the dense layer of the CA membrane
there were pores of different origins. Especially, two largest ones seemed
to correspond to the sizes of the interstitial spaces between the nodules
(shown as supermolecular aggregates in Fig. 1.7) and nodule aggregates.
Further, dry asymmetric CA membranes with and without annealing were
prepared and subjected to SANS studies. They found the following pore
sizes for the unannealed and annealed membranes.
Unannealed membrane: 0.5, 6, and 13.5 nm.

Annealed membrane: 0.3, 2, 6, and 13 nm.
Interestingly, in the unannealed membrane pore sizes in a range between 3
and 6 nm were missing. In other words, the pore size increased abruptly from
3 to 6 nm. On the other hand, no pore sizes were missing in the annealed
membrane. It should be reminded that Chan et al. also reported, by analyz-
ing the solute separation data, that pore radii in a range between 1 and 5 nm
(Fig. 1.6) are missing, while the missing range is much narrowed by
annealing.
The SANS was later used to measure the pore size of RO TFC membrane
by Singh et al. [35]. The intensity of scattering was collected in the Q range
of 0.018–0.030 Å1, and a correlation peak was found in the range of
0.0505–0.0555 Å1. From the signal, the pore size of 11–12 nm was calcu-
lated, which was likely due to the orderly arrangement of the repeating units
of aggregated polyamide chains.
1.6 RESEARCH AFTER 2001

1.6.1 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PALS)
A new characterization technique emerged in the begnning of the millenium
when PALS was applied to RO membrane by Simazu et al. in 2001 [36]. As
mentioned by the authors, PALS had already been used to charactrerize gas
separation membranes before their work, but they were the first ones who
employed PALS to the RO membrane.
Asymmetric CA RO membranes were prepared and annealed at 75–90°C
before the membranes were freeze dried. The PA TFC membrane was also
prepared by in situ polymerization and the top thin layer was removed from
the substrate and vauum dried.
Using the PALS signals, they calculated the pore size by the equation
1
R 2πR
τpickoff ¼ 0:5 1 + sin =2π (1.14)
R + ΔR R + ΔR
where τpickoff is o-Ps lifetime pick-off (ns), R the pore radius (nm,
called vacancy radius by Shimazu et al.), and ΔR ¼0.166 nm. For the CA
membrane of high NaCl separation, the shorter lifetime component of
τ3 ¼2.06–2.16 ns was observed and the corresponding pore radii were
0.29–0.30 nm. They also observed longer lifetime component of 131–134 ns
for the CA membrane of low NaCl separation but no pore sizes could be
assigned to those signals. On the other hand, for the polyamide TFC mem-
branes the pore size measurement resulted in 0.22–0.25 nm.
1.6 Research after 2001 17
Simazu et al.’s work was soon followed by the work of Kwak’s group who
applied PALS for the measurement of TFC polyamide (PA) membranes
[37]. They prepared the TFC membrane by in situ polymerization of trime-
soyl chloride (TMC) in n-hexane and m-phenylenediamine (MPD) in aque-
ous phase, but added a small amount of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) into the
aqueous phase. The water flux increased significantly while NaCl rejection
decreased slightly by the addition of DMSO. When the dried membranes
were subjected to PALS, four well-defined peaks were exhibited and the
third and fourth lifetime components, called τ3 and τ4, respectively, were
used to calculate the pore sizes of the membranes. They concluded that
there were two types of pores having radii of 0.21–0.24 nm from τ3 and
0.35–0.45 nm from τ4, corresponding to the network pore and the aggregate
pore, respectively, by Sourirajan. As the amount of DMSO increases the
aggregate pore’s share in the pore size distribution increases (Fig. 1.9).
As forward osmosis (FO) and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) are studied
intensively for the next-generation membrane technology, PALS was
applied to investigate the semipermeable membranes developed for FO
and PRO.
Network pore
C
HN O O
C
O O
C
O HN N C N HO O Chain 2
H H C C
C C
O O HN
C
O NH
C
O NH O NH
C
O HN
C C H
N O N O
H C C
O HN
C
HN O O NH
C
O NH
C
NH O H
N O
C C C H
O C OH
N O
Chain 1 O HN
C C
O NH O
C C
O
Network pore
Aggregate pore
n FIG. 1.9 Two pores of TFC membrane detected by PALS. (From S.H. Kim, S.-Y. Kwak, T. Suzuki, Positron annihilation spectroscopic evidence to demonstrate the flux-
enhancement mechanism in morphology-controlled thin-film-composite (TFC) membrane, Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 (2005) 1764–1770.)
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right and proper; but to exalt this into a command, and represent
obedience to it as a meritorious act, is to turn the mind to trivial
outward performances, and to teach men to rest on them as on the
great duties of religion. And here the mere putting of the house into
order is represented as so grave a matter, that two angels are sent
home with every Israelite on the Sabbath eve, to take cognizance of
the matter. The story of the angels is evidently a fable, and is
another proof of the fictitious character of the oral law; but it shows
how the rabbies wandered from the substance of religion to the mere
shadow of external observances. The Sabbath lamp here mentioned
is another instance of the same kind:—
‫ויהא זהיר לעשות נר יפה דאמר רב הונא הרגיל בנר שבת להשתדל בו לעשותו‬
‫יפה הוין ליה בנים תלמידי חכמים ׃‬
“Let a man be careful to have a handsome lamp, for Rav Huna says,
He that is accustomed to take great care in trimming his Sabbath
lamp well, will have children who shall be disciples of the wise, i.e.
learned men.” No one can deny that this is a mere external act, but
yet it is represented as meritorious, and payment is promised: but
the mode in which the performance is required is still more
calculated to promote the idea, that this external act is of great
importance:—
‫ואחד אנשים ואחד נשים חייבין להיות בבתיהן נר דלוק בשבת אפילו אין לו מה‬
‫יאכל שואל על הפתחים ולוקח שמן ומדליק את הנר שזה בכלל עונג שבת וחייב‬
‫לברך קודם הדלקה ברוך אתה יי אלהינו מלך העולם אשר קדשנו במצוותיו וצונו‬
‫להדליק נר של שבת ׃‬
“Men and women are equally obligated to have a lighted lamp in
their house on the Sabbath. Yea, though a man have nothing to eat,
he must beg from door to door, and get oil, and light the lamp, for
this is an essential part of the Sabbath delight. He is also bound to
pronounce the benediction, Blessed art thou, O Lord, King of the
world! who has sanctified us by his commandments, and
commanded us to light the Sabbath lamp.” (Hilchoth Shabbath, c. v.
1.) Of course every Jew, who thinks that a Sabbath lamp is as
necessary as food, and that God requires it even from him that has
no food, must think that it is of great value, and that obedience to this
command is a most meritorious act. And yet all must confess that it
is a mere outward performance, which may be observed by him who
has neither the fear nor the love of God. The tendency of all these
laws is the same, that is, to draw the mind away from the solemn
duties of religion, and to persuade the impenitent sinner that these
observances will atone for his transgressions. When conscience
reminds him of sins, not those which he has committed long since, of
which he has repented, and which, he has forsaken, but of those
which he has been committing the past week, and intends to commit
again, as soon as the Sabbath is over, it is silenced by an
enumeration of the various acts of obedience, which are to be set
down at the other side of the account. He remembers that he has
never left a pot of victuals on a forbidden fire, nor carried his purse
on the Sabbath-day a distance of more than four ells, nor asked a
Gentile to do work for him. That, on the contrary, he has always
prepared his table, and lighted his Sabbath lamp, and pronounced
the benediction; or, in other words, that he has kept the Sabbath
according to its constitution, and that, therefore, though he had been
guilty of idolatry, he shall obtain forgiveness. Thus these rabbinic
precepts have a direct tendency to mislead the multitude, to harden
them in sin, and thus to make and keep them unfit for that great
Sabbath, which yet remains for the people of God.
No. XXX.
SABBATIC LAWS CONTINUED.
That religion, which is true, and has God for its author, is, like the
light of the sun, the common property of all who will only open their
eyes, and gaze upon the gift of God. It is not a religion for the rich or
the studious only, but is equally open to the understanding and the
hearts of the poor and unlearned. And therefore the Bible describes
the heavenly wisdom thus—“She standeth in the top of high places,
by the way in the places of the paths; she crieth at the gates at the
entry of the city, at the coming in at the doors: Unto you, O men, I
call; and my voice is to the sons of man. O ye simple, understand
wisdom; and, ye fools, be of an understanding heart.” (Prov. viii. 2-5.)
And so God invites men of every class by the mouth of the prophet
—“Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters, and he that
hath no money; come ye, buy and eat; yea, come, buy wine and milk
without money and without price.” (Isa. lv. 1.) Every religion of man’s
making, presents, on the contrary, peculiar advantages to the rich
and the learned. It offers salvation either as the purchase of
almsgiving, or as the reward of religious study, or it makes religion so
difficult and intricate as to put it out of the poor labouring man’s
power to acquire any competent knowledge of its requirements. And
any system that does so must necessarily be false. Religion is as
necessary to the soul as daylight is to the corporeal eye, and it would
be a hard case, indeed, if the poor, who want it most, should be
excluded from the possibility of acquiring its consolations; or if, in the
day of judgment, the man who devotes his life to books should have
a better chance, than he who labours hard to get an honest living for
himself and his family; yet this is the case with the labouring classes
of the Jews. The religion of the oral law has so perplexed even the
simplest commandments, that an unlearned man has no chance of
being able to keep them. If nothing more were required for salvation
than the rabbinic sanctification of the Sabbath-day the majority of the
Jewish people must despair of attaining it; for the accurate
knowledge of the innumerable precepts and distinctions, which is
indispensable to obedience, requires time and study, which no
labouring man can bestow. And we are convinced that a
considerable portion of the Jewish population of this city live in
continual profanation of the Sabbath-day, if the rabbinic explanations
be true. Either they move something which they ought not to move,
or they carry something which they ought not to carry; and, if they do
it wilfully, render themselves liable to the utmost severity of the law.
For instance, the rabbies have determined that in one place it is
lawful to move or carry certain things on the Sabbath-day, but in
another place the very some act is unlawful, and calls down extreme
punishment. They distinguish between these places thus—
‫ רשות‬, ‫ רשות היחיד ורשות הרבים כרמלית ומקום פטור‬, ‫ארבע רשויות לשבת‬
‫היחיד הוא המקום המוקף מחיצות גבוהות עשרה ויש בו ארבעה טפחים על‬
‫ארבעה ואפילו אם יש בו כמה מילין אם מוקף לדירה ודלתותיו נעולות בלילה הוי‬
‫ וכן חריץ עמוק עשרה ורחב ד׳ על ד׳ או יותר וכן‬. ‫ ודיר וסהר וחצר‬, ‫רשות היחיד‬
‫ וכותלים המקיפין רשות היחיד על גביהן‬, ‫תל גבוה י׳ ורחב ארבעה על ארבעה‬
‫ ואויר רשות היחיד הוא רשות היחיד עד לרקיע ואפילו כלי‬, ‫וחוריהן רשות היחיד‬
‫ ורשות‬, ‫אם גבוה י׳ ורחב ד׳ על ד׳ כגון תיבה או כוורת או מגדל הוי רשות היחיד‬
‫היחיד הוא רחובות ושווקים הרחבים י׳ אמה על י׳ אמה ומפולשים משער לשער‬
‫ וכל דבר שהוא ברשות הרבים ואינו גבוה ג׳ טפחים חשוב‬, ‫וששים רבוא עוברין בו‬
‫ ואם‬, ‫כקרקע והוא רשות הרבים אפילו קוצים או צואה שאין רבים דורסין עליהם‬
‫הוא גבוה ג׳ ומג׳ עד ט׳ ולא ט׳ בכלל אם הוא רחב ד׳ על ד׳ הוי כרמלית פחות‬
‫מכאן הוי מקום פטור ׃‬
In reference to the Sabbath, places are distinguished into four sorts
of jurisdiction. 1st, the private jurisdiction; 2d, the public jurisdiction;
3d, the place called Karmelith; 4th, the place which is free.
By a private jurisdiction is meant a place surrounded by walls, ten
handbreadths high, and in which there is a space of four
handbreadths by four. But even though it should contain many miles,
if it be inclosed for habitation, and its gates be bolted at night, it is a
private jurisdiction. A lodging-place, an inclosed space, and a court,
are considered as in the same class. And thus, also, a pit which is
ten handbreadths deep, and whose breadth is four by four, or more;
and a raised place which is ten handbreadths high, and whose
breadth is four by four. The top of the walls, also, by which a private
jurisdiction is surrounded, and the openings in them, are considered
as private jurisdiction. The air of a private jurisdiction, up to the
firmament, is also considered; and even a vessel like a chest, if it be
ten handbreadths high, and in breadth four by four. A hollow vessel,
or a tower, is also considered as a private jurisdiction.
The term public jurisdiction includes roads and streets, if their
breadth be sixteen ells by sixteen, and they be open from gate to
gate, and six hundred thousand persons pass thereon. And
everything in a public jurisdiction, which is not three handbreadths
high, is reckoned as the ground, and is public jurisdiction: even
thorns and filth upon which the public does not tread.
But if it be from three to nine handbreadths high, but not nine
entirely, and its breadth be four by four, it is called a Karmelith.
“If it be less, it is called a free place.” (Orach Chaiim, 344.)
Now it may well be doubted, concerning many Jews in this city,
whether they are acquainted with even this portion of the Sabbath
laws, but it is quite certain that they are ignorant of the innumerable
modes of possible transgression which arise from these distinctions;
for the oral law then goes on to define what is lawful concerning
each. In a public jurisdiction he may move anything four ells:—
‫כל אדם יש לו ד׳ אמות ברשות הרבים שיכול לטלטל בהם ׃‬
“Every man has got four ells within which he may move things.” Or,
as Rambam expresses it—
‫רשות היחיד ומקים פטור מותר לטלטל בכולן אפילו היה אורך כל אחת משתיהן‬
‫ אבל רשות הרבים והכרמלית אין מטלטלין בהן אלא‬, ‫כמה מילין מטלטל בכולה‬
‫בארבע אמות ׃‬
“In a private jurisdiction, and in a free place it is lawful to move things
the whole length of the place, even though the length of each should
be many miles. But in a public jurisdiction or a Karmelith things may
not be moved more than four ells.” (Hilchoth Shabbath, c. xxiv. 11.)
Now, it may well be asked, upon what passage of the law of Moses
these distinctions are grounded, and what there is in a public
jurisdiction which converts an act lawful in a private jurisdiction, into
a sin to be expiated only by stoning the offender? For instance, in a
private jurisdiction a man may carry certain matters for miles without
violating the Sabbath commands, but if he venture out into a public
jurisdiction with a pocket-handkerchief or a snuff-box, or a half-crown
in his pocket, and carry it only five ells, he is guilty of death; and if
the Talmudists held the reigns of power, would be led out as soon as
the Sabbath was over, and stoned. Reason revolts against such
doctrine, the act is the very same in both cases, and is therefore in
both cases a sin, or in both cases lawful. Humanity shudders at the
thought of stoning a man for carrying a pocket-handkerchief, and the
Bible teaches us that a religion, teaching such inexorable and
wanton cruelty, cannot be from God. It is true that at present the
power of Christianity protects Israelites from such harsh treatment;
but wherever the Talmud has any degree of influence, Israel groans
under its bondage. Many a time have we seen Jews with their
pocket-handkerchief tied round their knee like a garter, for this is
lawful, though to carry it in his pocket would be a grave and capital
offence. And we once knew an Israelite who was taking a walk on
the Sabbath-day, and being addressed by a Gentile beggar, put his
hand into his pocket and gave the poor man a small coin. He was
observed by some Talmudists, who immediately attacked him for his
profanation of the Sabbath. Afraid of losing his character, and being
at that time more anxious for the praise of man than that which
cometh of God, he defended himself by saying, that he had
unintentionally taken out the money in his pocket, but had
remembered it when addressed by the beggar, and therefore took
the opportunity of getting rid of that which it was not lawful to carry.
The Talmudists were satisfied, and their wrath changed into profound
admiration for his piety. These cases exemplify the practical working
of the rabbinic system. It burdens the consciences of the sincere,
and makes the unscrupulous hypocrites. It may be replied that such
things could not happen in England, and that here the Jews are too
enlightened to observe such distinctions. But every one who makes
this reply condemns modern Judaism as a religion unfit for the
observation of the enlightened, and if he be a conscientious man,
should protest against doctrines which he believes to be false, and
laws which he abhors as cruel. These Sabbatic laws are a part, an
essential part, of modern Judaism. There is not any part of the oral
law upon which Talmudists lay more stress. The man, therefore, who
does not observe them has changed his religion. He has got a new
faith, as really, as if he had been baptized and professed Christianity.
Every Israelite who carries a pocket-handkerchief in his pocket
through the streets of London on the Sabbath-day, has apostatized
from that Jewish religion, which has been professed for near two
thousand years, and practically declares that the religion of the
synagogue is false. How then can he, without hypocrisy, profess to
believe in the religion of the Jews? or how can he, as an honest
man, uphold a system which he regards as false, and which would
have him executed as a criminal if it had the power? If such persons,
who live in the habitual transgression of all the Sabbatic laws, have
any regard for truth and for Divine revelation, they should openly
declare their sentiments, announce to the world that they have
forsaken the religion of their fathers, and assert that religion which
they regard as true. The blindest and most bigoted Talmudist is a far
more respectable man, and more acceptable in the sight of God,
than he who pretends to profess a religion in which he does not
believe, and whose precepts he regards as fanatical and
superstitious.
But to return. From the above laws it appears that it is a sin to carry
anything in a public jurisdiction a distance of more than four ells. But
suppose, then, that there was something which the Talmudists might
find it convenient or desirable to move to a greater distance, is there
no provision to effect its conveyance? Yes. These scrupulous
persons, who would stone a man to death for carrying anything five
ells, have an expedient for conveying it a hundred miles if necessary:
—
‫לגיכך מותר לאדם לעקור החפץ מרשות הרבים ולתנו לחברו שאצלו בתוך ד׳‬
‫אמותיו וחברו לחברו שאצלו אפילו ק׳ מילין אע׳׳פ שהחפץ הולך כמה מילין ברשות‬
‫הרבים שכל אחד לא יטלטלנו אלא בתוך ד׳ אמותיו ׃‬
“Therefore it is lawful for a man to move a matter from the public
jurisdiction, and to give it to his neighbour, who is within a distance of
four ells; and his neighbour to his neighbour again, and so on, even
for a hundred miles. For although the thing itself go many miles,
each person has only moved it his four ells.” (Orach Chaiim, 348.)
We have often heard of the wonderful effects of division of labour,
but never knew before that it could convert a capital offence into an
innocent employment. Surely it is not necessary to prove that if it be
unlawful for one person to do a particular act, it is equally unlawful
for a hundred persons to combine for its performance. This law really
has more the appearance of a caricature devised by some enemy of
the oral law, than the grave decision of religious men in a matter of
life and death. But if we examine a little further, we shall find that it is
unlawful to move this same thing, whatever it be, from one
jurisdiction to another, though that other be close at hand:—
‫כשם שאסור לטלטל בכל הכרמלית אסור להוציא ממנה לרשות היחיד או לרשות‬
‫ ואם הוציא או‬, ‫הרבים או להכניס לכרמלית מרשות היחיד או מרשות הרבים‬
‫הכניס פטור ׃‬
“As it is unlawful to move anything in the place called Karmelith, so it
is unlawful to carry anything out of it into a public or private
jurisdiction, or, vice versa, to introduce anything from either of these
into the Karmelith. But if any one does either he is not guilty,” that is,
he is only to get a flogging, but not to be stoned. An unlearned man
who had already seen something conveyed by the above expedient,
might easily be led to commit an offence of this kind. His untutored
mind might not perceive why the one should be sinful, if the other
was lawful; but such an assertion of common sense would draw
down certain chastisement. At all events, he might be tempted to put
his head from one jurisdiction into another, especially if he was
standing in the street, and was offered a drink by a friend in a house,
he might put his head into the window and take what was offered,
but would soon find, to his cost, that he had broken one of the
Sabbatic laws:—
‫לא יעמוד אדם ברשות היחיד ויוציא ראשו לרשות הרבים וישתה שם או איפכא‬
‫אלא אם כן יכניס ראשו ורובו למקים שהוא שותה דכיון שהוא צריך לאלו המים אנו‬
‫חוששין שמא יביאם אליו אבל מותר לעמוד ברשות היחיד או ברשות הרבים‬
‫ולשתות בכרמלית ׃‬
“A man may not stand in a private jurisdiction, and put forth his head
into a public jurisdiction, and then drink, or vice versa. But if he does
so, let him introduce his head and most of his body into the place in
which he drinks, for as he wants the water, we fear lest he should
take it to himself (into the place where he is standing). But it is lawful
to stand in a private or public jurisdiction and drink in that which is
called Karmelith. (Orach Chaiim, 349.) It is evident that no unlearned
man can stand a fair chance with laws like these. He could not hope
even to escape corporal punishment. But if the accurate observance
of such laws was the condition of salvation, he would have reason to
despair. The most honest desire to yield obedience and the utmost
exertion of his understanding will not help him, nor compensate for
his ignorance. If, for instance, he should conclude, because it is
unlawful for himself to have his head in one jurisdiction and his body
in another whilst he is drinking, that it would be equally unlawful for
cattle in the same predicament to get food, he would be mistaken:—
‫בהמה שהיתה רובה בחוץ וראשה בפנים אובסין אותה ׃‬
“A beast that has got most of its body outside, and its head inside,
may be fed.” And if he should take this as the general rule of his
conduct, he would be mistaken again, for long-necked animals form
an exception:—
‫ובגמל עד שיהא ראשו ורובו בפנים הואיל וצוארו ארוך ׃‬
“But in the ease of the camel, he must have his head and most of his
body inside, because his neck is long.” (Hilchoth Shabbath, c. xxv.
1.) And so with endless cases which arise from this one distinction of
places into four classes. Judaism is in all its parts a religion for the
studious, and for them only. For an unlearned man to keep the
Sabbath, as the oral law requirers, is absolutely impossible. And
after all, what good does it bestow upon those who spend their life in
the study? Does it improve the heart, or open more abundant views
of the Divine mercy, or fill the soul with love to man? That it sharpens
the wit and subtlety, we do not doubt, but that is but small profit to
man in general. The criminal law of any country will do the same,
and in truth the oral law is very little more than the rabbinical criminal
code. Its great subject is guilty and not guilty. And even in this it does
not address itself to the conscience, and lead a man to consider the
workings of the heart and the wanderings of the thought, and shew
him sin at its fountain-head. It is a mere dry detail of external
observances, as may be seen from the numerous specimens
adduced in these papers, and as might be shown more fully by
translating the whole. If real devout feeling and improvement of the
heart in the fear of God and the love of man be true religion, we
might expect it, if anywhere, in the Sabbath laws. The Sabbath is
that holy day which God has set apart to raise men’s thoughts from
earth to heaven. It is that period of earned relaxation on which even
the poor and the unlearned may lay aside their worldly cares and
occupations, and meditate upon the love and will of God, and that
eternity to which he is hastening. In the laws, then, respecting the
observance of this day, we might naturally expect the spirit of
devotion to be manifested; but in the oral law we look in vain for
anything of the kind. Its directions about the Sabbath are one
continued dry detail of external observances, which to a
conscientious man acquainted with them, must constitute a load
upon his conscience, sufficient to make the Sabbath the most
unhappy day of all the seven. But as to the poor and labouring
classes, who have no time for study, it is impossible that they should
know, and much more that they should keep, all that is necessary for
the right observation of the rabbinic Sabbath. If, therefore, the oral
law were true, the poor must lose a large portion of the blessings,
and even be in danger of perdition. Nay, if it be true, then we must
believe that God has given a religion impossible to be observed by
the poor, and offering great advantages to the rich and learned, that
is that He is a respecter of persons, though Moses and the prophets
teach the contrary. But we would ask our readers, what use is it to
them to profess a religion of which they can never attain a competent
knowledge? We venture to affirm that the majority of Israelites do not
know enough of the oral law to help them to keep the Sabbath, much
less to observe the six hundred and thirteen commandments; can it
be said, then, that they possess a religion with which they are not
even acquainted? If the knowledge and practice of the oral law be
necessary to constitute a true Jew, ninety-nine out of every hundred
must give up their claims to the Jewish name. But then what is to
become of the Jewesses, who are not even obligated to learn?
Every rabbi will be willing to confess that the women at least are
ignorant of the oral law. Can they then have a portion in the world to
come? If the knowledge and practice of the oral law be necessary to
salvation, they cannot. But if they can be saved without it, then it
follows that God has given a law, the knowledge of which is not
necessary to salvation. Let every Jew ask himself this question, Am I
acquainted with all the precepts of the oral law? If not, can I be
saved without this knowledge? If I cannot, then the Jewish religion is
one which makes it impossible for the poor to be saved. If I can, then
the Jewish religion is of no real use, for I can be saved even without
knowing it. Such a religion cannot be from God. His religion is
necessary to be known by every man, woman, and child in the world,
and the knowledge of it is just as easy to be acquired by the poor
and unlearned as by the rich and studious. Let then the poor and the
unlearned consider the folly of professing a religion, with which they
can never hope to become acquainted, and let them return to the
religion of Moses and the prophets, which, by the help of the God of
Israel, every one can understand, at least so far as is necessary to
salvation. The Bible, like everything that has God for its author, has
beauties discoverable by the eye of the poor, at the same time that it
has perfections to exercise the observation and skill of the most
learned. And this holy book is the heritage of Israel, which the oral
law can never be. The oral law may be the heritage and religion of
the rabbies who know it, but it has no more to do with the religion of
those who know it not, than the laws of the Chinese. The great
majority of the Jewish people might just as well call themselves
followers of Confucius. No man can be said to believe in doctrines
which he does not know, and can never hope to know: and this is the
case with nine-tenths of the oral law.
No. XXXI.
RABBINIC EXCOMMUNICATION.
It is a fact, that the religion of the oral law has hitherto done but little
to promote the temporal welfare of the Jewish people, and it is
equally certain that, if supreme, it would destroy the happiness both
of Jews add Gentiles. Its endless definitions would necessarily
produce transgression. Its severity and readiness in
excommunication would be the source of constant trouble to
individuals and families, and the sanguinary spirit of its criminal code
would make the Jews a nation of mourners. Indeed, we seriously
doubt, whether any, but a few fanatics, wish to see the oral law
vested with supreme power, and ruling over the lives and properties
of the Jewish nation. Every reflecting Israelite must know that the
Sanhedrin, wielding the absolute power ascribed to it in the rabbinic
traditions, would be the most oppressive tribunal that ever lorded it
over the consciences of men. But we must remember that it would
not be with the Sanhedrin and other tribunals alone, that the
Israelites would have to do. Every rabbi, and every disciple of a wise
man, would have the right of excommunicating any one who
offended them. After determining that the tribunals can and ought in
certain cases to excommunicate, the oral law adds—
‫וכן החכם עצמו מנדה לכבודו לעם הארץ שהקפיד בו ואין צריך לא עדים ולא‬
‫ ואם מת החכם באין שלשה‬, ‫ ואין מתירין לו עד שירצה את החכם‬, ‫התראה‬
‫ ואם רצה החכם למחול לו ולא לנדהו הרשות בידו ׃‬. ‫ומתירין לו‬
“And in like manner the wise man himself may, on account of his
honour, excommunicate an unlearned man who has treated him with
contumely, and there is no need of witnesses nor admonition. And
the excommunicate person is not to be absolved until he appease
the wise man. But if the wise man die, three persons come and
absolve him. If, however, the wise man wish to pardon, and not
excommunicate him, the power is in his own hand.” (Hilchoth Talmud
Torah, c. vi. 12.) From this law we see that the restoration of rabbinic
power would be the most oppressive system of government ever
devised. Every learned man would be a petty tyrant, constituting
both judge and jury in his own person, and able, at his own caprice,
to inflict a severe punishment. The most absolute aristocracy of the
feudal times never dared to assume or exercise a power so
monstrous and so oppressive. No priesthood, even in the darkest
times, ever claimed such personal authority as is here given to every
individual rabbi. It is true that he may, if he please, forgive the
unfortunate offender, but it is much to be feared that such absolute
power would in most cases be too strong a temptation to the frail
sons of men. And at all events the principle is utterly inconsistent
with wise legislation, and most dangerous to the liberty of the poor
and unlearned; for the reader will observe that it is only an unlearned
man, an “am-haaretz,” who may be dealt with in this summary
manner. And this is another proof that the religion of the oral law is a
religion devised for the advantage of the rich and learned, but
regardless of the spiritual and temporal welfare of the lower classes.
For the learned and the great the law is very different:—
‫חכם זקן בחכמה וכן נשיא או אב ב׳׳ד שסרח אין מנדין אותו בפרהסיא לעקלם‬
‫אלא אם כן עשה כירבעם בן נבט וחביריו אבל כשחטא שאר חטאות מלקין אותו‬
, ‫בצנעה שנאמר וכשלת היום וכשל גם נביא עמך לילה אע׳׳פ שכשל כסהו בלילה‬
‫ואומרים לו הכבד ושב בביתך וכן כל ת׳׳ח שנתחייב נידוי אסור לב׳׳ד לקפוץ‬
‫ולנדותו במהרה ׃‬
“A wise man, old in wisdom, or a prince, or a president of a tribunal,
who has sinned, is never to be excommunicated publicly, unless he
have done as Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, and his companions. But
when he commits other sins, he is to be flogged in private. For it is
said, ‘Therefore shalt thou fall in the day, and the prophet also shall
fall with thee in the night,’ (Hos. iv. 5,) i.e., although he fall, cover him
as it were with the night. And they say to him, ‘Honour thyself, and
abide in thy house.’ (2 Kings xiv. 10.) In like manner, when a disciple
of a wise man makes himself guilty of excommunication, it is
unlawful for the tribunal to be too quick, and to excommunicate him
hastily.” (Ibid. c. vii. 1.) The rabbies have endeavoured to justify this
different legislation for the learned and unlearned by a verse of the
Bible, but their interpretation of that verse is quite erroneous. When
God says, “Therefore shalt thou fall in the day, and the prophet shall
also fall with thee in the night,” he is not speaking of the learned and
unlearned, nor of the different way in which their sins were to be
punished, but of the destruction which was coming upon Israel, as
may be seen in Kimchi’s Commentary. He interprets the verse thus—
‫ היום ר׳׳ל חזמן הזה‬, ‫וכשלת היום אמר כנגד ישראל בעבור מעשיך תכשל ותפול‬
‫ ביום ההוא שורש ישי‬, ‫ וכן וחרה אפי בו ביום ההוא‬, ‫בקרוב תבוא מפלתך‬
‫ וכשל גם נביא עמך לילה נביא שקר המתעה‬, ‫ ענינם עת וזמן‬, ‫והדומים להם‬
‫אותך יכשל עמך כמו האדם נכשל בלילה בחשכה וכן תרגם יונתן ׃‬
“Therefore shalt thou stumble in the day.” This refers to Israel, and
means on account of thy deeds thou shalt stumble and fall. This day;
that is, in this time; thy fall shall soon come. And so we read, “Then
my anger shall be kindled against them in that day.” (Deut. xxxi. 17.)
And again, “In that day there shall be a root of Jesse,” (Isaiah xi. 10,)
where day means time and period. And the prophet also shall fall
with thee in the night, that is, the false prophet who deceiveth thee
shall stumble with thee, as men stumble in the night in darkness; and
so the Targum of Jonathan has it. (Kimchi, Comment. in Hos. iv. 2.)
Kimchi and Jonathan, then, both testify that the oral law gives a false
interpretation of this verse. This is in itself rather awkward for a law
that professes to have been given by God, but still more so when it is
made the basis of most unjust and partial legislation, to save the
learned from the punishment which an unlearned man would have in
similar circumstances to suffer. No one can deny that the learned
and unlearned are here placed on very unequal terms. If an
unlearned man provoke a rabbi, he may be excommunicated by that
individual without either judge or jury, or even the form of a trial. But
if a learned man makes himself liable to the same punishment, even
a court of justice has not the power to pronounce the sentence. Who
can doubt that the rabbies made these laws for their own
convenience? Can any one believe that God has given this law,
which makes the learned a privileged class of persons, who, though
guilty of the same offence as the working classes, is to be spared,
whilst they are to be punished? God is no respecter of persons, and
therefore no such law can be from him.
The extreme injustice of this mode of legislation will appear still more
from considering the nature of the punishment:—
‫ מנודה אסור לספר ולכבס כאבל‬, ‫מהו המנהג שינהג המנודה בעצמו ושנוהגין עמו‬
, ‫ ולא כוללין אותו בעשרה לכל דבר שצריך עשרה‬, ‫ ואין מזמנין עליו‬, ‫כל ימי נידויו‬
, ‫ ונשכר ושוכר‬, ‫ אבל שונה הוא לאחרים ושונין לו‬, ‫ולא יושבין עמו בארבע אמות‬
, ‫ כלומר שחן רוגמין אותו‬, ‫ואם מת בנדויו בית דין שולחין ומניחין אבן על ארונו‬
‫לפי שהוא מובדל מן הציבור ואין צריך לומר שאין מספידין אותו ואין מלוין את‬
‫ מי שישב בנידויו שלשים יום ולא בקש להתירו מנדין אותו שנייה ישב‬... ‫מטתו‬
‫שלשים יום אחרים ולא בקש להתירו מחרימין אותו ׃‬
“How is an excommunicate person to conduct himself, and how are
others to conduct themselves towards him? It is unlawful for an
excommunicate person, as for a mourner, to trim his heard or hair, or
to wash all the days of his excommunication; neither is he to be
associated in pronouncing the benedictions; neither is he to be
reckoned as one of ten, wherever ten persons are required; neither
may any one sit within four ells of him. He may however teach others
and be taught. He may hire and be hired. But if he die in his
excommunication, the tribunal send and lay a stone upon his coffin
to signify that they stone him because he is separated from the
congregation. And it is unnecessary to say that he is not to be
mourned for, and that his funeral is not to be attended.... Whosoever
remains thirty days in his excommunication without seeking to be
absolved, is to be excommunicated a second time. If he abide thirty
days more without seeking absolution, he is then to be
anathematized.” (Hilchoth Talmud Torah, ibid.) This, then, is the
punishment which a learned man has it in his power to inflict at will.
He may deprive him of the comforts of cleanliness and perhaps
injure his health. He may hold him up to the public scorn by
separating him by four ells from all decent people. He may heap
obloquy upon his death and deprive him of a respectful burial, or if
the man survive under the public contempt, and refuse to give the
rabbi satisfaction, he will be anathematized, and his prospects for
this world, at least, irretrievably ruined. The law respecting the
anathematized person is this:—
‫אינו שונה לאחרים ואין שונין לו אבל שונה הוא לעצמו שלא ישכח תלמודו ואינו‬
‫ ואין מתעסקין עמו אלא מעט עסק‬, ‫ ואין נושאין ונותנין עמו‬, ‫נשכר ואין נשכרין לו‬
‫כדי פרנסתו ׃‬
“He is not to teach others nor to be taught, but may learn by himself
that he may not forget the learning. He is not to be hired, nor to hire.
Men may have no dealings with him, nor any business except a little
that he may get a livelihood.” Now then suppose that an unlearned
man does or says something, which a rabbi interprets as contempt,
he is first excommunicated. If, in the consciousness of innocence, he
refuses to ask for the rabbi’s forgiveness, he is at last
anathematized, and all his business stopped, and all this is done to
him because he is an unlearned man. He is himself to be
dishonoured, his business ruined, and he himself to die of a broken
heart, not because he has committed some grievous crime, but
because he has been wanting in respect either to the rabbi’s person
or his words. The most absolute autocrat never made a law more
despotic.
But some one will say, that the rabbi has the power of forgiving if he
please, and that the oral law recommends him to do so. It is true that
if the affront be given in private, he has this power, and is told to
forgive, but not so if it be offered in public, he has then no choice. He
is bound to excommunicate the offender. That we may not appear to
act unfairly, we will give the whole passage:—
‫אף על פי שיש רשות לחכם לנדות לכבודו אינו שבח לתלמיד חכם להנהיג עצמו‬
‫בדבר זה אלא מעלים אזניו מדברי עם הארץ ולא ישית לבו להן כענין שאמר‬
‫ וכן היה דרך חסידים‬, ‫שלמה בחכמתו גם לכל הדברים אשר ידברו אל תתן לבך‬
‫הראשונים שומעים חרפתם ואינן משיבין ולא עוד אלא שמוחלים למחרף וסולחים‬
‫ וחכמים גדולים היו משתבחים במעשיהם הנאים ואומרים שמעולם לא נידו‬, ‫לו‬
, ‫ וזו היא דרכם של תלמידי חכמים שראוי לילך בה‬, ‫אדם ולא החרימוהו לכבודן‬
‫במה דברים אמורים כשבזוהו או חרפוהו בסתר אבל תלמיד חכם שבזהו או חרפו‬
‫אדם בפרהסיא אסור לו למחול על כבודו ואם מחל נענש שזה בזיון של תורה אלא‬
‫נוקם ונוטר הדבר כנחש עד שיבקש ממנו מחילה ׃‬
“Although a wise man has the power to excommunicate on account
of his honour, yet it is not to be praised in the disciple of a wise man
who does so. On the contrary he ought to shut his ears against the
words of an unlearned man (am-haaretz), and not to attend to them,
according as Solomon has said in his wisdom, ‘Take no heed to all
the things that are spoken.’ (Eccles. vii. 21.) And such was the
custom of the saints of old, who heard their reviling, but did not
answer; and not only so, but they pardoned the reviler, and forgave
him. The greatest of the wise men used to glory in their good deeds,
and say, that they had never excommunicated nor anathematized
any man on account of their honour, and this is the way in which the
disciples of the wise men ought to walk. In what case is this to be
applied? When they have been despised or reviled in secret. But if
the disciple of a wise man be despised or reviled by any man
publicly, it is unlawful for him to forgive any affront to his honour, and
if he forgive he is to be punished, for this is a contempt of the law. He
is on the contrary, to avenge and keep the thing in mind, like a
serpent, until the offender entreat to be forgiven.” (Ibid. c. vii. 13.)
The great object of these laws is plainly to uphold the power and
dignity of the rabbies, and to make it impossible for the people to
shake off their yoke. The care which is taken to punish every offence
against the wise men betrays a lurking consciousness of error, and a
fear lest the common people should compare their precepts with
Scripture, assert the plain unsophisticated truth, and thus shake off
the galling chains of rabbinism. To prevent this, the very first
semblance of disobedience is to be punished with excommunication.
But for the poor and unlearned, if insulted by a learned man, there is
no satisfaction. He cannot thunder out an excommunication or an
anathema in return. For him the oral law makes no provision, except
for his punishment. If Judaism, therefore, should ever attain the
supreme power, the working and unlearned classes will be placed in
the power and at the mercy of the learned, and every disciple of a
wise man will wield the absolute power of an autocrat.
But some one may say, that if the disciple of a wise man should
excommunicate any one hastily that the people would not regard his
excommunication. But if they did not, they would do it at their peril,
for the oral law expressly declares that they are bound to observe
the excommunication not only of a rabbi, but of one of his disciples:
—
‫הרב שנידה לכבודו כל תלמידיו חייבין לנהוג בו נדוי במנודה אבל תלמיד שנידה‬
‫לכבוד עצמו אין הרב חייב לנהוג בו נדוי אבל כל העם חייבין לנהוג בו נדוי ׃‬
“When a rabbi excommunicates on account of his honour, all his
disciples are bound to treat the excommunicate person as such. But
when a disciple excommunicates on account of his own honour, the
rabbi is not bound to treat that person as excommunicate, but all the
people are bound.” (Ibid. c. vi. 13.) Nothing can more clearly prove
the injustice of such excommunication. If the rabbi be not bound to
regard the disciples’ excommunication, why should all the people be
bound? If the offence committed against the disciple be a sin before
God, and such it ought to be to require such severe punishment, the
excommunication ought to be as binding upon the rabbi as upon the
people. But if it be not binding upon the rabbi, then the offence for
which it was inflicted cannot be a sin in the sight of God, it is
therefore an arbitrary and unjust punishment, and it is both wicked
and cruel to require the people to obey it. But the principle itself is
monstrous, that the disciple of a rabbi should be constituted both
judge and jury in his own case, and have the power of lording it over
those, whose circumstances do not permit them to devote their time
to study, and who, therefore, cannot be enrolled in the privileged
class. Just suppose that the clergy of this land, or the professors and
students at our Universities, were to claim such power, and to
excommunicate and anathematize all who treated them with
disrespect, and that without any trial or conviction before a legal
tribunal, and that the unfortunate victims were to be separated from
society, ruined, and then their dead bodies treated with dishonour,
would not this be regarded as a monstrous and insupportable
tyranny? Yet this is what the oral law claims for the rabbies and their
disciples, and what they would possess and exercise if Judaism ever
attains to supreme power. Would the Jews wish such a power
established? Do they desire to live under such a government? If they
do not, if they prefer the personal liberty and the even-handed justice
secured to them by Christian laws, then they confess that the
Christian principles are better than those of their own religion, and
they must be charged with inconsistency in professing and asserting
the truth of a religion, which they hope may never triumph. Every
man who believes his religious principles to be Divine, must wish
that they should triumph, and that they should have free scope for
their development. Any man who dreads the triumph of his religion
must have secret misgivings that it is false. We therefore ask every
Jew whether he desires that the oral law should attain that absolute
power which it claims, and that every rabbi and his disciples should
have the power of excommunicating and anathematizing all who
affront them? One of the most perfect tests of a religion, is to
consider what would be its effects if supreme. At present there are
various systems of religion in the world, some of which, as directly
contradicting others, must be decidedly false. The hope of all
reflecting men is, that the truth will ultimately triumph, that God
himself will at last interpose, and establish the dominion of truth and
eradicate all error. Each hopes that his own system will then prevail,
but let him follow out that system, and see how it will work, when all
resistance shall be vain. Let the Jews calmly consider the state of
things, when the rabbies and their disciples shall be masters of the
world, as they must one day be, if Judaism be true. The unlearned
will then be completely at their mercy, their servants and their
bondmen. Will this be a happy condition, or is this state of things
desirable? In the first place, there will be no personal liberty. Any
man who may chance to differ from a rabbi, and treat him with
disrespect will immediately be excommunicated. In the second
place, there will be no liberty of conscience or of thought. Every man
must then let the rabbies think for him, and he must be content to
receive their decisions without any appeal. The body will scarcely
have the appearance of being free, and the intellect will be bound in
fetters of adamant. It will no doubt be a glorious period for the wise
men and their disciples, but they will always form a small minority,
compared with the bulk of mankind. The majority of Israel, not now to
speak of the Gentiles, will then be degraded into poor, crouching,
submissive servants of the learned, afraid to use their reason, and
always having the fear and dread of excommunication before their
eyes. Do they then honestly wish for such a state of things, to be tied
hand and foot, and given into the hands of their learned men? If they
do not, if they see the horror and the injustice and degradation of
such a state of things, why do they profess a religion which will
inevitably lead to it, if it be true? If such laws be unjust, and such a
consummation dreadful, instead of desirable, the religion of the oral
law must necessarily be false; and it is the duty of every Israelite to
consider what he is doing in upholding it. The present state of things
will not continue always. The Jewish nation cannot always wish to be
wanderers in foreign lands. They look forward to a restoration to the
land of their fathers, and they wish in that land to be happy and
prosperous. But happiness and prosperity will be unknown words, if
they are then to be governed according to the principles of the oral
law. That law gives the learned a monopoly of power and happiness,
but leaves the mass of the nation in bondage. Do they then, in
contemplating the re-establishment of the kingdom of Israel, expect
another than the oral law, and other principles of religion and justice?
If they do, they confess that the oral law is false, and if it would be
false and hurtful, and destructive of all happiness, if supreme, it is
equally false and hurtful now. The Israelite, therefore, who upholds it,
is upholding a false system. He may do it in ignorance, and we
believe that this is the case with the majority; but it is most
unbecoming in any reasonable man to profess a religion of which he
is ignorant. He may answer, I have no time to acquire an accurate
knowledge of my religion. The books in which it is contained are too
voluminous to admit of my acquiring an acquaintance with them. I
must work for my bread. We grant that this is the fact, but then this
brings us back to our original position, that Judaism is only a religion
for those who have leisure, that is, for the rich and the learned, and
we conclude, on that very account, that it cannot be from God, who
looks neither at riches nor learning, but considereth the welfare, and
above all, the religious welfare of the poorest of his creatures. The
especial character of the Messiah is, that he will care for the poor.
“He shall judge the poor of the people, he shall save the children of
the needy.” (Psalm lxxii. 4.) He, therefore, cannot have the religion of
the oral law. He will not be a rabbi, nor a rabbi’s disciple.

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Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

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Publisher: Susan Dennis

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CHAPTER 1 Introduction—Do RO Membranes Have Pores?.................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2 RO Membrane Preparation ...................................................................................25

CHAPTER 3 RO Membrane Characterization ...........................................................................57

CHAPTER 4 RO Membrane Transport ......................................................................................91

4.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulation......................................................... 104

CHAPTER 5 RO Membrane Module ....................................................................................... 117

CHAPTER 6 Hybrid System ..................................................................................................... 143

CHAPTER 7 RO Economics ...................................................................................................... 163

Index ............................................................................................................................... 285

As it was shown in Chapter 9, RO applications are mainly in water treatment or separation of

Ahmad Fauzi Ismail

Reverse Osmosis. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811468-1.00001-3

1.1 RESEARCH BEFORE 2000

Table 1.1 The Thickness of Pure Water Layer at the Air/Sodium

Preferential sorption-capillary flow

Pore (r > ti)

in contact with the surface of a membrane, an interfacial pure water layer is

1.2 RO TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

according to their mechanism, the presence of holes (pores) in the

1.3 ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC IMAGE, EVIDENCE

“semipermeability” of the RO membrane. It is interesting to note that the

1.4 RO TRANSPORT MODELS

n FIG. 1.4 S-D model.

where NA is the water flux through the membrane (subscript A denotes

Then, the salt transport through the membrane is given by.

and b is the ionic radius.

n FIG. 1.5 Gl€uckauf model.

Aggregate pore Network pore

n FIG. 1.7 Network pore and aggregate pore.

Table 1.2 Effect of Annealing on Pore Radii

Radius of unannealed membrane, ×1010 m Annealed 67°C Annealed at 77°C

70.9 58.3 55.5

number of publications before Singh, all of them were for UF membranes.

1.5 SUPPORT TO THE PORE MODEL?

where λ is the wavelength of incident radiation and θ is the scattering angle.

Unannealed membrane: 0.5, 6, and 13.5 nm.

1.6 RESEARCH AFTER 2001

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