Lymphatic System and Immunity

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• Not only these pathogens, microorganisms that we

LY M PHAT IC SY STE M A ND IM M UNIT Y


do encounter, but also the tumors and other
malignant cells that develop inside our bodies.
HI ST ORY OF IM M UNOLOGY
• That's why the immune system is responsible for
The science of immunology arose from the eradicating 2 of the deadliest antigens that we
knowledge that those who survived one of the encounter, it's either microorganisms or tumors
common infectious diseases of the past rarely cancer.
contracted the disease again.
As early as 430 BC, during the plague in Athens,
Thucydides recorded that individual who had
previously contracted the disease recovered and
he recognized their “immune” status.
Beginning about 1000 ad, the Chinese practiced a
form of immunization by inhaling dried powders
derived from the crusts of smallpox lesions.
- this smallpox has been always present down
to the Centuries until it was eradicated through
the introduction of smallpox vaccine in the
17th century and it was eventually eradicated
in the 19th century.
In the 15th century, powdered smallpox “crusts”
were inserted with a pin into the skin. When this
practice became popular in England, it was
discouraged at first, partly because the practice of
inoculation occasionally killed or disfigured a
patient.
- what is associated with this immune system is
- That's why people had been figuring out what's
the lymphatic system because it has the
the best way how to fight against these
majority of the immune defenses that are
infections especially the pandemics and
responsible in fighting against these
epidemics before such as one case would be
microorganisms and tumors.
your smallpox. Smallpox has been one of the
deadliest diseases that Have been
encountered by humans before but the advent
of vaccines eradicated these various diseases.
So, there are many vaccines that are used
nowadays until we have this COVID vaccine.
You know, these different COVID vaccines are
already administered. Therefore, immunology
has its role in our system.

WHAT I S I MM UNIT Y?

Resistance to disease, specifically infectious disease.

- if we are immune, then it basically means that


we can prevent the occurrence of disease or
we can at least somehow fight against these
diseases.

- COMPLETE
ROLES OF T HE IM M UNE SYS TE M
lymphatic vessel that transports lymph
➢ Defending the body against infections the bone marrow where B cells and T cells develop
➢ Recognizing and responding to foreign antigens
➢ Defending the body against the development of LY M P HAT IC SY STE M
tumors.
composed of LYMPHATIC VESSELS
form a one-way network

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o lymphatic capillaries, collecting vessels, her, that serum or plasma of that person
trunks, and ducts contains Chyle that appears white
▪ in which fluid flows only toward because of its lipid content.
the heart. 3. DEFENSE
- system that is associated and responsible for ➢ Microorganisms and other foreign substances are
fighting against infection and it contains most of filtered from lymph by lymph nodes and from
the immune defenses found in our body. blood by the spleen.
- specifically helps into the immune defenses ➢ lymphatic system or the immune system is
contributing to the evasion of microorganisms. responsible for filtering all those foreign
substances, be it microorganisms of this size or of
that size. As long as it is capable of filtering all those
unnecessary substances and foreign substances
they can be eradicated from the circulation

A NT E RI OR VIE W OF T HE MA JOR LYM P HAT IC VE SSE LS


I N T HE T HORA X A ND A B DOME N

- illustration of the Association of your circulatory


system and that of the lymphatic system.
- It basically consists of all the fluids that circulate in
our body. But the three liters are being separated
and went to the lymphatic vessels, thus
contributing to the absence of edema.

LY M P HAT IC SY STE M F UNCT I ONS T O:


T he l ymphati c syste m h as three mai n fu ncti on s :
protect the body by REMOVING FOREIGN MATERIALS
1. FLUID BALANCE
from the lymph stream.
➢ lymphatic capillaries collect the 3 L of fluid, where it
- we encounter these foreign microorganisms in the
is called LYMPH.
circulation, they usually go into the lymphatic
o collected fluid width from the circulation
system, 3 liters of the fluid go into the lymphatic
going to the lymph nodes or lymph
system, and when they are detected by the
vessels
immune system or the lymphatic system, they are
basically Fought or dealt with by the presence of
2. LIPID ABSORPTION
these cells, these phagocytic cells, or antibodies
➢ LACTEALS are lymphatic vessels located in the
for that matter. That's why this lymphatic system
lining of the digestive tract.
functions to protect the body by removing foreign
➢ CHYLE lymph passing through these Lacteal
materials from the lymph stream.
lymphatic vessels
o appears white because of its lipid
content.
o laboratorians usually discover a Chylous
layer after a non-fasting episode, so
therefore this Chyle is responsible for
causing white coloration of your serum
after centrifugation.
o laboratorians also discovered these
various parts of the blood after
centrifugation. But going back to the
lesson, your Chyle is responsible for the
lipid content. so that when a person does
not fast and you collect Blood from him or

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flow of lymphatic fluid is slow (unlike that of your LY M P H NODES
circulation is very fast because of the pressure) and is
maintained/controlled by three mechanisms: - these are oval-shaped bodies distributed in

o skeletal muscle contraction various lymph vessels they FILTER LYMPH

o pressure changes in the thorax - are the ones filtered lymph and when they are

o contractions of the lymphatic vessels. filtering lymph, then they basically filter those
foreign substances and other materials from your
BACKFLOW is prevented by valves. circulation.

- unlike for other systems, there is a back flow, but in


the lymphatic system it's only a one-way system.
That's why there is no backflow because of the
presence of these valves, the backflow is being
prevented.

- an illustration of what it really what really


happens when lymph flows into the lymph nodes.
- the direction of lymph flow in the capillary, wherein
it enters the lymphatic capillary, there's a valve
closing here. once the valve closes, the back flow is
being prevented that's why your lymph
continuously flows in a one-way direction

return fluids that have leaked from the blood vascular


system back to the blood
- If unregulated, EDEMA occurs CE LLS I N LY MP HOI D TI SS UE S I NC LUDE :

o unbalanced regulation of the lymphatic 1. LYMPHOCYTES


and circulatory system, there could be ➢ immunocompetent cells called T cells or B cells
Edema and when we encounter this, there ➢ also have NK cells (null or non-T and B cells)
is an abnormality in the electrolytes, o responsible for killing tumor cells
basically for sodium, chloride, potassium, ➢ intended for fighting against extracellular
and the like. organisms, intracellular organisms, or tumors
2. PLASMA CELLS
➢ antibody-producing B cells
➢ the end point or the last stage of the maturation of
your B cell, so that at the end of the maturation of
your B cells, they do produce Antibodies.
• responsible for fighting
against extracellular
antibodies, as well as
protecting fetus.
3. MACROPHAGES and DENDRITIC CELLS
➢ phagocytes and cells that initiate an immune
response
➢ Both Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)

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➢ macrophages are also monocytes but then these ➢ not only the left part but the rest of the body such
monocytes came or are being distributed far into as the lower limb
those issues
o end stage of monocyte maturation.
➢ Dendritic cells initiate an immune response, and
the most effective Antigen presenting cells in the
tissue.
4. RETICULAR CELLS
➢ that form the lymphoid tissue stroma.
➢ reticuloendothelial system (RES)
o macrophages are a part of that

LYMPH NODES has a fibrous capsule, a cortex, and a


medulla.

CORTEX contains mostly lymphocytes, which act


in immune responses
o outer part
T HE GE RM I NA L C E NTE RS A RE SI TES OF LY MPHOC YT E
MEDULLA contains macrophages, which engulf P RODUCT I ON
and destroy viruses, bacteria, and other foreign
debris, as well as lymphocytes and plasma cells.

LYMPH NODES

made up of reticular connective tissue


house macrophages and a continuously changing
population of lymphocytes
may be diffuse or packaged into dense follicles
o FOLLICLES often display germinal centers
(areas where B cells are proliferating)
▪ B cells that do proliferate in your
lymph nodes and they are
concentrated in the germinal HI ST OLOGY OF A LY M P H NODE

centers, so they are often


displayed in the germinal
centers through follicles. So
these follicles contain these B
cells that are proliferating and
ready to mature and produce
antibodies.
discrete encapsulated structures containing both
diffusely arranged and dense reticular tissue
o they do contain fibrous capsules. So this
create encapsulated structures
containing both diffusely arranged and
- when it's being stained with the different various
dense reticular tissue.
stains, we get to distinguish the different parts and
clustered along lymphatic vessels,
detect if there's a malignancy, for example,
lymph nodes filter lymph and help activate the
lymphoma for that matter.
immune system

❖ LYMPH enters the lymph nodes via AFFERENT


T WO MAI N DI VISI ONS OF LYMPH NODES
LYMPHATIC VESSELS and exits via EFFERENT VESSELS
1. RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT - afferent lymphatic system entering the lymph
➢ drains lymph from the right arm and right side of nodes (like that of your circulatory system the
the upper body; afferent towards the heart so it's towards the
2. THORACIC DUCT lymphatic vessels) and exiting via the efferent
➢ receives lymph from the rest of the body vessels. And via these different vessels that are

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being distributed to the rest of the lymphatic o It's known that your spleen is capable of
system. removing old or senescent RBC's and one
➢ there are fewer efferent vessels; therefore, lymph of the breakdown or the metabolites of
flow stagnates within the lymph node, allowing your hemoglobin is bilirubin. That's why
time for its cleansing. some parts of your RBCS are left into the
o The lymph flow is very, very slow. spleen.
➢ unlike lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, tonsils, ✓ stores PLATELETS
and Peyer’s patches DO NOT FILTER LYMPH o when we suspect splenomegaly, we
o it's merely the lymph nodes that do filter associate it with thrombocytopenia
those lymph fluids because basically your spleen stores
platelets.
However, most lymphoid organs contain both ▪ Splenomegaly is a term referring
macrophages and lymphocytes to the enlargement of your
spleen.
▪ Thrombocytopenia is a decrease
in the platelets
✓ acts as HEMATOPOIETIC SITE IN THE FETUS
o aside from your liver, it's it also
contributes to the hematopoiesis of the
fetus.
o spleen and the liver both or
simultaneously responsible during hepatic
phase of the fetal development.
- while it is true that your peyers patches, tonsils,
o hematopoiesis is occurring solely
spleen, and the thymus, doesn't filter lymph fluid at
because of the presence or the help from
all. However, most lymphoid organs contain both
your liver and your spleen.
macrophages and lymphocytes. That's why they
are capable of fighting against those infections.

T HE T HYM US
1. Macrophage moving toward bacteria
2. Bacteria being engulfed.
3. Bacteria contained within the vesicle
4. Lysozyme fusing with a vesicle and releasing
phagocytic enzymes.
5. Bacteria being destroyed and digested.
6. Undigested remains of bacteria

T HE S PLE EN

➢ provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and


➢ a bi-lobed organ located in the superior
immune function
mediastinum dividing the thorax into right and
➢ destroys aged or defective red blood cells and
left parts
bloodborne pathogen (most important function)
➢ MOST FUNCTIONAL during YOUTH
✓ stores and releases the BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS
o thymus is very prominent or evident
OF HEMOGLOBIN as necessary
among children or among infants

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because of a lack of antibody production
yet, but for adults now they have an
actual atrophying timer.
o Very functional during your infancy during
your childhood years. But then because of
the phenomenon called atrophy or
atrophy, the thymus shrinks
o Atrophy is a phenomenon referring to the
shrinking of tissues
P E YE R’ S PATC HES
➢ produces HORMONES that cause T LYMPHOCYTES
to become immunocompetent. Peyer’s patches of the intestinal wall, lymphoid follicles of
➢ it is the site of first T-CELL MATURATION the appendix, tonsils of the pharynx and oral cavity, and
o While it is true that they are being formed follicles in the genitourinary and respiratory tract mucosae
or produced in the bone marrow, they are known as MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue)
migrate into the thymus for maturation.
➢ release the hormone THYMOSIN - groups of lymphatic organs that are located in the

➢ regulatory T-cells suppress the body’s immune mucous membranes especially they are very

response and protect against auto-immune concentrated on the digestive tract

diseases - found in or mostly in your gastrointestinal and

o because those regulatory T cells, if they respiratory tract or along the viscera and the

are being depleted, and they could mucosa or the mucosal membranes, and that we

develop possibly autoimmune diseases associate this with mouth.

such as your SLE - Mostly concentrated in the viscera

o only a few of total population will proceed


into the general circulation and most of
them will die because if the thymus
senses that those T cells are against the
body or has an autoimmune tendency,
the tendency for the thymus is to kill them
or to deplete them.
o when autoimmune disease occurs, it is a
product of thymol abnormality or
abnormal T cell proliferation.
The lymphatic system.
➢ weighs 15 kilograms, but then it shrinks
Lymph vessels are found in all tissues except
the central nervous system, the bone marrow,
T HE T ONSI LS and tissues without blood vessels such as
cartilage.
➢ large groups of lymphatic nodules and diffuse The lymph system vessels are extensive as the
lymphatic tissues located deep within the THROAT vessels of the circulatory system.
o primary lymphatic organ encountered in
or located in the oral cavity and nasal The lymphatic system serves several functions:
cavity 1. Fluid balance
➢ protect against bacteria and potentially harmful - It controls fluid balance by draining and
cleansing the fluids that leave the circulatory
agents entering the pharynx (oral or nasal cavity)
system to deliver nutrients and gases to the
➢ more active in childhood than in adulthood
tissues.
2. Fat Absorption
3 groups:
- It interacts with the villi in the digestive system
to absorb and deliver fats to the circulatory
Pharyngeal – upper part of the oral cavity
system.
3. Immunological Defense
Palatine – near the posterior part
- It also has immunological protection from
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and cellular debris that
Lingual- inferior or near the tongue
could damage the cells of the body.

From your understanding of the circulatory system, you


know that the blood passes through the arteries,
arterioles, and then the capillaries.

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• The capillary walls allow the fluid portion of the - mainly labeled as filarial nematode
blood to exit the capillaries into the surrounding - agent of lower elephantiasis
tissues. Brugia Malayi is very prominent in the Southeast Asian
• Once the fluid leaves the capillaries, it is called region.
interstitial fluid. About 90% of this fluid will diffuse - Causes upper elephantiasis.
back into the capillaries because of the difference in
concentrations of the fluid. Some lymph tissue is very diffuse with no clear
• However, about 10% of the fluid will enter the open- boundaries. You can actually feel some when you rub
ended lymph vessels, once the fluid has entered the your lower inner lip with your tongue.
lymph vessels, it's now called lymph.
- These vessels eventually deliver the lymph to ❖ LYMPH NODES
locations where the lymph can be cleansed of - Lymph tissues that organized into groups
debris and checked for the presence of - They have encapsulated masses of lymph
pathogenic organisms. tissue found along lymph vessels
How it gets the lymph there is amazing. There is no heart
for this system of vessels to pump the lump around. Lymph nodes have three functions.
So how does the lump get to the locations it needs to be
delivered to? 1. They are testing stations.
LYMPH FLOW - They monitor the blood by receiving samples of
1. SKELETAL MUSCLES the blood plasma.
The lymph moves through your body when you move 2. Create lymphocytes.
your skeletal muscles. The contraction of skeletal - If the sample is rife with foreign invaders, they
muscles squeezes the nearby lymph vessels pumping produce lymphocytes and send them into the
them. bloodstream to try to destroy those invaders.
- This pushes lymph through the vessels. 3. Filtering Station
- the lymph nodes filter the lymph that they have
In addition to the contraction of skeletal muscles, there
so they can only return clean fluid back to the
are two other means by which lymph travels through the
blood.
lymphatic system.

2. SMOOTH MUSCLE AT THE LARGER LYMPH VESSELS Eventually the lymph is returned to the
- The contraction of these smooth muscles adds circulatory system via the right and the left
to the force provided by the skeletal. subclavian veins in the shoulders, just above the
3. THORACIC PRESSURE heart level.
- when we breathe, pressure changes occur in ❖ TONSILS
the thoracic region. When the thoracic pressure - Lymph nodules can be found as single
drops, that tends to pull lymph into the thoracic structures in the body, or they can be grouped
duct.
together in small clumps that's what the tonsils
One way valves prevent the lymph from flowing
are.
backwards.
- There are groups of lymph nodules under the
mucous membrane in the throat.

The function of fluid balance is seen best, perhaps when - These lymph nodules form a protective ring
it goes awry. around the throat, strategically located to
- When the lymphatic system is prevented from protect the body from foreign invaders.
doing its job, the fluids build up in the tissues. - If the tonsils get infected, they can become
Edemas is the term given to this medical condition. inflamed and abnormally enlarged as you see
Mild edema can occur during pregnancy when here. This condition is called tonsillitis.
the weight of the baby's slows the ability of the o If the condition is chronic, the tonsils
vessels to move the lymph up the body. can be removed in a tonsillectomy.
More serious levels of edema can occur in a - Tonsils tend to get smaller as a person matures
tropical disease called elephantitis, in which a
and they can disappear altogether in an adult.
parasite blocks the vessels and the edema that
❖ PEYER’S PATCHES
is produced looks a lot like having the legs of an
- Pyres patches are very similar to tonsils.
elephant.
- There are groups of lymphocytes and lymph

The parasite that do cause that elephantitis is what you nodules that are in the small intestines.
call your Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi - Typically, they're found in the last third of the
- it is found in the tropics, and it causes hyper small intestine.
alcoholic syndrome - they’re strategically located to deal with foreign
- vectors are mosquitos invaders.
W. Bancrofti is the one that causes Chyluria
• a presence of chyle In your small intestine, we encounter many parasites and
in the urine or many microorganisms, and So

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what are the immune defenders from invaders located o When the seal dives, it conserves its
in that area? oxygen as much as possible. However,
- We have their own IgA. when it's running low and cannot get to
o found in your mucosal membranes or the surface, the smooth muscles of the
secretions. spleen contract, sending the oxygen
o an antibody class that fights against rich blood stored there into the
foreign invaders found in or bloodstream. This gives the seal more
encountered in your mucosa. time before it must surface to breathe.
➢ The lymphatic system's second function takes Although this spleen is part of the lymphatic system, you
place here in the small intestine as well - The can live without it, if your spleen is ruptured due to an
absorption of fats. injury, it can be removed in a splenectomy.
❖ know that there are specialized lymph vessels called - Splenectomy happens when one encounters
lacteals in the intestinal villi. sickle cell anemia.
- These pick up fats (Chyle) that are released - Those that will undergo splenectomy will be
from digested food and absorb it into the villous vaccinate with the Streptococcus pneumonia
tissue. vaccine and Haemophilus influenza vaccine
The liquid in the vessels takes on a Milky color. Instead of and Neisseria meningitidis vaccine because
being called lymph, this fluid is called Chyle. prone or susceptible to acquiring encapsulated
- Chyle eventually gets dumped in the subclavian microorganisms or bacteria
vein, just like lymph. That is how the fats enter - persons who are having or suffering from sickle
the circulatory system. cell anemia, they are very prone to auto
❖ The spleen splenectomy.
- is a significant lymphatic structure and has a o spleen is dying because of an infarct
lot in common with the smaller nodes ▪ blockades or an accumulation
throughout the body. of something that plugs
- unlike the lymph nodes, the spleen does not - this is often necessary to stop internal bleeding
filter lymph. because the spleen is so vascular. Once your
- It's part of the lymphatic system. However, spleen is removed, tissues in the liver as well as
because it filters the blood as the blood passes of the lymphatic tissues in the body take over
through the white pulp of the spleen, foreign the first two tasks of the spleen.
invaders stimulate a response from the diffuse Of course, the overall function is not as good as when the
lymphatic tissue or the lymph nodules. spleen was present in the body. as a result, People who
The spleen also works to: have their spleens removed are more susceptible to
1. Dispose worn-out erythrocytes. infections and more sensitive to hemorrhage.
- clean the blood of worn-out erythrocytes. ➢ If there's a bone marrow shutdown your spleen
Remember, red blood cells have a short lifespan and liver is very responsible for extramedullary
and as a result, roughly 2,000,000 erythrocytes hematopoiesis. That's why for those persons
die every. who are having bone marrow shutdowns, they're
o They must be removed from the blood. often prone to having hepatosplenomegaly.
2. Cleanse the blood of foreign invaders The spleen is roughly the size of a clenched fist.
- Before the blood leaves the spleen through the - Unlike lymph nodes, however, the capsule or
veins, it passes through the red pulp. outer cover of the spleen contains smooth
- Macrophages and the red pulp engage in muscle tissue. Extensions of this capsule, called
phagocytosis to remove both foreign invaders trabeculae, make up the skeleton of the node.
and worn-out red blood cells. The lymph nodes
3. Reservoir of oxygen-rich blood - fed by several afferent lymph vessels. However,
- The spleen actually holds more blood than is lymph exits through just one efferent lymph
necessary for its own metabolism. Therefore, it's vessel.
an extra blood supply full of oxygen and Reticular fibers extend from the trabeculae, forming a
nutrients. This serves as a backup supply of net of connective tissue throughout the lymph node.
blood in case of blood loss. - Inside this plain, there are two types of tissue,
- If the body detects blood loss due to red pulp, and white pulp.
hemorrhage, the sympathetic division of the NS ➢ The white pulp is composed of diffuse
stimulates the smooth muscles in the capsule of lymphatic tissue and lymph nodules, much like
the spleen to contract. This pushes the backup the lymph node.
supply of blood into the bloodstream, o surrounds the arteries which enter the
compensating for the blood loss. spleen.
➢ Although the backup supply of blood in the ➢ The red pulp is made of twisted veins and
human spleen is relatively minor, it's a reticular fibers, which are full of blood cells
significant factor in the Physiology of some other which were in the capillaries of the spleen.
mammals. Lymph nodules contain germinal centers where rapid
o Seals use a spleen as a built-in oxygen mitosis of lymphocytes can take place in response to
tank. foreign invaders found in the lymph.

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Lymphocytes produced in the germinal centers I MM UNIT Y
are released into the lymph and eventually
reached the bloodstream, where they can be - it refers to the ability of the body to resist damage from
transported to the tissues. foreign substances such as:
❖ THYMUS GLAND
- Another lymphatic system structure is the ➢ microorganisms
thymus gland. Like the tonsils, the thymus gland ➢ harmful chemicals
changes as a person matures. When a person is
➢ internal threats – cancer cells
young, the thymus gland is large in proportion
o cancer from the Latin word meaning
to the body size.
- During this stage of life, it is primarily lymphatic “crab.” It’s a sort of crab appearance, that
tissue. After puberty, it decreases in size and is why cancer cells are very fast to
becomes mostly fibrous and fatty tissue. mastisize if they are malignant
- Where t cells mature
What does the thymus gland do? Immunity can be:
Like many things in the human body, the scientific
community is still somewhat puzzled by the thymus • INNATE (non-specific) immunity
gland. We know that while a person is young, immature o “non-specific resistance”
lymphocytes known as T lymphocytes leave the bone o Natural killer cells are members of innate
marrow.
immunity
- Blood cells are made in the bone marrow, and
▪ NK cells doesn’t need to be
they travel to the thymus. The remarkable
maturation process, sometimes referred to as triggered by a memory rather it
thymic education. has the same memory to any
o T lymphocytes that are beneficial to part or any foreign
the immune system are spared, while T microorganisms that it may
lymphocytes that might evoke A
encounter along the way
detrimental immunological response
o So that innate immunity is a non-specific
are eliminated.
For example, if you have type A non memory immunity
blood, T lymphocytes, which • ADAPTIVE – specific
attack the A antigen are o B and T cell lymphocytes are members of
destroyed. However, T adaptive immunity
lymphocytes that attack the B o It called so because of its memory ability.
antigen are allowed to mature
o When it encounters a specific foreign or
and enter the bloodstream.
microorganism, then the body has
Notice that this one is called a gland. That means that
one of its functions is to secrete hormones, making it also immediately or has the body to develop a
a part of the endocrine system as well as the lymphatic memory for that.
system. o When it encounters it on the second time
- It produces hormones. Among them is the then it has already antibodies that will
hormone thymosin which affects the body's fight against that particular
immunological response.
microorganism it has encountered before.
- thymosin stimulates the activity of
o It’s a mechanism where neutralization
lymphocytes to migrate to other lymphatic
tissues. using the antibodies killing those foreign
When the thymus is not present during birth, then an microorganism specifically the
infant or a newborn is very susceptible to developing extracellular bacteria
intracellular pathogenic infections o When we talk about neutralization, we talk
- T cell is very responsible for fighting against
about neutralization using antibodies, and
those intracellular pathogens, for example,
when we talk about antibodies, it’s already
fungi virus parasites and when your thymus is
not present, this is what we call your DiGeorge involving memory, and that is classified
syndrome. under adaptive immunity
o thymic hypoplasia
o associated with the absence of thymus
I NNA TE IM M UNI TY
and susceptibility to intracellular
infections - Includes body defenses that are present at birth and
o results to absence of t cells genetically determined
- B cells are very responsible for extracellular
bacteria - THE SAME RESPONSE is elicited or given every time the
body encounters foreign substances

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• Does not give any memory, so that when it nerve is being
encounters the same microorganism, it encounters compressed or being
it as a new one, not as an old one. touched, then there
could be pain, so nerve
examples include: pain
▪ Tumor – swelling
➢ physical barriers – skin, mucous membranes
• Induced by edema or
➢ chemical mediators – lysozyme, sebum, mucus,
the fluid exists
histamine
▪ Functio laesa – loss of function
o lysozyme is present in secretion
• There are many fates of
especially in tears. If you encounter foreign
inflammation, it’s either
microorganisms entering your eye that it
the body wins or the
stimulates the eye to secrete tears, and
bacteria wins
those tears contain lysozyme.
o Control of inflammatory response is a
o sebum is found in skin and this somehow
part of innate immunity.
combats against those microorganisms
o mucus is a form of secretion that includes
C HEM ICA L ME DI AT ORS OF I NNAT E IM M UNIT Y A ND
the expelled microorganism.
T HEI R F UNCT I ONS
o histamine is the one that fights against
allergic and parasitic infections.
SURFACE CHEMICALS
➢ complement system – proteins in plasma
globulins 1. Lysozymes (in tears, saliva, nasal secretions, and
o complement system is a group of proteins sweat)
o plasma globulins specifically fight - lyse cells
against extracellular bacteria • Lysozymes are present in secretion in tears, saliva,
o complement system has three pathways, and these cell secretions that do fight against the
and they fight against extracellular cell wall of gram positive and gram-negative
bacteria bacteria.
➢ interferons – against viral infections and some • These fights or destroys the cell wall of bacteria
cancers 2. acid secretions (sebum in the skin and hydrochloric
o Similar to MHC 1 or the MHC – Major acid in the stomach)
Histocompatibility Type 1 of T cells. - prevent microbial growth or kill microorganisms
o Basically intended for fighting against 3. Mucus on the mucous membranes
viral infection, so your interferon does the - traps microorganisms until they can be destroyed
same • That they can be expelled through
➢ Leukocytes this mucus secretions
➢ INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE.
o There 5 cardinal signs of inflammation: HISTAMINE

▪ Rubor – redness • Part of the allergic reaction or that


• Caused by increased causes allergic reaction
flow of blood to the 1. amine released from mast cells, basophils, and
injury site platelets
• namumula in Tagalog • Mast cells, basophils and platelets
▪ Calor – heat contain histamine that are
• Increased blood supply responsible for allergic reactions
going into the tissue or 2. causes vasodilation increases vascular permeability
injured tissue, heat is 3. stimulates gland secretions (especially mucus and tear
being generated production)
▪ Dolor – pain 4. causes smooth muscle contraction of airway passages
• Pain due to nerve (bronchioles) in the lungs and attracts eosinophils.
compression. So the • Some people who have allergy
nerve due to the reactions can do experience
edematous anaphylactic tendencies because of
phenomenon or due to histamine, so that when you eat the
a tumor is being food that you’re being allergic
compressed. So, if the basically, there’s a tendency that

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 10
anaphylactic shock or anaphylactic ▪ to lyse the cell of the bacterial
phenomenon could occur causing cell or the fungal cell or the
smooth muscle contraction of airway parasitic cell
passages or the bronchioles of the • Compliment is responsible for lysing
lungs that attracts eosinophils so the • Endpoint or optimal goal of complement is to lyse
person will experience dyspnea. cells
• They promote phagocytosis, meaning they also do
KININS opsonization.
o Opsonization is the process of instigating
• One example is bradykinin
or promoting bacterial phagocytosis
1. polypeptides derived from plasma proteins;
2. cause vasodilation, increase vascular permeability
PROSTAGLANDINS
3. stimulate pain receptors
4. attract neutrophils - a group of lipids (PGEs, PGFs, thromboxanes, and
• Kinins are also taking part into prostacyclins)
vasodilation. When there’s an injury, it - some of which cause smooth muscle relaxation
propels or it promotes increased and vasodilation, increase vascular permeability,
blood supply into that area, that’s and stimulate pain receptors.
why kinins somehow are • Prostaglandin is an opposite of histamine, so your
procoagulant. That’s why they induce prostaglandins induce smooth muscle relaxation
clot formation.
LEUKOTRIENES
INTERFERONS
• From the word “leuko” this is referring to
are proteins, produced by most cells, that interfere with leukocytes or white blood cells
virus production and infection - group of lipids
- produced primarily by mast cells and basophils,
• They are called interferons because that cause prolonged smooth muscle contraction
they interfere with virus production (especially in the lung bronchioles)
• They do not allow infection with - increase vascular permeability
viruses - attract neutrophils and eosinophils.
• In other words are against or effective • Work with the histamine with the smooth muscle
against viral infections contraction
• When you encounter COVID-19 or
influenza or any virus for that matter, it COMPLEMENT PROTEINS
is your interferon first will fight
- attach to the surface of bacterial cells and
against those viruses or types of
stimulate macrophages to phagocytize the
viruses
bacteria. This process is called opsonization.
• Complement proteins being described as one that
COMPLEMENT
is capable of opsonization
- a group of plasma proteins that increase vascular o Opsonization is the stimulation of
permeability macrophages to phagocytize the
- stimulate the release of histamine, bacteria
- activate kinins and lyse cells, o stimulate or promote those macrophages
- promote phagocytosis or phagocytosing cells to phagocytize or
- attract neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, engulf those bacteria, or any foreign
and eosinophils. microorganism.
• Complement is a group of protein and there are o Tutulungan para maengulf yung mismong
three pathways of complement: classical, bacteria
alternative and Lectin (mannose binding protein or
mannose binding lectin)
o Classical is the most prominent and
oldest among the pathways
o Classical, alternative and mannan
binding pathway has an end result or has
a goal.

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 11
I MMUNE S YST E M CE LLS A ND T HEI R PRI MA RY FUNC TI O ❖ Counteracts the effects of basophil and is
associated with the counteracting asthma and
allergies.
INNATE IMMUNITY
Natural killer cell
Neutrophil

• Lyses tumor and virus-infected cells


❖ Phagocytosis and inflammation: usually the first
• Is a part as a lymphocyte
cell to leave the blood and enter infected tissues
• is part of the innate immunity
❖ Are the primary, the first cell to leave the blood and
enter infected tissues
A DA PT I VE I MM UNI TY
Monocyte
➢ recognize, respond to, and remember a particular

❖ Leaves the blood and enters tissues to become a substance.

macrophage ➢ It has a memory.

❖ For chronic, to become a macrophage


ANTIGENS – substances that stimulate the necessary

Macrophage immune response

❖ Most effective phagocyte ○ self

❖ important in later stages of infection and in tissue • It’s about the autoimmune occurrences or

repair autoimmune disease tendency

❖ located throughout the body to “Intercept” foreign ○ non-self

substances • This is coming from those foreign

❖ processes antigens materials

❖ involved in the activation of B cells and T cells


All antigens are immunogens, but not all immunogens are
❖ Located in tissue and this is the most effective
antigens.
phagocyte other than dendritic cell, but when
dendritic cell is being mentioned, dendritic cell pa ➢ It can be divided into
rin ANTIBODY-MEDIATED – involves
❖ Macrophage is an APC or antigen presenting cell, production of ANTIBODIES activated by
▪ they do present antigen to the B-cells (B lymphocytes)
phagocytes and letting them to be o Being mediated by B cells or B
lysed or destroyed by the lymphocytes
phagocytosing cell CELL-MEDIATED – include the actions of
T-cells
Basophil
o T cells mediates cell-mediated

❖ Motile cell that leaves the blood, enters tissues and phagocytosis

releases Chemicals that promote inflammation. ✓ Cytotoxic T-cells

❖ Produces histamine and this releases chemicals o Very helpful against viral

that do promote inflammation. infection and intracellular


infection such as parasites
Mast cell and fungi
o For virus
❖ Nonmotile cell in connective tissues that
o Associated with major
inflammation through the release of chemicals
histocompatibility
❖ relative of basophil, only that mast cells are found
complex-1
in tissues, the basophils are found in blood.
✓ Helper T-cells
o They do help B cells, kaya
Eosinophil
sinabi silang helper T cells
❖ Enters tissues from the blood and defends against because they do help B cells
parasitic infections in producing antibodies
❖ participates in inflammation associated with o regulated by major
asthma and allergies. histocompatibility complex
❖ Responsible against parasitic infections 2

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 12
✓ Regulatory T-cells o Activates complements and acts as an
o The ones that regulate the antigen binding receptors on the surface
presence of T cells that of B cells, along with IgD
directed against the body so o Responsible for transfusion reactions in
they regulate. the ABO blood system
o So that when there is a o Often the first antibody produce in
problem with your response to an antigen
regulatory T cells, there • IgA – found in secretions
could be suspect for a o Is a dimer
problem that is associated ▪ There are two monomers
with autoimmunity, so o Secreted in saliva, into tears, and onto
regulate autoimmunity mucous membranes to protect body
o Responsible for regulation of surfaces
autoimmunity o Found in colostrum and milk to provide
immune protection to the newborn
• IgE – one the binds to mast cells and basophils
A NT I BODIES
and stimulates inflammatory response
o Are monomers
• IgD – has antigen binding receptors on B cells
o Are monomers

TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

• Natural active adaptive immunity – exposed


• IgG – opsonization antibody through an infection
o Activates complements and increases o Through infection or introduction through
phagocytosis natural exposure
o Can cross the placenta and provide • Artificial active adaptive immunity – pairs through
immune protection to the fetus and vaccine
newborn o Through administration of vaccine
o Responsible for Rh reactions, such as • Natural passive adaptive immunity
hemolytic disease o Transferring of a mother antibody
o In Ibanag, we say “gavva maccross” through the placenta or in milk through
gavva macross – it crosses the placenta her secretions
unlike the other types of antibodies that do o Transferring antibodies from the present
not cross the placenta placenta or in the milk or in other
o Is a Y structured antibody secretions
o Is a monomer • Artificial passive adaptive immunity
• IgM – precipitation antibody o Through the injection of antibodies like
o Is a pentamer HEPA B prophylaxis
▪ Penta – 5

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 13
A DA PT I VE I MM UNI TY B CE LL M AT URAT I ON

• Has primitive cells

B cell

❖ After activation, differentiates to become plasma


cell or memory B cell
❖ Responsible against extracellular infection

Plasma cell

❖ Produces antibodies that are directly or Indirectly


responsible for destroying the antigen
• B cell develops in the bone marrow.
❖ Produces antibodies against extracellular infection
• When it develops in the bone marrow, there are

Memory B cell many clusters of differentiation or CD that we call.


• CD undergo rearrangement of heavy chains
❖ Quick and effective response to an antigen against • When there is a rearrangement of heavy chains,
Which the Immune system has previously reacted; then after that there is rearrangement of light
responsible for adaptive Immunity chains, whereas we encounter Mμ chain in the
❖ One that memorizes or has a memory against cytoplasm
those microorganisms or against those • It’s produced and takes it maturation in the bone
substances that are being stimulated into the body marrow and undergoing series of rearrangement
like of the of the vaccine process.
• There are four stages of B cell development in the
Cytotoxic T cell
bone marrow:
o Pro B cell
❖ Responsible for destroying cells by lysis or by
o Pre-B Cell
producing cytokines
o immature B cell
❖ Responsible against viral infection
o mature B cell
Helper T cell ▪ Mature B cell is the plasma cell
that can now produce antibodies
❖ Activates B cells and cytotoxic T cells

T CE LL MAT URA TI ON
Regulatory T cell
T-cell maturation in the thymus.
❖ Inhibits B cells, helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells
o Whenever it detects that these cells specifically • T lymphocyte precursors (TP) enter the thymus at
aforementioned are against the body or has the cortico-medullary junction.
an autoimmune tendency • They migrate upward in the cortex and begin
development of the I-cell receptor.
Memory T cell o A small percent of precursors develop
gamma-delta chains while the majority
❖ Quick and effective response to an antigen against
develop alpha-beta chains and become
which the Immune system has previously reacted:
double positive (DP) (both CD4 and CD8
responsible for adaptive Immunity
are present).
❖ Same as memory B cell
• Positive and negative selection take place through

Dendritic cell the CD3/T cell receptor for antigen.


o If positively selected the T cell becomes
❖ Processes antigen and Is Involved In the activation single-positive (SP): that is either CD4+ or
of B cells and T cells CD8+.
❖ Because it’s an antigen presenting cell like that of • Further interaction with macrophages or dendritic
macrophage cells takes place to weed out any T cells able to
respond to self-antigen.
• Surviving CD4+ and CD8+ cells exit the thymus to
the peripheral blood.
o There is a final epithelial cell selection

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 14
Antigens include CD2. CD3, Antigens include CD19,
CD4, CD8 CD20, CD21, CD40, MHC
class II
Located in paracortical Located in cortical region
region of lymph nodes of lymph nodes

M A JOR HI ST OC OM PA TI BI LIT Y C OM P LEX (M HC )

• It’s in the bone marrow that your T cells are being


produced and then immediately they are being
distributed in the circulation going into the
thymus and maturing into the thymus
• There is a thymic epithelial cell selection.
o It undergoes positive and negative
selection. It’s not because the T cells
migrate into the thymus, they already go
• This is associated with the different cytotoxic or
into the circulation, they must undergo
memory or helper B cell.
positive and negative selection and when
• Helper B cell is associated with the MHC class 2
this positive and negative selection is
• Cytotoxic T cell is associated with MHC class 1
being survived by these thymocytes or T
• MHC class 1 requires CD8
cells, then they basically move out from
• MHC class 2 requires CD4
the thymus and are distributed into the
• MHC class 1 is associated with activated cytotoxic
circulation ready for fighting against
T cell
intracellular infection.
• Activated cytotoxic T cell together with major
• If they die, then they did not survive, basically, the
compatibility complex class 1 is associated with
positive and negative selection are not fit for the
CD8
function
• When we encounter inverted CD4 and CD8 ratio,
• T cells are basically manufactured or produced in
we encounter AIDS or HIV infection
bone marrow, and are distributed primarily into
the circulation going into the thymus for Characteristi INNATE ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
maturation through the corticomedullary junction cs IMMUNITY Antibody- Cell-
mediated mediated
• For negative and positive section, if ever they are
immunity immunity
deleted it means they either have autoimmune Primary cells Neutrophils, (B cells) (T cells)
tendences or did not survive the selection eosinophils,
basophils,
mast cells,
T CE LL VS B C ELL monocytes,
and
T cells B cells
macrophage
Develop in the thymus Develop in the bone s
marrow Origin of cells Red bone Red bone Red bone
Found in blood (60%-80% Found in bone marrow marrow marrow marrow
Of Circulating (20%), spleen, lymph nodes Site of Red bone Red bone Thymus
lymphocytes), lymph maturation marrow marrow
nodes, thoracic duct fluid, (neutrophils,
eosinophils,
Identified by rosette Identified by surface
basophils,
formation With SRBCs immunoglobulin and
End products of activation End product of activation is monocytes)
are cytokines antibody tissues (mast
- Via the plasma cells
cells and
macrophage
s)

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 15
Location of Blood, Blood and Blood and • introduction of a foreign ANTIGEN (usually from
mature cells connective lymphatic lymphatic
pathogenic agents –bacteria or virus) in order to
tissue, and tissue tissue
lymphatic activate the body’s ANTIBODIES against it
tissue • subsequent exposure will produce more
Primary Histamine, Antibodies Cytokines antibodies to fight against the antigen.
secretory complement,
• So it's through vaccines that we get to have
products prostaglandi
ns, antibodies against those diseases that we are
leukotrienes, soon to encounter subsequent exposure will
kinins, and
produce more antibodies to fight against the
interferons
Primary Inflammatory Protection Protection antigen, we get to eradicate them clearly because
actions response and against against of the memory that's being installed in your body,
phagocytosis extracellular intracellular
it gets to fight immediately against that particular
antigens antigens
(bacteria, (viruses microorganism.
toxins, and and
viruses intracellular
outside of bacteria) T HE BE NEF IT OF VACC I NES A ND I MM UNI ZA TION
cells) and tumors.

responsible for
graft rejection

regulates
antibody-
mediated
immunity and
cell mediated
immunity
response
(helper T and
regulatory T
• if the society is not being vaccinated, then there
cells)
Hypersensitivi None Immediate Delayed
could be Increased tendency of developing the
ty reactions hypersensitivi Hypersensitivit disease
ty (atopy, y ( allergic • the population is not vaccinated that's why most of
anaphylaxis, reaction to
them got sick.
cytotoxic infection or
reactions, contact • the population is being vaccinated less people
and immune hypersensitivit were infected or were sick
disease) y)
• it's the benefit of being administered with vaccines
that we get to form antibodies against this
anticipated or future microorganisms or viruses
C OM PA RI S ON OF I NNA TE AND ADAP TI VE I MM UNIT Y o develop antibodies that will fight them
immediately and eradicate them from the
A RT I FIC IA L A DAPTI VE I MM UNIT Y circulation

• the use of VACCINES to prevent communicable


TYPES OF IMMUNITY
diseases
Our body has a powerful army that protects it from
various types of threats.
VACCINES – usually produce ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL immunity
mechanical injuries
o
the entry of germs
o
• vaccines stimulate antibody production or trigger
the entry of other foreign particles like
o
antibody production inside the body that when a dust.
patient suffers or experiences adverse reactions, This personal army is called the immune system.
mild adverse reactions, we should be thankful
because the body is working against that vaccine Every day we encounter a huge number of bacteria,
viruses, and other disease-causing organisms. However,
that's being stimulated, or being administered
we don't fall ill every other day, which is due to our
• so that when you talk about vaccines, these are
immune system,
attenuated, or these are inactivated or killed
o an army of cells that is always roaming our
forms of bacteria, fungi or virus that can be used body, ready to ward off any attack.
to stimulate antibodies against anticipated event in The immune system can be broadly divided into two
the future. parts: innate and adaptive immunity.

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 16
INNATE IMMUNITY - These cells are like hungry, ravenous monsters
non-specific immunity
- who simply engulf unwanted pathogens.
the body's first natural defense to any intruder.
- - Instead of roaming freely in our blood, they are
This system doesn't care what it's killing.
- collected in certain places.
Its primary goal is to prevent any intruder from
- - These cells can consume about 100 pathogens
entering the body, and if it does enter, then the before they die, but they can also detect our
immune system neutralizes this intruder. own cells that have gone rogue, such as cancer
- It doesn't differentiate between 1 pathogen and cells, and kill them too.
another. ✓ Beyond that, we also have natural killer cells.
➢ These are the two physical barriers: - These cells can efficiently detect when our own
1.
first component of this defensive system is our cells have gone rogue or are Infected with, say,
skin. a virus.
- Any Organism trying to get into the body is - detect a protein produced by normal cells
stopped by the skin, our largest organ, which called the major histocompatibility complex or
covers us. MHC.
2. Secondly, there is the mucous lining of all our - Basically, whenever a cell isn't normal, it stops
organs producing this protein.
- The sticky, viscous fluid traps any pathogens - move around constantly, checking ourselves for
trying to get past it. this type of deficiency, and when they find an
➢ However, we also have chemical barriers, abnormal cell, they simply bind to it, release
1. lysozyme in the eyes or chemicals and destroy it.
2. acid in the stomach which can kill pathogens ✓ The last cells of our innate immune system are the
trying to gain entry. dendritic cells.
➢ The genitourinary tract and other places have - These are found in places that come in contact
their own normal flora or microbial community. with the outside environment, such as the nose
o These compete with pathogens for and lungs.
space and food, and therefore also act - They are the link between our innate and
as a barrier. adaptive immune systems.
➢ The next line of defense is inflammation, which is - They eat a pathogen and then carry
done by mast cells. information about it to our adaptive immune
- These cells are constantly searching for system cells.
suspicious objects in the body. When they find o This information is produced and
something, they release a signal in the form of shared in the form of antigens.
histamine molecules. ▪ Antigens are the traces that
o These alert the body and blood is pathogens leave behind.
rushed to the problem area. • They are molecules
o This causes inflammation and brings found on the surface
leukocytes or white blood cells, of pathogens that
▪ soldiers in our Body's cellular can be detected by
army. our adaptive
o Once they come, all hell breaks loose. immune system for
recognition.
Sometimes, however, the intruder may not be a germ, but The dendritic cells pass on this information to our T cells.
rather a harmless thing, like a dust particle. However, macrophages can also perform this function.
- The body still causes a full immune reaction to
this intruder, which is how allergic reactions ADAPTIVE/ACQUIRED IMMUNE SYSTEM
occur. - This system is more efficient as it can
In the fortress of our body, the leukocytes are VIPs. They differentiate between different types of
have an all-access pass to the body, except of course to pathogens.
the brain and spinal cord. It has two main components:
✓ leukocytes come in many types, those that belong o T lymphocytes
to the innate system are the phagocytes. o B lymphocytes.
- These cells can either patrol your body like the
neutrophils, or they can stay in certain places T cells
and wait for their queue. - come into play when an infection has already
✓ Neutrophils are the most abundant cells. occurred, thus bringing about the cell-
- They patrol the body and can therefore get to a mediated immune response.
breach site very quickly. - join the fight when the pathogens have entered,
- These cellular soldiers kill the infectious cell and but haven't yet caused any disease. This is
then die, which leads to pus formation. called the humoral immune response.
✓ There are also the big bad wolves or the
macrophages. Some T cells take signals from the dendritic cells or
macrophages and are thus called helper T cells.

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 17
- Interleukin 2 causes the proliferation of certain
They perform 2 Key tasks (Helper T cells): cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
1. forming effector T cells, which are basically cells The immune response from this point follows 2 paths:
that cycle through the body and call in the o using cytotoxic T cells
cavalry, namely other white blood cells. o using B cells.
2. Helper T cells also form memory T cells which • Normal cells of the body that become infected
keep a record of this antigen for future can also digest some of the pathogens and
reference. display antigen fragments on their cell surfaces.
Sometimes some cells of our body know that they have
lost the battle. The body makes millions of different types of cytotoxic T
- They have become heavily infected with cells.
pathogens, so there is no hope left for them. • Each type is able to recognize a particular
o At this point, the immune system brings antigen.
out the cytotoxic T cells. • The cytotoxic T cells that are capable of
▪ These cells rush over and recognizing the antigen displayed on the
perform a mercy killing for the surfaces of infected cells bind to the infected
infected and dying cell. cells and produce chemicals that kill the
B cells infected cell.
- They produce chemicals called antibodies, • Death of the infected cells results in destruction
▪ which fit on the antigens of of the pathogen.
pathogens, much like how a B cells also come in millions of different types
lock and key fit. • each able to recognize a particular antigen.
▪ These antibodies crowd • When B cells become activated by T helper cells,
around a pathogen and act they differentiate into plasma cells.
like tags. o These plasma cells become antibody-
▪They signal the macrophages producing factories, flooding the
to come and kill the marked bloodstream with antibodies that can
pathogen bind to the antigen involved in this
- also produce memory B cells when they infection.
encounter an antigen. • Antibodies bind to the antigens on the surfaces
of the pathogens, marking them for destruction
The B&T memory cells by macrophages.
- jointly maintain a record of all encountered Some of the B cells do not turn into antibody factories,
infections and thus strengthen and solidify the but instead become memory B cells that may survive for
body's immune response to these infections in several decades.
the future. • Because of these memory B cells, the secondary
Our innate response immune response to future infection by the
- is quicker, though non-specific. It gets into same pathogen is swifter and stronger.
action within hours and is pretty strong. o This powerful secondary immune
However when things get out of hand, the innate system response is what gives immunity to
calls for help from the acquired immune system. some diseases after you have had
- This system can take days to mount a response, them once or after you have been
but the next time we encounter that pathogen, it vaccinated.
won't make us sick.

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ….


THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
… in cases of allergic reactions?
Activation of the immune response typically begins
when a pathogen enters the body.
… in auto-immune diseases?
• Macrophages that encounter the pathogen
ingest, process, and display the antigen
… in immunocompromised states such as HIV-AIDS?
fragments on their cell surfaces.
• Macrophages with antigen fragments
displayed on their surfaces are called antigen-
presenting cells.
o An antigen-presenting macrophage
interacts with a T helper cell that can
recognize the same antigen.
- During the interaction, the macrophage releases
a chemical alarm signal called Interleukin-1,
which stimulates the T helper cell to secrete
interleukin-2.

OSAM/AGPALO/TABAO-BSN1J| 18

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