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A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 6 07/06/13 10:40 AM
For
Lawrence M. Kahn
Daniel Blau Kahn
Lisa Blau Kahn
and
Bob Ferber
Don Ferber
Ellen Ferber Rogalin
and
Michael Joseph Kowalkowski
Henrik Francis Kowalkowski
Andrew Joseph Kowalkowski
With Love
In Memoriam
Our dear colleague, friend, and collaborator,

Marianne A. Ferber, January 30, 1923 – May 11, 2013.
The Economics of Women, Men, and Work,

both the textbook and the field of study,
have been deeply enriched by her contributions.

Brief Contents
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14
Part II The Allocation of Time between the Household and the Labor Market 33
Chapter 3 The Family as an Economic Unit: Theoretical Perspectives 35
Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58
Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76
Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91
Part III Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 133
Chapter 7 Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes 135
Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory

and Evidence 163
Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market

Outcomes: On-the-Job Training, Family Gaps, Psychological Attributes,
and Math Test Scores 196
Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings

and Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market
Discrimination 221
Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253
Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271
Part IV The Economics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 291
Chapter 13 Changing Work Roles and Family Formation 293
Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family

Well-Being 317
ix

x Brief Contents
Chapter 15 Government Policies Affecting Family Well-Being 330
Chapter 16 Balancing the Competing Demands of Work and Family 351
Part V The Economic Status of the World’s Women 373
Chapter 17 Gender Differences around the World: An Overview 375
Chapter 18 Gender Differences around the World: Specific Countries

and Regions 395
Author Index 425

Subject Index 435

Contents
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1

Chapter 1 Introduction 3
What Economics Is About 4
Uses of Economic Theory 5
The Scope of Economics 6
Individuals, Families, and Households 7
A Note on Terminology 8
Outline of the Book 9
Appendix 1A: A Review of Supply and Demand in the Labor Market 9
Questions for Review and Discussion 13
Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14

The Source of Gender Differences: Nature versus Nurture—
The Ongoing Debate 14
Factors Influencing Women’s Relative Status 18
Women’s Roles and Economic Development 19
The U.S. Experience 21
Colonial America: The Preindustrial Period 21
Period of Industrialization 22
The Evolution of the Family and Women’s Labor Force Participation 24
Occupations and Earnings of Women in the Nineteenth and Early
Twentieth Century 28
Conclusion 31
Suggested Readings 32
Part II The Allocation of Time between the Household

and the Labor Market 33
Chapter 3 The Family as an Economic Unit: Theoretical Perspectives 35
The Simple Neoclassical Model: Specialization and Exchange 36
Comparative Advantage 37
Specialization and Exchange: Numerical Examples 38
Case 1: Each Individual Has An Absolute Advantage
in One Activity 38
Case 2: One Individual Has An Absolute Advantage
in Both Activities 40
xi

xii Contents
Decreasing Gains to Specialization and Exchange and the Shift Away

from the Traditional Family 40
Disadvantages of Specialization 41
Lack of Sharing of Housework 42
Life Cycle Changes 42
Costs of Interdependence 43
Tastes and Bargaining Power 43
Domestic Violence 44
Advantages of Families beyond Specialization 44
Economies of Scale 45
Public Goods 45
Externalities in Consumption 45
Gains from Shared Consumption 45
Marriage-Specific Investments 46
Risk Pooling 46
Institutional Advantages 46
Transaction Cost and Bargaining Approaches 46
Conclusion 50
Appendix 3A: Specialization and Exchange: A Graphical Analysis 50
Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58

Time Spent in Nonmarket Work 58
Time Spent in Housework 59
Time Spent with Children 62
Time Spent in Volunteer Work 65
Estimating the Value of Nonmarket Production 67
The American Family in the Twenty-First Century 71
Conclusion 74
Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76

The Labor Force: Some Definitions 77
Trends in Labor Force Participation 79
Broad Labor Force Trends by Gender: 1890 to Present 79
Labor Force Trends by Race/Ethnicity 81
Labor Force Trends over the Life Cycle 82
Trends in Labor Force Attachment of Women 84
Trends in Hours Worked 85
Trends in Gender Differences in Unemployment 86
Conclusion 88

Contents xiii

Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91

The Labor Supply Decision 91
The Budget Constraint 93
Indifference Curves 93
Substitution in Consumption 95
Substitution in Production 96
Substitution Between Market Goods and Nonmarket Time 96
Tastes 97
The Labor Force Participation Decision 98
The Value of Nonmarket Time (w*) 100
The Value of Market Time (w) 104
The Hours Decision 108
Empirical Evidence on the Responsiveness of Labor Supply
to Wages and Income 108
Economic Conditions 112
Some Applications of the Theory: Taxes, Child Care Costs,
and Labor Supply 113
Taxes and the Decision to Work 113
Government Subsidies of Child Care and Women’s Labor Force
Participation 114
Other Factors Affecting Child Care Costs and Women’s Labor
Force Participation 115
Analyzing the Long-Term Growth in Women’s Labor
Force Participation 116
Factors Influencing the Value of Market Time (w) 116
Rising Qualifications: Education and Experience 117
The Demand for Female Labor 117
Overall Productivity Increases 117
Factors Influencing the Value of Nonmarket Time (w*) 118
Availability of Market Substitutes and Household Appliances
and the Role of Technological Change 118
Demographic Trends 119
Changing Role of Husband’s Income 119
Tastes 120
Recent Trends in Women’s Labor Force Participation: Has the Engine
of Growth Stalled? 122
Analyzing Trends in Men’s Labor Force Participation 125
Black and White Participation Differentials: Serious Employment Problems
for Black Men 127
Conclusion 130
Appendix 6A: The Income and Substitution Effects: A Closer Look 130

xiv Contents

Part III Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 133
Chapter 7 Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes 135
Gender Differences in Occupations 135
Overview of Gender Differences in Occupations 136
Measuring Occupational Segregation 142
Hierarchies within Occupations 143
Evaluating the Extent of Occupational Segregation 143
Trends in Occupational Segregation by Sex 144
The Gender Pay Ratio 146
Gender Differences in Union Membership 155
Gender Differences in Self-Employment 157
Gender Differences in Nonstandard Work 159
Conclusion 160
Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory

and Evidence 163
Supply and Demand Explanations: An Overview 163
What Is Human Capital? 165
Evidence on Gender Differences in Educational Attainment 165
The Educational Investment Decision 172
The Rising College Wage Premium 177
Education and Productivity 180
Gender Differences in Educational Investment Decisions: The Human
Capital Explanation 181
Gender Differences in Educational Investment Decisions: Social Influences
and Anticipation of Discrimination 184
Socialization 186
Biased Evaluations 187
Subtle Barriers: Role Models, Mentoring, and Networking 187
Policy Issues: Title IX—Sports, Academics, and the Status of Single-Sex
Education 189
Explaining Women’s Rising Educational Attainment 191
Conclusion 193
Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market

Outcomes: On-the-Job Training, Family Gaps, Psychological
Attributes, and Math Test Scores 196

Contents xv
On-the-Job Training and Labor Market Experience 196

Gender Differences in Labor Market Experience 197
The On-the-Job Training Investment Decision 198
General Training 198
Firm-Specific Training 199
Why Do Firms Pay Tuition Benefits? 201
Experience and Productivity 201
Gender Differences in Training Investment Decisions 202
Expected Work Life 202
Discrimination 205
Occupations and Earnings 205
Family-Related Earnings Gaps 207
Traditional Gender Roles and Gender Wage Gaps 207
Women’s Greater Responsibility for Housework
and Caregiving 207
Gender Differences in Quitting 208
Gender and the Location of the Family 208
Wage Penalties and Premiums Associated with Marriage
and Parenthood 208
Male Marriage Premium 209
Motherhood Wage Penalty 209
Gender Differences in Psychological Attributes 211
Attitudes toward Negotiating 213
Attitudes toward Competition 214
Attitudes toward Risk 214
Gender Differences in the “Big Five” Personality Traits 215
A Closer Look at Gender Differences in Math Test Scores 216
Conclusion 219
Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings

and Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market
Discrimination 221
Labor Market Discrimination: A Definition 222
Analyzing the Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market
Outcomes 222
Empirical Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings 223
Evidence from Statistical Analyses: Labor Market-wide Evidence 223
Biases in the Estimate of Discrimination 225
Evidence on Possible Sources of the Unexplained Gender
Wage Gap 226
Further Evidence from Statistical Analyses: A Look at Subgroups
of College Graduates, Lawyers, and MBAs 228

xvi Contents
Evidence on Discrimination from Experiments 230

Evidence on Discrimination from Court Cases 231
Evidence on Discrimination: An Assessment 232
The Declining Gender Pay Gap 232
The Context: Widening Wage Inequality 232
Determinants of Trends in the Gender Wage Gap 233
Explaining the Decline in the Gender Wage Gap 234
Results of the Blau-Kahn Study 235
Understanding the Decline in the Unexplained Portion of the
Gender Pay Gap 235
Minorities Fared Less Well in Narrowing the Wage Gap
with Whites 237
Empirical Evidence on the Causes and Consequences of Gender
Differences in Occupations 238
Consequences of Occupational Segregation 238
Causes of Occupational Segregation 240
Is There a Glass Ceiling? 241
Conclusion 246
Appendix 10A: Regression Analysis and Empirical Estimates of Labor
Market Discrimination 247
Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253

Theories of Labor Market Discrimination: An Overview 253
Tastes for Discrimination 254
Employer Discrimination 255
Employee Discrimination 259
Customer Discrimination 261
Subtle Barriers 261
Statistical Discrimination 262
Perceptions of Average Gender Differences Can Result in a Pay
Gap 262
Statistical Discrimination and Feedback Effects 263
Empirical Evidence on Gender Differences in Quitting 264
The Overcrowding Model 264
Institutional Models 266
The Internal Labor Market 267
Primary and Secondary Jobs 267
Feedback Effects 268
Conclusion 269

Contents xvii
Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271

Rationales for Government Intervention 271
Equal Employment Opportunity Laws and Regulations 272
Equal Pay Act 273
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 273
Executive Order 11246 and Affirmative Action 273
Major Court Decisions and Legislation That Have Shaped the Equal
Employment Laws and Regulations 274
Exceptions to Title VII Due to Bona Fide Occupational
Qualifications 274
Rulings Regarding Sex Plus Another Characteristic 275
Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact 275
1991 Civil Rights Act 276
Sexual Harassment 276
Sexual Orientation 277
The Lilly Ledbetter Case 278
The Failed Walmart Class Action Suit 278
Effectiveness of the Government’s Antidiscrimination Effort 279
Affirmative Action 281
Comparable Worth 285
Conclusion 288
Part IV The Economics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 291
Chapter 13 Changing Work Roles and Family Formation 293
Economic Explanations for Family Formation 293
The Role of Gains to Specialization in Production 293
Declining Gains from Specialization in Production 294
Other Benefits from Marriage Remain and Some May
Be Increasing 295
Marriage 296
Divorce 300
Cohabitation: Opposite-Sex Couples 303
Cohabitation: Same-Sex Couples 306
Fertility 307
Trends in Fertility Rates: World War II to Present 309
Timing of Fertility by Educational Attainment 312
Births to Unmarried Mothers 313
Teen Births 315
Births to Older Mothers 315
Conclusion 315

xviii Contents

Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family

Well-Being 317
Changing Family Structure 317
Dual-Earner Families 317
Single-Parent Families 319
Poverty: Incidence and Measurement 321
Implications for Children’s Well-Being 324
Maternal Employment, Child Care, and Children’s Outcomes 324
Family Structure and Children’s Outcomes 327
Conclusion 328
Internet-Based Data Exercise 329
Chapter 15 Government Policies Affecting Family Well-Being 330

Policies to Alleviate Poverty 330
Aid to Families with Dependent Children: The Former U.S. Welfare
Program 331
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families: The Current U.S. Welfare
Program 333
The Earned Income Tax Credit 337
Employment Strategies 339
Child Support Enforcement 340
Taxes, Specialization, and Marriage 341
Federal Income Tax 342
Social Security 345
Conclusion 348
Chapter 16 Balancing the Competing Demands of Work and Family 351

The Competing Demands of Work and Family 351
Rationales for Government and Employer Policies to Assist Workers 355
Rationales for Government Policies 355
Rationales for Employer Policies 357
Government and Employer Family-Friendly Policies 357
Family Leave 358
Child Care 361
Other Family-Friendly Policies 366
Alternative Work Schedules 366
Flexible Benefits 368
Policies to Assist Couples 368

Contents xix
Conclusion 371
Part V The Economic Status of the World’s Women 373

Chapter 17 Gender Differences around the World: An Overview 375
Indicators of Women’s Economic Status 375
Labor Force Participation 376
Occupations 382
Earnings 383
Educational Attainment 383
Fertility 386
Housework 386
Women’s Role in Government and Their Standing Before the Law 387
Cultural Factors 388
Women’s Status: An Assessment 390
Economic Development, Globalization, and Women’s Status 391
Conclusion 393
Chapter 18 Gender Differences around the World: Specific Countries

and Regions 395
A Comparison of the United States to Other Economically Advanced
Countries 395
Overview of International Differences in Policies 396
Labor Force Participation 399
Occupations 402
The Gender Wage Ratio 403
Demographic Trends 407
Challenges Facing Women in Developing Countries 410
The Benefits of Educating Girls 411
Fertility and Population Control 413
Microcredit for Women: Lifeline or Mirage? 415
Countries of the Former Soviet Bloc 417
Countries of the Middle East and North Africa 419
Conclusion 422
Author Index 425
Subject Index 435

Preface
We wrote The Economics of Women, Men, and Work because we saw a need for a text that
would acquaint students with the findings of research on women, men, and work in
the labor market and the household. We are extremely gratified on the publication of
the seventh edition to reflect that this belief was justified, and hope that this fully re-
vised and updated edition will serve as effectively as the earlier ones.
Overview of the Text

The book is written at a level that should both utilize and enhance students’ knowledge
of economic concepts and analysis but do so in terms intelligible to those not versed in
advanced theory. Even though we assume a knowledge of introductory economics on
the part of the reader, an interested and determined individual wanting to learn more
about the economic status of women as compared to men could benefit considerably
from the material offered here. The book also draws upon research in the other social
sciences. The text, used in its entirety, is primarily intended for courses specifically con-
cerned with the economic status of women. However, this book could be used to good
advantage in interdisciplinary women’s studies courses, as well as introductory-level
courses in economic problems. Selected readings would also make a useful supplement
to round out a general labor economics course or a course in the economics of the fam-
ily. In addition, this book would serve as a useful reference work for those not familiar
with the rapidly growing body of literature on women, men, and work as well as for
practicing economists looking for a single volume on this topic.
For instructors, in a recent chapter written by two of us, Blau and Winker, entitled
“Women, Men, and the Economy” in the International Handbook on Teaching and Learn-
ing Economics, we offer a discussion of how this course can enhance student learning.1
As discussed in our handbook chapter, courses like this offer an opportunity for stu-
dents to apply their microeconomic knowledge to gender-related policy issues and can
be used to motivate useful discussions about data, research methods, and interpreting
mixed research findings. Our handbook chapter also points to ways to fully engage
students in the course material and offers suggestions about how to teach more dif-
ficult concepts as well as provides ideas for supplementary assignments, in addition to
the end-of-chapter questions.
Significant Features of the Seventh Edition

The seventh edition reflects the numerous changes in the labor market and in the family
that have occurred in recent years. All data and tables have been updated, and discus-
sions and references take into account the most recent research on each subject covered.
As in the recent prior editions, questions are provided at the end of each chapter to
review major concepts and to stimulate further discussion among students and instruc-
tors. As this edition was being prepared, the United States was recovering from the
most serious recession it had experienced since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The
Great Recession, which began in December 2007 and lasted until June 2009, was fol-
lowed by a period of prolonged high unemployment. For example, the unemployment
1
Francine D. Blau and Anne E. Winker, “Women, Men, and the Economy,” in International Handbook on Teaching
and Learning Economics, edited by Gail M. Hoyt and KimMarie McGoldrick, (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar,
2012) pp. 693–702.
xxi

xxii Preface
rate still hovered in the 8 percent range through 2012. We discuss the considerable im-
pact it has had on the lives of women, men, and families in a number of sections. At
the same time, throughout the book, we continue to emphasize long-run changes and
developments, as we have done in previous editions.
Key features of the seventh edition include the following:
• While the coverage and order of the content largely remains the same, the book
is now divided into five major parts: (I) Introduction and Historical Perspec-
tives; (II) The Allocation of Time Between the Household and the Labor Market;
(III) Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy; (IV) The Econom-
ics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy; and (V) The Economic Status
of the World’s Women. In addition, we have increased the number of chapters
from 12 to 18, and so chapter length is correspondingly reduced. The purpose
of this change is to provide additional flexibility to instructors and to break
the material into smaller units for students. Some material has been relocated
across chapters. The material covered in Chapter 8 in the sixth edition has been
relocated as follows: The analysis of the narrowing of the gender pay gap has
been moved to Chapter 10 (“Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in
Earnings and Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market Discrimi-
nation”); the material on the rising college wage premium has been moved to
Chapter 8 (“Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory and Evi-
dence”). The material covered in Chapter 9 of the sixth edition on unionism,
self-employment, and nonstandard work has been shortened and moved to
Chapter 7 (“Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes”).
• We highlight recent developments in the labor market and their consequences
for women and men. These developments include the increasingly divergent
outcomes for individuals and families by level of educational attainment, as
well as the implications of the Great Recession for both individuals and families.
• This edition includes several new topics: a section examining why the engine of
growth in women’s labor force participation has stalled (Chapter 6); a section
on the role of gender differences in psychological attributes (attitudes toward
negotiation, competition, and risk, and personality traits) in explaining the
gender difference in earnings (Chapter 9); a consideration of corporate board
quotas for women (Chapter 12); and a discussion of the relationship between
women’s status, globalization, and economic development (Chapter 17).
• Chapter 2 has been fully revamped. The first section provides a substantially
revised discussion on the ongoing debate about nature versus nurture in explain-
ing gender differences. The latter part of the chapter, which provides a historical
context, introduces the theory behind the U-shaped female labor force function
to explain the relationship between women’s role in production and women’s
status across countries and over the course of U.S. economic development.
• In keeping with changing demographics, the book incorporates additional dis-
cussion of same-sex marriage and its changing legal status. Chapter 13 also
points to changing dimensions of fertility, including the rise in serial cohabita-
tion and multipartner fertility, and the decline in teen birth rates.
• New material has been included on “hot topics” in the news. New to this edi-
tion are discussions of the recent Supreme Court ruling in the Walmart discrim-
ination case; the finding reported in the press that young women earn more
than young men in large cities; the ongoing debate about whether women can,
indeed, “have it all” (both a career and a family); and the extent to which gen-
der differences in math test scores are influenced by social factors, gender dif-
ferences in competition, and “stereotype threat.”

Preface xxiii
• The international chapters point to dramatic changes occurring across the

globe, including rapid declines in fertility in nearly all countries, as well as dra-
matic increases in women’s education in developing countries. While the ratio
of boys to girls at birth remains high in many East Asian countries, we point
to substantial declines in this ratio in South Korea, which is a very promising
development.

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As the Learner ought to proceed regularly in his practice,
beginning first with the plainest and easiest methods. I will therefore
observe that order, and first shew the course and methods of Plain
changes.
The Changes on two Bells.
Two bells are capable to make only two changes, which is to be
done by changing the notes twice, as in these figures.——
12
21
12
The Changes on three Bells.
There are six changes on three bells; which are made by this
rule: the two first and two last notes must be changed by turns.
123
First the two first notes, which are 1 2 thus. 213
The two last, which are 1 3, thus. 231
The two first 321
The two last 312
The two first 132
The two last 123
In these six changes ’tis observable, that the two first notes,
which were 1 2, made the first change of the six; but they may as well
be rung by
123
beginning with the two last notes, which are 2, 3 thus—— 132
Next the two first notes, which are 1 3, thus, 312
The two last 321
The two first 231
The two last 213
The two first 123
The six changes can be rung no more than these two ways here
set down.
The Six changes are sometimes rung by observing a hunt
therein, which is very improper, since every note has a like course.
Yet I confess in demonstrating the methods on twelve, I did there
admit a Hunt into the six changes; but that was only for
demonstration sake.
The compleat peals of plain changes, from three to all greater
numbers whatsoever, as the Twenty four changes on four, the
Sixscore on five, the Seven hundred and twenty on six, &c. are prickt
and rung by one method; all the notes having a hunting-motion,
except only three in each peal, which three do make the six changes
in the same manner as they are before prickt. So that the Six changes
on three may be term’d the basis or foundation of the compleat peals
on all greater numbers.
Every Hunting note in each peal has a certain number of notes
assigned, through which ’tis always to hunt. The term hunt is given to
a note in respect of the manner of its motion, which I will shew in
this example. First, the notes of four bells are supposed to strike
round in this order, 1234. The Treble shall be the Hunt, and the other
three assigned or appointed for it to hunt through. Now whereas the
Treble-note leads, it must move through its assigned number to
strike behind them: and whereas every change must be made betwixt
two notes that strike next each other, as I have shewed before in the
4th Observation; therefore the hunting-note is confin’d to move
gradually through the rest by making a change with each note that
strikes next to it; and accordingly it must first move into the 2d
place, next into the 3d place, and lastly into the 4th. So that ’tis to
make a change with every note that lies behind it; first with the 2d
note, next with the 3d, and lastly with the 4th.
1234
The first change is thus 2134
The second thus 2314
The third thus 2341
The hunting note has here moved through its assigned number;
for whereas at first it did lead, now it strikes behind them. Wherein
’tis observable, that it made up changes all the way; which of
necessity it must do, because every note with which it was to make a
change, lay behind it: and because it made up changes, therefore ’tis
said to have hunted up. The hunting-note shall now move through its
assigned number again, to lead as at first. Therefore first it must
move into the 3d place, then into the second place, and lastly into the
first place, which is called the Treble’s place; in which motion it must
make a change with each note that strikes next before it: first with
the 4th note, next with the 3d, then with the 2d.
The first change thus 2314
The second thus 2134
The third thus 1234
’Tis observable, that here the Treble made down-changes all the
way, which of necessity it must do, because every note with which it
was to make a change, lay before it: and because it made down-
changes, therefore it is said to have hunted down. This is the manner
of the motion of the hunting notes in all peals of plain changes; for
they hunt up and down through their assigned number, as the 1 here
has done. This example is plain and full to instruct the Learner in the
hunting of any bell, therefore he ought to peruse it diligently, that he
may understand the true scope and meaning of it; and as a help he
may apply himself to practice by taking a Treble, and attempt to hunt
it up and down as this Example directs; which he may the more
readily do, if he understand the 5th Observation before set down,
which guides him to make a change in ringing. So that partly by
reading and well considering of what I have here wrote, and partly by
practice, he may in a short time become perfect in the hunting
motion of any note; which when he rightly apprehends, he will then
presently be capable of understanding the following methods; and
therefore I shall be the more brief in my directions to them.
The Changes on four Bells.
Twenty four changes may be rung upon four bells: but the
Learner may first practice the twelve changes, and the eighteen
changes. In the twelve changes the notes are all to be hunted up after
one another, which may be called the Twelve all over. First the
treble-note must be hunted up, letter (a); then the second note must
likewise hunt up, letter (b); next the third note must hunt up, letter
(c); and lastly the 4th note also, letter (d).
1234
2134
a 2314
2341
3241
b 3421
3412
4312
c 4132
4123
1423
d 1243
1234
The four notes may also hunt down one after another. First, the
4th note must hunt down to lead: then the 3d note likewise, and so
the 2d and Treble one after another, which may be term’d the Twelve
all under.
Courteous Reader, in my directions to the course of each peal, I do
there refer by letters to the examples; which I am forced to do, to
prevent those confused breaks, and unhandsome spaces, which
otherwise would have happen’d both in examples and precepts.
Whatever letter I mention in my directions, refers to the like at
the figures. For instance; in my directions to the twelve changes
next before, I there directed the treble-note to be first hunted up,
letter (a); which letter refers to the like letter at the first three
changes of the twelve, where the Treble hunted up, as ’tis here
again represented, and the like of the rest.
2134
a 2314
2341
In the Eighteen changes, the Treble is a hunting note, but never
hunts up farther than the 3d place; and when it lies there, the two
first notes must make a change; and every time it leads, the two
hindmost notes. First it hunts up into the 3d place, letter (a); the two
first notes, Which are 2.3, make a change, letter (b); the Treble hunts
down (c). The two hindmost notes make a change (d), the Treble
hunts up (e). The two first notes, which are 3.4, make a change (f) the
Treble hunts down (g); the two last notes, which are 3.2, make a
change (h), which method being continued, will bring the bells round
at the end of eighteen changes. The Eighteen changes may also be
rung by hunting the 4th note down into the 2d place, and then a
change to be made behind: the 4th note to be hunted up again into
its own place, and then a change to be made before, which course
being continued, will produce Eighteen changes.
1234
2134
a
2314
b 3214
3124
c
1324
d 1342
3142
e
3412
f 4312
4132
g
1432
h 1423
4123
i
4213
k 2413
2143
l
1243
m 1234
The Six changes on three are the ground of the Twenty four
changes on four; for one of the four notes hath a constant hunting
motion through the other three, in the same manner as in the
preceding Example, page 50. and the three notes are to make the six
changes in the same manner as I have before shewed in the changes
on three bells; one of the six changes being always made every time
the hunt lies either before or behind the three bells: therefore if the
Learner do but rightly apprehend the course of the six changes, and
also the manner of the motion of the hunting note, he will presently
understand the method of the twenty four changes. The six changes
in the twenty four, according to the terms of ringing are called
Extream changes, and the three bells which makes them, Extream
bells. So that in the twenty four changes, there is a hunt and three
extream bells. Every time the hunt lies either before or behind the
extream bells, an extream change must then be made. The extream
changes may be made two ways, viz. either betwixt the two farthest
extream bells from the hunt, or else betwixt the two nearest extream
bells to it. In this Example every extream change shall be made
betwixt the two farthest extream bells from the hunt, and the treble
shall be the hunting note, which must first hunt up (a); then the two
farthest notes from the hunt, which are 2.3, must make an extream
change (b). The Treble must hunt down (c). The two farthest notes
from the hunt, which are 2.4, must make an extream change (d). The
treble must hunt up (e); the two farthest notes from the hunt, which
are 3.4, must make an extream change (f). The treble-note must hunt
down (g). The two farthest extream bells from the hunt, which are
3.2, must make an extream change (h). The treble must hunt up (i).
The two farthest notes from the hunt, which are 4.2, must make an
extream change (k). The treble must hunt down (l). The two farthest
extream bells, which are 4.3, must make an extream change (m),
which concludes the peal. Now the Learner for his satisfaction may
take out the extream changes in the same order as they were made,
as first at (b), then (d), and so (f.h.k.m.) and they will stand as they
are here set down; where ’tis evident, that 2.3.4 have made the six
changes according to the method of the first six changes on three
bells, before set down, (page 48.) where the first change of that six
was 213, and this being 324, is the same in course though the figures
differ, and the rest of the changes in this six, are likewise the same in
course and method with those.
1234
2134
a 2314
2341
b 3241
3214
c 3124
1324
d 1342
3142
e 3412
3421
f 4321
4312
g 4132
1432
h 1423
4123
i 4213
4231
k 2431
2413
l 2143
1243
m 1234
3241
1342
4321
1423
2431
1234
In the preceding twenty four changes, every extream change was

made betwixt the two furthest extream bells from the hunt. I will
therefore here set down an example, where they shall be made
between the two nearest bells, to it. First, the treble hunts up (a). The
two next notes to the hunt, which are 3.4, must make an extream
change (b). The Treble must hunt down (c). The two nearest notes to
the hunt, which are 2.4, must make an extream change (d). The
Treble hunts up (e). The two nearest extream bells to the hunt, which
are 2.3, must make an extream change (f). The Treble hunts down
(g). The two next extream bells to the hunt, which are 4.3, must
make a change (h). And the like extream changes being made as at
(k) and (m), concludes the peal.
1234
2134
a 2314
2341
b 2431
2413
c 2143
1243
d 1423
4123
e 4213
4231
f 4321
4312
g 4132
1432
h 1342
3142
i 3412
3421
k 3241
3214
l 3124
1324
m 1234
The six extream changes, viz. (b.d.f.h.k. and m.) being set down
by themselves, will stand in this order, as here you see; where ’tis
plain, that 2 3 4 have made the six changes, according to the method
of the last six changes on three bells, page 49. where the first change
of that six is made between the last two notes thus, 1 3 2. So in like
manner is the first here thus, 243, which is the same method with
that, though not the same figures.
2431
1423
4321
1342
3241
1234
So that the making of the extream changes two ways in the

twenty four, proceeds from the two ways of making the six changes
on three bells. This last way of making the extream changes, may, for
distinction from the other way, be called mediums; which term is
very proper, in regard that the two middlemost of the four notes do
always make the extream change. The extream changes in one peal
must all be made alike, that is, either betwixt the two farthest notes
from the hunt, or else betwixt the two nearest notes to it; but the
most usual way is to make them between the two farthest.
Any note may be made a hunt at pleasure, and its first motion at
the beginning of the peal may be either up or down. The twenty four
changes may be rung sixteen ways according to the aforesaid
method, yet the changes to each are still one and the same; but by
making each note a hunt, and moving it either up or down at the
beginning, and also by making the extream changes two ways, the
course of the changes will be so altered, that the same changes shall
not come all along together in any two of those sixteen ways. With
the hunting of one note it may be rung four ways; for the note may
move either up or down at the beginning of the peal; then in its
motion either way the extream changes maybe made two ways, as
before: so that to make each note a hunt, and with each hunt to ring
it four ways makes sixteen in the whole. Wherein ’tis observable, that
the treble-note cannot be moved down at first, nor the 4th up;
therefore an extream change must first be made, which is as effectual
as if either note had moved at first. I have here prickt the twenty four
changes three ways, wherein the extream changes are all made
betwixt the two farthest notes from the hunt.
2d. down 3d. up 4th. up
1234 1234 1234

2134 1243 2134
2143 2143 2143
1243 2134 2413
1423 2314 4213
1432 3214 4231
4132 3241 2431
4123 2341 2341
4213 2431 2314
2413 2413 3214
2431 4213 3241
4231 4231 3421
4321 4321 4321
4312 3421 4312
3412 3412 3412
3421 4312 3142
3241 4132 3124
2341 4123 1324
2314 1423 1342
3214 1432 1432
3124 1342 4132
3142 3142 4123
1342 3124 1423
1324 1324 1243
1234 1234 1234
The Changes on five Bells.
There are sixscore changes to be rung on five bells; but the
Learner may first practice some shorter peals, as the Ten changes,
the twelve, the Fourteen, the Twenty all over, the Twenty with one
hunt, and the Forty eight.
In the Ten changes the treble must first hunt up (a); the 2.3
must make a change (b). The treble must hunt down again (c); the
3.2 must make another change (d). The ten changes may also be rung
by hunting down the 5 to lead; then 3.4 to make a change; the 5 to be
hunted up again, and the 4.3 to make another change.
12345
21345
23145
a
23415
23451
b 32451
32415
32145
c
31245
13245
d 12345
In the Twelve changes the treble hunts up into the third place,
then the two first notes make a change; the treble hunts down again,
then the two hindmost notes make a change. First the treble hunts
into the 3d place (a); the two first notes 2.3 make a change (b). The
treble hunts down (c); the two last notes make a change (d); the
treble hunts up (e); the two first notes make a change (f); the treble
hunts down (g); the two last notes make another change (h).
12345
21345
a
23145
b 32145
31245
c
13245
d 13254
31254
e
32154
f 23154
21354
g
12354
h 12345
In the Fourteen changes, the treble first hunts up behind; then
the 5 hunts down to lead; the treble then hunts down again into its
own place; and the fifth also hunts up into its own place.
The Twenty all over are rung in the same manner as the Twelve
all over upon four bells, to which I refer.
In the Twenty changes with one hunt, the hunting note
continually hunts up and down through the other notes, and every
time it lies either before or behind them, an extream change must be
made betwixt the two farthest notes from it. The treble shall be the
hunt, and first hunteth up (a). An extream change is made (b); the
treble hunts down (c); an extream change is made (d); which course
must be continued to the end. The extream changes may also be
made betwixt the two next notes to the hunt. Any note may be made
a hunt at pleasure, yet still observing to make the extreams as before.
12345
21345
23145
a
23415
23451
b 32451
32415
32145
c
31245
13245
d 13254
In the forty eight changes, the 5th and 4th are both hunts, and 1
2 3 do make the six changes; the 5.4 do hunt down by turns, and
when either of them leads, then one of the six changes is made. First
the 5 hunts down (a); one of the six changes is made (b); the 5 hunts
up into its own place (c); the 4 hunts down (d); another of the six
changes is made (e); then the 4 must hunt up, and the 5 down again,
&c. which course must be continued to the end.
12345
12354
12534
a
15234
51234
b 52134
25134
21534
c
21354
21345
21435
d 24135
42135
e 42315
In the Sixscore changes, four of the notes do make the Twenty
four changes, and the fifth note hunts continually through them: so
that the course and method of the Sixscore is in effect the same with
that of the Four and twenty. For as the Four and twenty
comprehended the Six changes on three; so in like manner the
Sixscore comprehend the Four and twenty changes on four, and the
Six changes on three. Therefore in the Sixscore there must be two
hunts and three extream bells; one of the hunts is term’d the whole-
hunt, and the other the half-hunt, The three extream bells do make
the Six changes in the same manner as they were made before in the
Four and twenty changes upon four bells, and are here also call’d
Extream changes: the half-hunt and three extream bells do make the
Four and twenty changes in the same manner as the Four and twenty
changes on four bells were likewise made: and the whole hunt
continually hunts through those four bells, and every time it either
leads or lies behind them, one change must then be made in the
twenty four. 1 shall here be the whole-hunt, 2 the half-hunt, and 345
extream bells: so that 2345 must make the four and twenty changes.
Every extream change shall be made betwixt the two farthest
extream bells from the half-hunt. First, the treble hunts up (a). One
of the twenty four changes must now be made; and therefore 2 which
is the hunt in the twenty four, must begin its motion through the
extream bells (b). The treble hunts down (c); the half-hunt must
proceed in its course (d); the whole-hunt hunts up (e); The half-hunt
proceeds forward (f); the whole-hunt moves down (g). The half-hunt
should now proceed, but having finished its course through the
extream bells, therefore an extream change must now be made
betwixt the two farthest extream bells from it, which are 3.4 (h). The
treble must hunt up (i); the half-hunt must now begin its course
again through the extream bells (k); treble hunts down (l); the half-
hunt proceeds in its course down (m); treble hunts up (n); the half-
hunt proceeds in its course down (o); treble hunts down (p); the half-
hunt having finished its course, therefore an extream change must be
made betwixt the two farthest extream bells from it, which are 3.5
(q). The treble hunts up (r). The half-hunt begins its motion again
through the extream bells, and first it moves up over 4th (s). The
whole hunt moves down (t); the half-hunt must proceed in its course,
and therefore must move over another note (v). And this method
being observed, will produce sixscore changes, and then the bells will
in course come round. Now ’tis observable, that the changes at (b d f
h k m o q s v x and z), being set down by themselves, that is, the 1 to
be excluded, and the changes on 2345 to be set directly under one
another in the same successive order as they were made, it will
thereby appear, that those four figures have made twelve changes of
the twenty four, according to the method of the first twenty four
changes on four bells before set down. And whereas here are just half
the sixscore changes prickt down, so likewise here are just half the
four and twenty changes made therein: and the remaining part of
this sixscore being likewise prickt, the remaining part of this four
and twenty would also appear therein, which part being added to the
former twelve, would make up the twenty four changes compleat;
and the method of them the same in all respects with the first twenty
four changes on four bells, page.
12345
21345
23145
a
23415
23451
b 32451
32415
32145
c
31245
13245
d 13425
31425
34125
e
34215
34251
f 34521
34512
34152
g
31452
13452
h 14352
41352
43152
i
43512
43521
k 43251
43215
43125
l
41325
14325
m 14235
41235
42135
n
42315
42351
o 24351
24315
24135
p
21435
12435
q 12453
21453
24153
r
24513
24531
s 42531
42513
42153
t
41253
14253
v 14523
41523
45123
w
45213
45231
x 45321
45312
45132
y
41532
14532
z 15432
Any note may be made a whole hunt at pleasure, and its first
motion at the beginning of the peal may either be up or down. Any
note may also be made a half-hunt, and its first motion likewise up or
down at pleasure; yet still observing that the half-hunt and three
extream bells must make the twenty four changes, as in this last
example. So that in the sixscore changes the Learner may observe,
that the three extream bells are always assigned for the half-hunt to
hunt through; and the half-hunt and three extream bells are also
assigned for the whole-hunt to hunt through: so that the whole-hunt
always hunts through four notes, and the half-hunt through three.

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(Original PDF) The Economics of

Women, Men and Work 7th Edition

(Original PDF) The Economics of Women, Men, and Work

The Psychology of Women 7th Edition by Margaret W.

(eBook PDF) The Psychology of Men in Context

(eBook PDF) Economics and the Environment 7th Edition

(eBook PDF) The Economics of Money, Banking and

(eBook PDF) Workforce Readiness and the Future of Work

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Our dear colleague, friend, and collaborator,

The Economics of Women, Men, and Work,

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 7 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1

Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14

Chapter 3 The Family as an Economic Unit: Theoretical Perspectives 35

Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58

Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76

Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91

Chapter 7 Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes 135

Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory

Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market

Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings

Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253

Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271

Chapter 13 Changing Work Roles and Family Formation 293

Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 9 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Chapter 15 Government Policies Affecting Family Well-Being 330

Chapter 16 Balancing the Competing Demands of Work and Family 351

Part V The Economic Status of the World’s Women 373

Chapter 17 Gender Differences around the World: An Overview 375

Chapter 18 Gender Differences around the World: Specific Countries

Author Index 425

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 10 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1

Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14

Part II The Allocation of Time between the Household

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 11 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Decreasing Gains to Specialization and Exchange and the Shift Away

Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58

Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 12 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Questions for Review and Discussion 90

Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 13 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Questions for Review and Discussion 130

Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory

Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 14 07/06/13 10:40 AM

On-the-Job Training and Labor Market Experience 196

Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 15 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Evidence on Discrimination from Experiments 230

Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 16 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 17 07/06/13 10:40 AM

Questions for Review and Discussion 316

Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family

Part II The Allocation of Time between the Household