SQL

What is SQL?
• SQL is stand for structured query language.
• This database language is mainly designed
for maintaining the data in relational
database management systems.
• SQL is standard language for accessing and
manipulating database.

01
SQL Commands

DDL DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

DCL DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE

DML DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

TCL TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE

DQL DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

02
SQL Commands

SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL TCL DQL

CREATE INSERT COMMIT SELECT

DROP UPDATE REVOKE ROLLBACK

ALTER DELETE SAVEPOINT

TRUNCATE SELECT SETTRANSACTION

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SQL Commands

DDL
DDL stands for Data Definition Language.
DDL used to change the structure of the table Like
creating the table, altering the table and deleting the
table.
All the commands in the DDL are auto Committed that
means it permanently saves all the changes in the
database.

04
SQL Commands
CREATE
This command is used to create a new database or table.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
columnl datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
);
Example:
CREA TE TABLE Employee
(
EmployeelD int,
FirstName varchar(255),
LastName varchar(255),
Addressline varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

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SQL Commands

ALTER
The ALTER TABLE statement in Structured Query Language
allows you to add, modify, and delete columns of an existing
table.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table name
ADD column _name datatype;
Example:
ALTER TABLE Employee
ADD Email varchar(255);

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SQL Commands

DROP
The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table
in a database. This command deletes both the structure &
records Stored in table.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example:
Drop TABLE Employee;

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SQL Commands

TRUNCATE
A truncate SQL statement is used to remove all rows
(complete data) from a table. It is similar to the DELETE
statement with no WHERE clause.
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE Employee;

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SQL Commands

DML
DML stands for Data Manipulation
Language.
DML commands are used to interact with
the data stored in a database.
These commands are primarily
responsible for adding, modifying, and
deleting data within database tables.

09
SQL Commands

INSERT
SQL INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert a
single or a multiple records in a table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table name
VALUES (valuel, value2, value3 .... ) ;
Example:
INSERT INTO STUDENTS (ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE, CITY)
VALUES (1, Sara , 19, Islamabad) ;

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SQL Commands

UPDATE
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing
records in a table.
Syntax:
UPDATE table name
SET columnl = valuel, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Example:
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Zara', City= 'Lahore'
WHERE CustomerlD = 101;

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SQL Commands

DELETE
The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a
table.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition] ;
Example:
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Yadu";

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SQL Commands

SELECT
It is often grouped with DML commands because it retrieves
and manipulates data from a database.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM employees
WHERE age > 30;

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SQL Commands

DCL
DCL stands for Data Control Language.
It is a subset of SQL commands used to
control access to data within a database.
DCL commands are primarily concerned
with defining the permissions and
privileges granted to database users.

14
SQL Commands

GRANT
It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
Syntax:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_ TABLE TO SOME_ USER, ANOTHER_USER;
Example:
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON employees TO user1;

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SQL Commands

REVOKE
The REVOKE command is used to remove previously granted
privileges from database users.
Syntax:
REVOKE privileges ON object FROM user;
Example:
REVOKE SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON employees FROM user1;

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SQL Commands

TCL
"TCL" stands for Transaction Control
Language.
It is a subset of SQL commands used to
manage transactions within a database.
TCL commands are responsible for
controlling the beginning and ending of
transactions, ensuring the integrity and
consistency of the database.

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SQL Commands

COMMIT
Commits a Transaction. The COMMIT command saves all the
transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command.
Syntax:
COMMIT;
Example:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE AGE = 20;
COMMIT;

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SQL Commands

ROLLBACK
If any error occurs with any of the SQL grouped statements,
all changes need to be aborted. The process of reversing
changes is called rollback
Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
Example:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE AGE = 20;
ROLLBACK;

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SQL Commands

SAVEPOINT
Sets a point within the current transaction to which you can
later roll back.
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
Example:
SAVEPOINT before_hr_update;

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SQL Commands

SET TRANSACTION
Sets characteristics for the transaction, such as isolation
level or access mode.
Syntax:
SET TRANSACTION [ transaction_mode [, ...] ];
Example:
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;

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SQL Commands

DQL
DQL stands for Data Query Language.
It's a subset of SQL that specifically deals
with querying or retrieving data from a
database.
DQL commands are used to retrieve,
filter, and manipulate data stored in
database tables.

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SQL Commands

SELECT
SELECT is primarily considered a query command, because it
retrieves and manipulates data from a database.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM employees
WHERE age > 30;

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SQL OPERATORS

SQL OPERATORS
The SQL reserved words and characters are called
operators, which are used with a WHERE clause in a
SQL query.

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SQL OPERATORS

Arithmetic Operators
Addition: +
Subtraction: -
Multiplication: *
Division: /
Modulus (Remainder): %

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT 10 + 5 AS AdditionResult,
10 - 5 AS SubtractionResult,
10 * 5 AS MultiplicationResult,
10 / 5 AS DivisionResult,
10 % 3 AS ModulusResult;

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SQL OPERATORS

Comparison Operators
Equal to: =
Not equal to: <> or !=
Greater than: >
Less than: <
Greater than or equal to: >=
Less than or equal to: <=

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price > 100;

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SQL OPERATORS

Logical Operators
AND: AND
OR: OR
NOT: NOT

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Department = 'Sales'
AND Salary > 50000;

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SQL OPERATORS

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise AND: &
Bitwise OR: |
Bitwise NOT: ~
Bitwise XOR: ^
Left Shift: <<
Right Shift: >>

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT (5 & 3) AS BitwiseANDResult,
(5 | 3) AS BitwiseORResult,
(~5) AS BitwiseNOTResult,
(5 ^ 3) AS BitwiseXORResult;

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SQL OPERATORS

Concatenation Operator
Concatenate strings: || (Oracle, PostgreSQL, SQLite),
CONCAT() (MySQL, SQL Server)

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT FirstName || ' ' || LastName AS FullName FROM
Employees;

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SQL OPERATORS

Assignment Operator
Assign a value to a variable or column: =

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
UPDATE Employees SET Salary = 60000 WHERE
Department = 'Sales';

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SQL OPERATORS

IN Operator
Checks whether a value exists in a list of values: IN

37
SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Category IN ('Electronics',
'Appliances');

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SQL OPERATORS

LIKE Operator
Pattern matching using wildcards: LIKE

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE LastName LIKE 'S%';

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SQL OPERATORS

IS NULL Operator
Checks if a value is NULL: IS NULL

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE ShipDate IS NULL;

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SQL OPERATORS

BETWEEN Operator
Checks if a value is within a range: BETWEEN

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Sales WHERE SaleAmount BETWEEN 1000
AND 5000;

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SQL OPERATORS

EXISTS Operator
Checks for the existence of rows in a subquery: EXISTS

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SQL OPERATORS

Examples
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM
Customers WHERE Orders.CustomerID =
Customers.CustomerID);

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SQL KEYS

SQL KEYS
In SQL, keys are important concepts for defining
relationships between tables and ensuring data
integrity.

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SQL KEYS

Primary Key
A primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table. It
must be unique and not NULL.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50)
);

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SQL KEYS

Foreign Key
A foreign key establishes a relationship between two tables
by referencing the primary key of another table.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CustomerID INT,
OrderDate DATE,
FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES Customers(CustomerID)
);

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SQL KEYS

Composite Key
A composite key consists of two or more columns that
together uniquely identify each record in a table.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Students (
StudentID INT,
CourseID INT,
EnrollmentDate DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (StudentID, CourseID)
);

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SQL KEYS

Unique Key
A unique key ensures that each value in a column (or a group
of columns) is unique, but unlike a primary key, it can
contain NULL values.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Users (
UserID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Username VARCHAR(50) UNIQUE,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);

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SQL KEYS

Candidate Key
A candidate key is a column or set of columns that can
uniquely identify a record in a table. It may or may not be
chosen as the primary key.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Products (
ProductID INT PRIMARY KEY,
ProductCode VARCHAR(20) UNIQUE,
ProductName VARCHAR(100),
VendorID INT
);

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SQL KEYS

Alternate Key
An alternate key is a candidate key that was not chosen as
the primary key. It can be used as a unique identifier for
records.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
SSN VARCHAR(20) UNIQUE,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50)
);

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