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ERECTION OF LATICE TOWERS

here are four main methods of the erection of steel transmission towers which are
described below:

1. Build-up method or Piecemeal method.

2. Section method.
3. Ground assembly method.
4. Helicopter method.
Build Up Method of Transmission Tower Erection
This method is most commonly used in India for the erection of 6.6 kV, 132 kV,
220 kV, and 400 kV transmission line towers due to the following advantages :

1. Tower materials can be supplied to the site in a knocked down conditions

which facilitates easier and cheaper transportation.
2. It does not require any heavy machinery such as cranes etc.
3. Tower erection activity can be done in any kind of terrain and mostly
throughout the year.
4. Availability of workmen at cheap rates.

This method consists of erecting the towers, member by member. The tower
members are kept on the ground serially according to the erection sequence to
avoid search or time loss. The erection progresses from the bottom upwards.

The four main corner leg members of the first section of the tower are first erected
and guard

off. Sometimes more than one contiguous leg section of each corner leg is bolted
together at the ground and erected.

The cross braces of the first section which are already assembled on the ground are
raised one by one as a unit and bolted to the already erected corner leg angles. First
section of the lower thus built and horizontal struts (belt members) if any, are
bolted in position. For assembling the second section of the tower, two gin poles
are placed one each on the top of diagonally opposite corner legs.

These two poles are used, for raising parts of the second section. The leg members
and braces of this section are then hoisted and assembled. The gin poles are then

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shifted to the corner leg members on the top of the second section to raise the parts
of the third section of the lower in position for assembly. Gin poles are thus moved
up as the tower grows.

This process is continued until the complete tower is erected. Cross-arm members
are assembled on the ground and raised up and fixed to the main body of the tower.
For heavier towers, a small boom is rigged on one of the tower legs for hoistin

These two poles are used, for raising parts of the second section. The leg members
and braces of this section are then hoisted and assembled. The gin poles are then
shifted to the corner leg members on the top of the second section to raise the parts
of the third section of the lower in position for assembly. Gin poles are thus moved
up as the tower grows.

This process is continued until the complete tower is erected. Cross-arm members
are assembled on the ground and raised up and fixed to the main body of the tower.
For heavier towers, a small boom is rigged on one of the tower legs for hoistin

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COOLING TOWER

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary
task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from
cooling water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to
evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The
water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other units
for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower system is shown in Figure
7.1.

Cooling Tower Types Cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft
and Mechanical draft. Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to
introduce air through the media. Due to the large size of these towers, they are
generally used for water flow rates above 45,000 m3 /hr. These types of towers are
used only by utility power stations. Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to
force or suck air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill
surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air - this
helps maximise heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical draft
towers depend upon their fan diameter and speed of operation. Since, the
mechanical draft cooling towers are much more widely used, the focus is on them
in this chapter.

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Mechanical draft towers Mechanical draft towers are available in the following
airflow arrangements: 1. Counter flows induced draft. 2. Counter flow forced draft.
3. Cross flow induced draft. In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water
enters at the top, while the air is introduced at the bottom and exits at the top. Both
forced and induced draft fans are used. In cross flow induced draft towers, the
water enters at the top and passes over the fill. The air, however, is introduced at
the side either on one side (single-flow tower) or opposite sides (double-flow
tower). An induced draft fan draws the air across the wetted fill and expels it
through the top of the structure. The Figure 7.2 illustrates various cooling tower
types. Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Normal
capacities range from approximately 10 tons, 2.5 m3 /hr flow to several thousand
tons and m3 /hr. Towers can be either factory built or field erected - for example
concrete towers are only field erected. Many towers are constructed so that they
can be grouped together to achieve the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling
towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or "cells." The
number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers.
Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape of
the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of
the cells. Components of Cooling Tower The basic components of an evaporative
tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet,
louvers, nozzles and fans. Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames
that support the exterior enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components.
With some smaller designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing may
essentially be the frame. Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood)
to facilitate heat transfer by maximising water and air contact. Fill can either be
splash or film type. With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal
splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill
surface. Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash fill.
Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water
spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat,
corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more
efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower,
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin
usually has a sump or low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many

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tower designs, the cold water basin is beneath the entire fill. Drift eliminators:
These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would be
lost to the atmosphere. Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a
tower. The inlet may take up an entire side of a tower–cross flow design– or be
located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow designs. Louvers: Generally,
cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow
into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs
do not require louvers. Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill.
Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is essential to achieve proper
wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed in place and have
either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assembly as found
in some circular cross-section towers. Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and
centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller fans are used in induced
draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft
towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either be fixed or variable
pitch. A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to
be used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air
flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary
air flow in response to changing load conditions. Tower Materials In the early days
of cooling tower manufacture, towers were constructed primarily of wood.
Wooden components included the frame, casing, louvers, fill, and often the cold
water basin. If the basin was not of wood, it likely was of concrete. Today, tower
manufacturers fabricate towers and tower components from a variety of materials.
Often several materials are used to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce
maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel,
various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber, and concrete are widely used in tower
construction as well as aluminum and various types of plastics for some
components. Wood towers are still available, but they have glass fiber rather than
wood panels (casing) over the wood framework. The inlet air louvers may be glass
fiber, the fill may be plastic, and the cold water basin may be steel. Larger towers
sometimes are made of concrete. Many towers–casings and basins–are constructed
of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, stainless steel.
Sometimes a galvanized tower has a stainless steel basin. Glass fiber is also widely
used for cooling tower casings and basins, giving long life and protection from the
harmful effects of many chemicals. Plastics are widely used for fill, including

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PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. Treated wood splash fill is still specified
for wood towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used when water conditions
mandate the use of splash fill. Film fill, because it offers greater heat transfer
efficiency, is the fill of choice for applications where the circulating water is
generally free of debris that could plug the fill passageways.

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CABLE STAYED BRIDGE BY CANTILEVER METHOD.

he cantilever method is normally adopted for the construction of long-span cable-

stayed bridges. Here the towers are built first. Each new segment is built at site or
installed with precast segment, and then supported by one new cable or a pair of
new cables which balances its weight.

The stresses in the girder and the towers are related to the cable tensions. Since the
geometric profile of the girder or elevation of the bridge segments is mainly
controlled by the cable lengths, the cable length should be set appropriately at the
erection of each segment. During construction, monitoring and adjustment of the
cable tension and geometric profile require special attention.

A notable example of the construction of a major cable-stayed bridge by the

cantilever method is the Yangpu bridge in Shanghai, China, built in 1994 with a
main span of 602 m. The composite girders of this bridge consisted of
prefabricated, wholly welded steel girders and precast reinforced concrete deck
slabs.

Depending on the bridge site, cable-stayed bridges can have any one of four
general layouts of spans :

(a) Cable stayed bridges with one eccentric tower, eccentric with respect to the gap
to be bridged, e.g. Severin’s bridge;

(b) Symmetrical two-span cable stayed bridges, e.g. Akkar bridge :

(c) Three-span cable stayed bridges, e.g. Second Hooghly bridge, Stromsund
bridge :

(d) Multi-span cable stayed bridges, e.g. Millau viaduct. Of these, the most
common type is the three-span cable stayed bridge, consisting of the central main
span and the two side spans. Temporary stability during construction is a major
problem, particularly just prior to closure at midspan. The structure must be able to
withstand the effects due to wind and accidental loads due to mishaps during
erection. When intermediate piers are provided in the side spans, the stability is
very much enhanced, In this case, the side spans are built first on the intermediate
supports, and later the long cantilevers in the main span.

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Discuss the Detail of Cable used in Cable Stayed Bridge.

The stay cables constitute critical components of a cable stayed bridge, as they
carry the load of the deck and transfer it to the tower and the backstay cable
anchorage. So the cables should be selected with utmost care. The main
requirements of stay cables are :

(a) High load carrying capacity :

(b) High and stable Young’s modulus of elasticity :

(c) Compact cross-section ;

(d) High fatigue resistance ;

(e) Ease in corrosion protection ;

(f) Handling convenience; and

(g) Low cost. The ultimate tensile strength of wire is of the order of 1600 MPa.
While locked coil stands have been used in early bridges (e.g. Stromsund bridge),
the recent preference is towards the use of cables with bundles of parallel wires or
parallel long lay stands. The sizes of cables are selected to facilitate a reasonable
spacing at the deck
anchorages. Parallel wire cables using 7 mm wires of high tensile steel have been
adopted in the Second Hooghly bridge. Corrosion protection of the cables is of
paramount importance. For this purpose, the steel may be housed inside a
polyethylene (PE) tube which is tightly connected to the anchorages. The cables
are anchored at the deck and at the tower. The anchorage at the deck is fixed and
has a provision for a neoprene pad damper to damp oscillations. The length
adjustment is done at the tower end.

The cables are prestressed by introducing additional tensile force in the cables in
order to improve the stress in the main girder and tower at the completion stage, to
prevent the lowering of rigidity due to sagging of cable, and to optimize the cable
condition for the erection. The magnitude of the prestress is determined by taking
into consideration the following factors :

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(i) the horizontal component there is no in-plane bending of the tower due to
unbalanced horizontal fore due to dead load at the completion stage; and

(ii) the net force on the main girder member at the connection of the cable at the
completion stage be zero.

Currently, the steel used for cables have ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the
order of 1600 MPa. Carbon fiber cables having UTS of about 3300 MPa are under
development. The latter cables are claimed to have negligible corrosion and to
possess high fatigue resistance. However, carbon fiber cables are presently very
expensive.

What are Cantilever Bridges? Explain in detail using examples.

A cantilever bride with a single main span consists of an anchor arm at either end
between the abutment and the pier, a cantilever arm from either pier to the end of
the suspended span, and a suspended span. Such an arrangement permits a long
clear span for navigation and also facilitates the erection of steelwork without the
need for supporting centering from below.

Steel cantilever bridges came into general use for long-span railway bridges,
because of their greater rigidity compared with suspension bridges. Three well-
known examples are shown in Figure 2.6. The Firth of Forth bridge with two main
spans of 521 m each became a milestone in bridge construction on its completion
in 1889.

The designers, John Fowler and Benjamin Baker used tubular members of fairly
large size with riveted construction for the arch ribs to withstand wind pressures of
2.68 KN/m”. Though the tubes were large in size, the weight per linear meter of
the bridge was still less than that of the Quebec bridge.

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Howarth bridges

The design of the Quebec bridge was first entrusted to Theodore Cooper, who was
then well known for his specifications on railway bridges. The plan envisaged a
main span of 549 m with anchor spans of 157 m each, making this bridge the
longest span in the world. The first attempt to construct the bridge ended in the
complete collapse of the south arm killing 75 men (1907). The failure was due to
miscalculation of dead load and wrong design of compression members, which
errors were not noticed in time. The design was revised by H.A. Voutelet and the
structure was reconstructed in 1917 with the same main span.

Howrah bridge with a main span of 457 m was the third-longest span cantilever
bridge in the world at the time of its construction (1943). The bridge was erected
by commencing at the two anchor spans and advancing towards the center with the
use of creeper cranes moving along the upper chord. The closure at the middle was
obtained by means of sixteen hydraulic jacks of 800 t capacity each, The
construction was successfully completed with very
close precision.

Osaka Port bridge was completed in 1974 with a clear span of 510 m. The bridge is
double-decked and is currently the world’s third-largest span cantilever bridge. The
construction has been achieved without accidents and with great precision,
testifying to the great advance in technology in bridge construction.

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The weight of the structure and the labour involved in the construction of a
cantilever bridge are large compared with a cable stayed bride of the same clear
span. Hence the cantilever bridge is not very popular at present.

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ERUCTION OF ARTICULATED STRUCTURS

It is the process of assembling the prefabrication element in the search direction and the portion
according to the drawing. The following tasks must be carried out in the construction of
prefabricated elements.

Launch of prefabricated elements

 The fastening of the mounting earrings is attached to the mounting hooks.

 Cleaning of the elements and the erection site.
 Cleaning of steel inserts before incorporation into lifting joints
 Set the elements to correct the position.
 Adjustments to obtain the stipulated level line and plumb line.
 Deats welding.
 Change of erection rigs.
 Placement and removal of the necessary scaffolding/supports.
 Welding of insortslalaying the reinforced in joints.
 The assembly work in several constructions works by using different prefabricated
elements with risk conditions, therefore, skilled workers to be employed at work

Equipment required for erection

The equipment required for prefabrication elements in the industry can be classified as,

 Machinery necessary for extraction, of course, and fine aggregates.

 Transport equipment, such as conveyors, chain conveyors, etc.
 Concrete mixers
 Vibrators
 Assembly equipment such as cranes, cranes, pulleys, etc.
 Transport machines
 Workshop of machinery for the manufacture and repair of steel.
 Machines for stretching, bending and welding bars
 Tools and smaller sockets, such as wheel bars, concrete hubs, etc.
 Steam Generation a plant for accelerated curing
 Planning Coordination
 It is important that the installer/installer and the precaster builder work together to
achieve the best performance.

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Site access and storage

 Verify site accessibility and delivery of prefabricated panels to the site, especially low
platform trailers.
 Check if there is adequate space for temporary storage before installation and ground
conditions.
 Irregular terrain will cause overload and crack the panels.
 Crane Arrangement Planning
 Plan the capacity of the crane and lifting gears according to
 The higher weight of prefabricated panels
 Elevation of heights.
 Working radius
 Crane position in relation to the final location of the panel
 Plan another team
 Boom lift and scissor lift to unhook installed panels.
 Lifting gears
 Qualified staff
 Competent crane operators
 Rigging equipment
 Signal equipment
 General considerations for crane selection
 Total lifting weight
 Crane model
 The safe work load for crane
 Lifting capacity must be 1.5 times the total weight
 Lifting and balancing radius
 Crane counterweight

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 The length of the crane boom is related to the vertical and horizontal separation of the
building.

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CONSTRUCTION OF JETTIES AND BREAK WATER STRUCTURES

Jetties are generally constructed with the following procedure:

1. Site selection and survey: The location for the jetty is chosen and surveyed in order to
gather necessary information—including the soil conditions, tide levels, and wave
patterns throughout the area.
2. Design and planning: Engineers and architects design the jetty based on the site survey,
as well as the intended application of the jetty.
3. Permitting: To ensure that the jetty complies with all local and national regulations, the
construction project must go through various permitting processes, including
environmental impact assessments.
4. Excavation and dredging: In order to create a stable foundation for the jetty, the
seafloor is excavated and dredged.
5. Piling and foundation work: Continuing the creation of a strong foundation, piles are
driven into the seabed.
6. Decking and superstructure: The deck of the jetty is constructed—as well as any
additional structures, including walkway and railings.
7. Accessories: Any necessary accessories are applied, including lighting and signs.

Keep in mind that this is the general process for constructing a jetty. Of course, the construction
process can vary by project.

Maintaining, Repairing, and Ensuring the Longevity of Jetties

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Considering that jetties are exposed to extreme forces of nature—like waves, currents, storms,
and erosion—proper maintenance of jetties is essential. These environmental factors pose serious
risks for safety, as jetties can lose their structural integrity and be less effective in protecting the
coast.

Here are some of the best practices to ensure the longevity of jetties:

 Monitoring: Monitoring the jetty’s condition—including measuring the water level and
wave patterns—can help identify any potential issues that may need to be addressed.
 Regular inspections: Regular inspections are crucial to identify any potential issues—
such as cracks, erosion, or damage caused by boats. A lack of regular inspections can
lead to more serious, costly issues.
 Regular cleaning: Regular cleaning of the jetty—including removing debris and
sediment—can prevent build-up and erosion that can cause damage to the jetty over a
period of time.
 Regular maintenance: Regular maintenance such as repainting, replacing worn or
damaged materials, and restoring the jetty’s structural integrity can help extend both the
life and aesthetics of the jetty.

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breakwater, artificial offshore structure protecting a harbour, anchorage, or marina basin from
water waves. Breakwaters intercept longshore currents and tend to prevent beach erosion. Over
the long term, however, the processes of erosion and sedimentation cannot be effectively
overcome by interfering with currents and the supply of sediment. Deposition of sediment at one
site will be compensated for by erosion elsewhere; this phenomenon occurs whether one
breakwater or a series of such structures is erected. Compare jetty.

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