1 s2.0 S2214860424001404 Main

Additive Manufacturing 84 (2024) 104094
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma
Review
Volumetric additive manufacturing: A new frontier in layer-less 3D printing

Daniel J. Whyte a, Egan H. Doeven b, Alessandra Sutti c, Abbas Z. Kouzani a, Scott D. Adams a, *
a
School of Engineering, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
b
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
c
Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, 75 Pigdons Rd, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Volumetric Additive Manufacturing (VAM) is an emerging 3D printing technology that operates by fabricating
Volumetric objects from all points within a medium’s volume. This technique is capable of producing parts without sup
3D printing porting structures and is capable of overprinting around existing structures. Notably, the approach that VAM
Bioprinting
utilises to print is time efficient compared to traditional additive manufacturing methods with printing times
Tomographic
being measured in seconds and minutes instead of hours. As this is an emerging technique there is little com
Computerised Tomography
Computed Axial Lithography parison or synthesis reported so far in the literature, thus the primary objective of this review is to address this
issue by providing a comprehensive analysis of VAM, delving into its applications, the challenges it faces, and the
research advancements made in the area. This review also investigates how new methods of VAM are investi
gated and reported on, within the literature. In order to achieve this goal a structured literature review was
conducted to thoroughly examine the current state of VAM. This review found 30 research papers, which were
used to categorise different VAM methods, explore its potential in various fields, and formulate a definition for
VAM to differentiate it from other additive manufacturing technologies. A key finding of this review is that while
VAM offers rapid fabrication capabilities, it currently faces several constraints. These include a limited avail
ability of commercial VAM printers, complex printing methodologies, a restricted range of compatible materials,
and the need for specialised equipment. Collectively, these factors could serve as potential barriers to the broader
adoption of this technology. In addition, there is a lack of homogeneity in the parameters used to investigate and
report VAM which makes it difficult to compare and contrast new research works against existing published
literature. As the field progresses, addressing these challenges will be essential to unlock new applications and
increase adoption of this technology. This review is one of the first to explicitly focus on and address the entirety
of VAM, offering valuable insights into the present state of VAM and directions for future research.
Abbreviations: 2-HEMA, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate; 3DRT, 3D ray Tracing; ACN, Acetonitrile; BDDA, 1,4-butandiol-diacrylate; BPA, Bisphenol A; BPAGDA,
Bisphenol A glycerolate 1 glycerol/phenol diacrylate; CAL, Computed Axial Lithography; CLIP, Continuous Liquid Interface Production; CQ, Camphorquinone; DLP,
Digital Light Processing; DMD, Digital Micromirror Device; DUDMA, Diurethane dimethacrylate; EB, Erythrosin B; EBB, Extrusion-Based Bioprinting; EDAB, Ethyl 4-
dimethylaminobenzoate; EDDF, Energy Dosage Distribution Field; EEC, 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl 3,4-epoxycyclohexanecarboxylate; FFF, Fused Filament Fabri
cation; GelMA, Gelatin methacryloyl; Gel-NB, Gelatin-norbornene; HEMA, Hydroxyethylmethacrylate; Irgacure 184, 1-Hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone; Irgacure
2959, 2-Propenoicacid,2-[4–2-hydroxy-2-methyl-1-oxopropylphenoxy]ethylester; Irgacure 784, Bis2,6-difluoro-3-(1-hydropyrrol-1-ylphenyl)titanocene; Irgacure
819, Phenylbis2,4,6-trimethylbenzoylphosphine oxide; Irgacure 907, 2-Methyl-4′-(methylthio-2-morpholinopropiophenone); Ivocerin, [Diethyl-4-methox
ybenzoylgermyl]-4-methoxyphenylmethanone; LAP, Lithium phenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-phosphinate; ML-EM, Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximisation;
MSC, Mesenchymal Stromal Cells; NPVA, Norbornene-functionalised polyvinyl alcohol; OSMO, Object-Space Model Optimisation; OST, Optical Scattering Tomog
raphy; PBS, Phosphate buffered saline; PEG 300, Polyethylene glycol, HOCH2CH2nOH; PEG2SH, 2kDa polyethylene glycol dithiol; PEG4SH, 4-arm-PEG-thiol;
PEGDA 575, Polyethylene glycol diacrylate average MW 575g/mol; PEGDA, Polyethylene glycol diacrylate; PETA, Pentaerythritol tetraacrylate; PVA, Polyvinyl
Alcohol; SLA, Stereolithography; SMP, Shape Memory Polymer; SPR 684, Polysiloxane; SR399, Di-pentaerythritol pentaacrylate; Sudan I, 1-phenylazo-2-naphthol;
SWW, Self Written Waveguide; TA-ICN, Tri-allyl isocyanurate; TEG, Triethylene glycol; TEGDAE, Difunctional triethyleneglycol diallyl ether; TEMPO, 2,2,6,6-tet
ramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy; TME-ICN, Tris[2-(3-mercaptopropionyloxyethyl] isocyanurate; TMPTA, Trimethylolpropane triacrylate; TPA, Two-Photon Absorption;
TPO, Diphenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-phosphinoxide; TPO-L, Ethyl 2,4,5-trimethylbenzoyl phenylphosphinate; TPP, Two-Photon Polymerization 3D printing; Tri
allyl ICN, Tri-allyl isocyanurate.; UDMA, C23H38N2O8, Diurethane dimethacrylateurethane Dimethacrylate IPDI; VAM, Volume Additive Manufacturing; VBP,
Volumetric Bioprinting; VEM, Voxel to Energy Mapping; VLI-V3DP, Visible Light Induced Volumetric 3D Printing; μCT, Micro-Computed Tomography.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.D. Adams).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104094
Received 14 September 2023; Received in revised form 17 March 2024; Accepted 18 March 2024
Available online 21 March 2024
2214-8604/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
D.J. Whyte et al. Additive Manufacturing 84 (2024) 104094
1. Introduction absorption within the medium, and its role in the VAM process.
Fig. 1 provides a high-level overview of a general VAM fabrication
The advent of Additive Manufacturing, or Three-Dimensional (3D) process and illustrates how the system translates a digital model to a
Printing, marked a significant milestone in the world of product devel fully fabricated part. This figure, along with the carefully selected ter
opment. The technique was originally introduced in 1981 by Hideo minologies, serves as a comprehensive framework describing current
Kodama in a paper detailing an "Automatic method for fabricating a methods and aiming to also encompass future advancements, ensuring
three-dimensional plastic model with photo hardening polymer". Addi adaptability to a wide range of VAM technologies. In the VAM process,
tionally, Charles Hull independently filed a patent on Aug 8, 1984 titled the EDDF is generated by transmitting energy to a desired location
"apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereo within the medium volume. Energy transmitters are the components of
lithography", which also described an additive manufacturing method the VAM system which are the source of the energy and shape, direct,
[1,2]. Since then, its applications have been widely adopted across a and focus it from the source to the medium volume. These components
range of industries, from automotive and biomedical to aerospace [3–6]. play a critical role for generating EDDF’s and are therefore designed
The allure of Additive Manufacturing lies in its ability to fabricate specifically for this purpose. Light energy emitters, such as LED’s or
complex objects with internal features that are not possible with tradi lasers have been utilised in combination with components such as Dig
tional subtractive methods. As a result, it has disrupted traditional ital Micromirror Devices, Spatial Light Modulators or Fourier Transform
product development practices by increasing productivity through rapid Lenses to achieve the precise generation of the desired EDDF. Interfer
prototyping and tooling, reducing the need for outsourcing, and offering ence between the energy transmitter and desired location can impact the
greater geometric design freedom [7–9]. EDDF, causing it to be altered, which in turn deforms the printed part.
Despite the many benefits of additive manufacturing, there are still Common interference in current VAM systems include light scattering,
challenges that must be addressed with current techniques. The process absorption, reflection, or refraction.
of converting digital data into printable segments, often cross-sectional To convert the digital 3D model into instructions for the energy
layers, can impact the surface characteristics and mechanical properties transmitters to generate the EDDF, a fundamental step we refer to as
of the printed part [10]. For example, parts may experience differences Voxel to Energy Mapping (VEM) is employed. This step has seen sig
in shear strength along the plane parallel and perpendicular to the nificant exploration in terms of different methods and approaches. Re
layers, leading to the need to orient the part in a way that minimises any searchers have investigated different techniques, such as using Radon
negative impact on its performance [11,12]. Additionally, overhanging Transforms, a Gerchberg–Saxton Algorithm and other methods, to
and spanning geometries cannot be printed without additional sup accomplish the VEM process, these will be discussed further in later
porting material, such as substructures or circumferential powder. sections of this work. The goal of the VEM process is to accurately map
Perhaps the most significant technological challenge that is holding back the voxels of the model to specific energy deposition points within the
additive manufacturing’s adoption into production environments is the medium volume.
amount of time required for printing as the part throughput is slower Both the energy transmitters and the VEM step play a crucial role in
than many traditional manufacturing methods, such as injection achieving high-resolution parts by facilitating the translation of voxel-
moulding [13]. level information into precise emitted energy to generate the EDDF.
Volumetric Additive Manufacturing (VAM), a relatively new tech By optimising the capabilities of energy transmitters and VEM, VAM
nique first reported in 2017 [14], in part addresses these challenges of systems can enhance the energy spatial resolution, mitigate
traditional additive manufacturing processes. VAM fabricates parts by interference-related distortions, and enhance overall printing quality.
selectively delivering energy to all points in 3D space within a medium The final step of the VAM process is the fabrication of the part itself.
to cause one or more reactions to generate a physical part. Unlike As energy is selectively delivered generating the EDDF, the medium
traditional methods, VAM eliminates poor surface quality and direc undergoes a transformation, with specific volumes solidifying while
tional mechanical property differences as parts are fabricated in a single others remain unchanged. The precision and accuracy of the EDDF play
operation. Moreover, VAM enables the creation of overhanging and a pivotal role in this phase, ensuring that the final product aligns closely
spanning geometries without the need for support material and boasts with the initial digital 3D model. In current VAM systems, the photo
fast print times, with intricate designs being printed in just seconds [2, sensitive resins are activated by the EDDF, initiating a polymerisation
15,16]. The elimination of support structures leads to reduced material process that solidifies the resin in targeted areas.
usage and a reduction in surface abnormalities. Additionally, VAM offers Despite its potential, VAM still faces limitations in various areas.
unique capabilities such as "overprinting" around pre-existing structures Examples of the limitations of VAM include the limited material selec
and the fabrication process involves minimal mechanical stress on the tion, such as only to photosensitive resins, and the small range of
printed part. The hallmark of VAM is its rapid printing speed, making it a commercially available volumetric printers, which hinder its adoption
promising alternative to conventional additive manufacturing beyond research laboratories. Additionally, the complex nature of
processes. VAM’s printing methodology has led to a slower adoption and pro
The primary objective of a VAM system is to produce an Energy gression of this technology compared to simpler processes such as Fused
Dosage Distribution Field (EDDF) within a selected medium. We use the Filament Fabrication (FFF) printing. Nevertheless, many of these limi
term “Energy Dosage Distribution Field” to describe the spatial distri tations are expected to be addressed as the field continues to evolve and
bution of delivered energy within the volume of the medium used in the mature, as it is still in its infancy.
VAM system. This may be specified at a point in time, or over a period. This scoping review is designed to examine the state-of-the-art of
The EDDF can be effectively represented as a 3D map or a series of 2D VAM, focusing on its key advancements and challenges. Our goal is to
light dosage images, which correspond to the mechanics governing the comprehensively map out the landscape of VAM, identifying hurdles
solidification or non-solidification of the medium, often involving re that must be navigated to achieve mainstream adoption and application
action thresholds to initiate solidification. Currently, VAM has only been of the technology. By conducting a thorough and systematic examina
achieved using photopolymerisation, where the EDDF are generated tion of existing literature, this review presents an overview of VAM’s
based on the energy thresholds of selected photoinitiators which initiate present capabilities and limitations. Importantly, we probe potential
and control the polymerisation process to form the solid part. This term research avenues and propose strategies to overcome obstacles in
has also been referred to as volumetric energy distribution or 3D energy existing approaches. The need for such a review is underscored by the
distribution, however we find that Energy Dosage Distribution Field absence of comprehensive literature that explicitly focuses on and ad
offers a more precise description by explicitly incorporating the notion dresses the entirety of VAM. Through this work, we aim to provide a
of energy dosage, highlighting the significance of energy delivery and foundational resource for both experts and newcomers to the field,
2
guiding future research in this advancing area of additive source, commonly ultraviolet, induces polymerisation of the photo
manufacturing. To facilitate understanding, we introduced two key active resin, solidifying an entire layer in a single step [27,28]. Digital
terms discussed above: Light Processing (DLP) units and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) masks
play a crucial role in this process. They precisely shape and modulate the
• Voxel to Energy Mapping (VEM) - refers to the process of converting light exposure, ensuring that each layer conforms accurately to the
the digital 3D model into instructions for the energy transmitters to intended geometry. The layer-by-layer method offers significant ad
generate the EDDF. vantages, including reduced printing times and enhanced precision in
• Energy Deposition Distribution Field (EDDF) – refers to the spatial layer alignment and geometry. A notable progression in layer-by-layer
distribution of energy within the medium volume. printing is Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP), which ad
vances the concept by employing a continuous fabrication area rather
These terms will be used throughout this paper to discuss the various than discrete layers, being one of the first documented technologies to
methods and approaches in VAM. In the following section, we will print continuously. Introduced by Carbon3D, CLIP accelerates the pro
explore the distinctive characteristics that set VAM apart from tradi cess by maintaining a steady flow of UV light and oxygen permeability
tional additive manufacturing techniques. control at the resin interface, enabling rapid and smoother resin curing
[29]. Nevertheless, layer-by-layer also presents unique challenges,
2. Differentiating VAM from other additive manufacturing particularly in achieving uniform layer adhesion and managing thermal
processes stresses that can arise during rapid solidification. VAM, represents a 3D
approach, introducing a level of complexity that transcends the tradi
In additive manufacturing, the conversion of digital 3D models into tional 1D and 2D methods. This complexity is rooted in the application
tangible objects involves complex layering techniques and precision- of advanced VEM algorithms, which transforms 3D model data into
driven processes. Initially, the model is segmented into thin, printable actionable directives for the energy transmitters, as shown in Fig. 1.
cross-sections using slicing algorithms, which determine layer height Unlike traditional methods that segment a model into layers or points,
and orientation for each section. This segmentation is a key process in VAM produces an EDDF to direct the formation of the desired 3D ge
managing the anisotropic behaviour of materials during the printing ometry inside the medium. A key distinction of this approach is that it
process. A diverse range of AM technologies has been developed to allows for significant reduction in moving parts, and bypasses repetitive
accommodate a broad spectrum of materials, ranging from polymers to lower-dimensional operations, such as layer-by-layer and point-by-point
metal alloys, each presenting unique challenges in terms of thermal printing.
dynamics, rheological properties, and post-processing requirements An additional distinction of VAM is its ability to fabricate objects
[17–19]. The two predominant printing techniques used by technologies without the need for supplementary material or medium during the
are point-by-point printing and layer-by-layer printing. printing process. It leverages a pre-assembled medium that is activated
In point-by-point (1D) printing the construction occurs sequentially, by energy (typically light) emitted from the energy transmitters. This
fabricating from one point at any given time during the printing process. precludes the requirement for additional material input during fabri
Demonstrated in a range of additive manufacturing techniques, point- cation. This contrasts sharply with other traditional additive
by-point printing is employed in binder jetting, where a precision- manufacturing methods. For example, in certain vat polymerisation
controlled nozzle deposits a binding agent onto a powder bed, techniques, the build platform is repeatedly immersed into the medium
adhering particles together [18,20,21]. Similarly, in material extrusion, volume for layer-by-layer construction. Similarly, material extrusion
in which material is extruded through a precisely controlled nozzle or relies on continuous addition of material onto the build volume for part
orifice, strategically dispensing it onto the build platform for optimal construction.
layer formation [22,23]. Another application is found in laser sintering, Thus, with these differentiations of VAM to other additive
where parts are produced from powdered material using a laser source manufacturing techniques, we have defined VAM as the following:
to fuse or melt the particles at the surface selectively, and repeating per
“A process of creating three-dimensional objects in one single operation
layer [24,25]. An advancement in point-by-point printing involves
by inducing changes in a material or medium, without the need for serial
employing multiple or an array of fabrication points to address chal
repetition of lower-dimensional operations, such as 2D layer-by-layer or
lenges associated with this techniques printing speed. For example, the
1D point-by-point. The process involves the pre-assembly of the material/
integration of laser diodes arrays in laser sintering, allows for concurrent
medium, such that it induces changes in the medium in situ, without
sintering of multiple points, significantly enhancing printing speed by
adding new material during the process.“
improving throughput efficiency [26].
Layer-by-layer (2D) printing takes the process one step further, Given this definition, we incorporated it into the screening process of
exposing an entire layer to an energy source simultaneously. This our review criteria. Several studies were evaluated that approached the
technique is central to vat polymerisation technologies, where a light established criteria closely.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a high-level overview of a general VAM system.
3
Monovoxel printing, as described by Sanders et al. [30], involves a 3. Review criteria

process called upconversion, where lower energy photons are absorbed
and re-emitted as higher energy photons. This process enables the A structured literature review was conducted to thoroughly examine
printing of voxels (3D pixels) in a 3D space, without adding material to the current state of VAM. The selection of search terms was based on an
the build volume. During the printing process, the laser is moved in examination of keywords within the titles from an initial collection of
multiple smaller operations to draw the part, resulting in a lower VAM-related publications. This process involved identifying the most
dimensional operation. While the Monovoxel printing process is suitable relevant terms within the field and refining the search criteria iteratively
for a portion of the defined VAM, it uses lower-dimensional operations to encompass a broad spectrum of VAM research. Fig. 2 presents the
(1D) and does not complete the printing process in a single operation. results of the review, which was based on a search of two research da
Xolography using dual-colour photoinitiators could also be argued to tabases, Scopus and Web of Knowledge. The search focused on identi
not fully meet this definition, as the traversing illuminated plane by the fying relevant research publications from the inception of VAM in 2017,
Gaussian beam could be seen as a lower dimension (2D) [31]. However, that met the following criteria:
due to the fast nature of the process and the use of super-light imposi
tion, it was retained in the criteria. It is believed it will hold two great 3.1. Inclusion criteria
stems of research that holds great potential for future research in VAM.
These include overprinting - as Xolograghy could be viewed as the 1. The following string was used for searching publication titles in both
planes being volumetric segments - and moving energy transmitters in Scopus and Web of Knowledge:
VAM. These topics will be explored further in the discussion section.
((volumetric OR tomographic) AND ("3d printing" OR "additive
Having established a clear definition of VAM, the next section will
manufacturing" OR photopolymerisation OR bioprinting))
outline the precise criteria we used to select and review relevant liter
ature. We employed a systematic approach, with the key goal to allow 2. Was published between 01/01/2017–30/06/2023
for a comprehensive snapshot of the literature published in this space at 3. Is a peer-reviewed research article
this specific point in time, aiming to allow for future research to be 4. Is reporting on the topic of VAM
conducted with the same methodology to compare and contrast the
literature available now and into the future. 4. Literature review
In the short time since the invention of VAM, there has been signif
icant progress in enhancing the printing process and increasing its
Fig. 2. Flow diagram of structured literature search methodology.
4
potential applications. The main areas of research focus are the intro also investigated the effect of molecular O2 on the free radical poly
duction of new VAM methods, refining the techniques, and developing merisation reaction, which is typically present in resins and requires
new resins for specific applications or printing optimisation. purging. Critically, the authors found that, when present in the resin,
In this review, three unique VAM light dosage methods have been molecular O2 could be leveraged to create a non-linear initiation
reported on that resulted in successfully fabricated parts. process.
• The first reported VAM light dosage method used the superposition 4.2. Subtractive light superposition
of two or more beams to solidify the resin; we henceforth refer to this
method as "additive light superposition". In 2019, Van der Laan et al. presented a new technique that utilised
• The second method also involves the superposition of multiple subtractive light superposition, called dual-wavelength volumetric
beams, however, while the first beam is used to solidify the resin the polymerisation [32]. This system leveraged specific light wavelengths to
other is used to inhibit resin solidification; we refer to this method as initiate and restrict polymerisation within the resin vat. The successful
"subtractive light superposition". implementation of the subtractive light superposition method was made
• The third method is Tomographic VAM, also referred to as Computed possible by using a combination of photoinitiators (camphorquinone
Axial Lithography (CAL), where the energy delivery was inspired by (CQ)/Ethyl 4-(dimethylamino)benzoate EDAB) and the photoinhibitor
the image reconstruction procedure of computed tomography (CT). butyl nitrite in the resin formulation. The photoinitiators initiated
polymerisation through visible light while the photoinhibitor, respon
sive to near UV wavelengths, restricted the polymer chain-growth. The
4.1. Additive light superposition use of butyl nitrite as a photoinhibitor was selected for its moderate
absorbance in the near-UV and weak absorbance in the blue light
The first VAM system, developed by Shusteff et al. in 2017, intro spectrum, complementing the absorbance spectrum of CQ.
duced a new paradigm in the field by enabling the formation of complex, From the perspective of this review, the process of creating the VEM
aperiodic 3D parts within 1–10 seconds [14]. This was achieved by step involves slicing the digital model into cross sections. The EDDF is
using a resin with non-linear polymerisation initiation behaviour, and generated by the two projectors, each emitting a different wavelength,
the superposition of three laser beams with a 532 nm wavelength. This using DMD’s to pattern the light into said cross-sections, as depicted in
technique leveraged the threshold behaviour of photopolymer resins by Fig. 4A. This results in the final printed part through a combination of
limiting the formation of polymers from the exposure of a single laser inhibition and initiation reactions, shown in Fig. 4B.
beam, and only enabling polymerisation when a voxel was exposed to an Subtractive light superposition exploration in the literature remains
intersection of all three laser beams simultaneously. In the context of limited when compared to other VAM methods, being the least common
this review, the EDDF was generated by this simultaneous exposure, methodology of those identified in the studies in this review. This has
relying on the threshold behaviour of the resin. The VEM process resulted in a relatively narrow range of demonstrated geometries and
included the creation of the digital hologram using Fourier Transform precision capabilities, particularly when contrasted with the broader
Holography, the splitting of the hologram into multiple 2D patterns. The applications seen in other VAM methods. This disparity highlights the
optical configuration of this technique is visualised in Fig. 3a, illus need for further research into subtractive light superposition to fully
trating the intersecting beams. Several printed parts showing complex understand its capabilities and limitations. Nevertheless, this unique
geometries are shown in Fig. 3b-g. approach to 3D printing opens up new avenues for research and devel
To effectively operate this VAM system, several properties of optics opment in the field of VAM. It highlights how the EDDF can cause both
and resin formulation needed to be coordinated together. Axial resolu inhibition and initiation reactions to generate the final printed part.
tion is significantly worse for a single-beam optical system than lateral
resolution, so each beam’s lateral intensity had to be adjusted to
compensate for the other beams’ limited axial resolution. The authors
Fig. 3. a) Additive beam superposition optics configuration and system schematic. b – g) Examples of printed parts using this light dosage method. Scale bars
2 mm.[14].
5
Fig. 4. a) Subtractive light superposition optics configuration and system schematic, demonstrating perpendicular blue and near-UV irradiation of the developed
resin. b) Example of the printed part using this light dosage method [32].
4.3. Tomographic volumetric additive manufacturing 4.4. Refinements of VAM methods
The most popular VAM light dosage method, with the majority of There were a number of works (10) found in the review that were
publications found in this space to date, is Tomographic VAM, also focussing on improvements in VAM methods. These primarily focuses on
known as CAL. First reported in 2019, Kelly et al. devised Tomographic optimising specific aspects of the VAM system, including the calculation
VAM, which delivers light energy to a rotating resin vat as a set of 2D of the VEM step, the energy transmission and medium reactions, among
images, as seen in Fig. 5 [33]. others. These optimisations result in improved fidelity of the final
In this process, a 3D model is first converted into a series of 2D im printed part and/or faster and easier printing processes. This section
ages, known as “sinograms”, using a mathematical algorithm called the delves into the work done to enhance these processes in VAM.
Radon transform. The Radon transform generates the sinograms by
taking snapshots of the 3D model from various angles. As a result, the 4.4.1. Voxel to energy mapping optimisation
series of sinograms then represent the model from different perspectives, VEM Optimisation involves optimising the instructions sent to the
creating a comprehensive 2D representation of the 3D model. An inverse energy transmitter to better produce an EDDF more suited for the me
Radon transform is applied to these sinograms. This calculates the 3D dium reactions and therefore a better printed part. These approaches
distribution of light intensity required to produce the sinograms at focus on techniques that alter either the initial digital 3D model or
various angles. The results from these calculations produce a series of processing algorithms to enhance delivery of the EDDF.
light patterns that, when projected by the projectors into the photo Bhattacharya et al. presents a study aimed at optimising the VEM
sensitive resin, fabricate the final part. An example of these light pat process in Tomographic VAM. The authors developed an optimisation
terns can be seen in Fig. 5A. approach that improved the computation accuracy of calculating the
As per the terminologies used in this review, the VEM step involves energy dosage using a gradient descent optimisation based on a mean
the mathematical algorithms, Radon and inverse Radon transforms to ingful loss functions [15]. They introduce a penalty minimisation loss
produce the light patterns for the projector to emit. The light patterns function that identifies regions of the print that require to be solidified
emitted into the medium volume, containing photosensitive resin, but received insufficient dosage to achieve full polymerisation. The PM
generates the EDDF over a period of time. The rotation ensures that the loss function assigns a penalty score proportional to the missing solidi
light patterns intersect within the volume from multiple angles, causing fication. The same principle applies to regions that receive excess
the intensity of the EDDF to exceed the resins reaction threshold in the dosage. The gradient with respect to the projector’s pixel intensity was
desired locations, producing a solid part. calculated, enabling the calibration to reduce the printed parts penalty
score, or in other words decrease the volume error difference between
Fig. 5. a) Computed Axial Lithography (CAL) energy dosage methodology, exposing the resin at various angles with 2D light patterns. B) Optics configuration and
system schematic of Tomographic VAM. c) Sequential view of the resin vat during a Tomographic VAM print. d-g) Examples of printed parts using Tomographic
VAM. d) After rinsing away uncured material. e) Part after painting for clarity. f) A larger (40-mm-tall) version of the same geometry. g) Opaque version of the 40-
mm-tall version using crystal violet dye in the resin. Scale bars: 10 mm. [33].
6
the printed part and digital model. The authors compared PM to a desired EDDF is minimised. This results in a set of optimised light pat
heuristic approach called dose matching, which attempts to match the terns that can produce a high-fidelity print. The 3DRT method over
geometry of the digital model perfectly to the EDDF. They found that the comes several limitations of the Radon transform approach, enabling a
PM approach minimised dose violation penalties enabling for broader range of optical configurations for tomographic VAM systems,
high-fidelity printing and performed better in nearly all computational and potentially facilitating more cost-effective VAM printers and com
metrics. It also improved the conformation to the targeted geometry of mercialisation. However, one thing to note is that the computation of
printed parts. this method is reported to be between 10 and 100 times longer than
Rackson et al. present a study that optimises the digital model in previous approaches, increasing overall time and computational re
Tomographic VAM, influencing the projection image/intensity to sources, especially for modelling models which require large etendue.
counteract volume errors [34]. This approach, termed Object-Space Though, the authors suggest that implementing the algorithm on a GPU
Model Optimisation (OSMO), involves multiple iterations of model platform could significantly increase speed by paralleling the compu
optimisation. The method first applies a forward projection to the digital tation. Unlike the OSMO, PM and ML-EL methods, which rely on itera
model, creating a dosage reconstruction by back projection. It then an tive refinements based on energy dosage differences, the 3DRT approach
alyses the reconstruction, identifying unwanted extra dosage above the directly models the entire VEM process. Despite requiring more
desired threshold or missing dosage below it. In the next model iteration, computational power, the 3DRT modelling approach results in a
the unwanted extra dosage is subtracted, or the missing dosage is added, three-fold increase in vertical build volume within the researchers
and the process is repeated. The OSMO approach offers ease of imple printer when compared to the traditional Radon method, without
mentation, computational flexibility, and has demonstrated high accu hardware changes and improved printing fidelity on larger etendue
racy in simulation, even without the need for highly accurate optical and prints.
material precision. Notably, this VEM optimisation method has been The study by Salajeghe et al. focuses on a different aspect of VEM
successfully demonstrated in a commercially available stand-alone VAM optimisation, specifically addressing the issue of sedimentation during
machine, the Tomolite by Readily3D SA, specifically for bioprinting the VAM process [39]. In VAM, as the parts are not fabricated
applications [35,36]. Compared to the approach by Bhattacharya et al., layer-by-layer but are formed in their entirety in a single step. During
which focuses on optimising the energy dosage delivered to the medium, this process, already solidified sections can experience sedimentation,
Rackson et al.’s OSMO approach optimises the 3D model itself, offering a descending within the resin while the remaining portions continue to
different perspective on the VEM process in Tomographic VAM. solidify. The authors identified several factors that contribute to this
In a recent study, Chen et al. [37] introduced a novel approach to issue, including: the ratio of the printed geometry’s cross-section to the
VEM in Tomographic VAM, using the Maximum Likelihood Expectation container, the curing time, the rotation velocity of the container, part
Maximisation (ML-EM) method. Unlike the traditional Radon transform, orientation, and the final density and viscosity of the curing material.
this method begins with an initial guess of the light patterns and refines While VAM has several advantages over conventional methods, sedi
them iteratively based on the difference between the expected and mentation can affect the geometric fidelity, resolution, and reduce the
actual energy dosage in the resin, calculated by applying a forward ability to use low-viscosity resins. The authors propose a computational
projection to the current light pattern estimates. The expected energy approach to predict and manage the sedimentation process. They
dosage is then compared to the actual dosage required to solidify the develop a numerical model that simulates the sedimentation of particles
resin, as determined from the 3D model. The light patterns are updated during the VAM process. This model takes into account the various
to reduce this difference, and this iterative process continues until the factors that influence sedimentation, providing a comprehensive tool for
difference is minimised. The resulting optimised light patterns are pro predicting and understanding how sedimentation affects the final prin
jected into the photosensitive resin, generating the EDDF over time. As ted part. The results of the study suggest that by carefully controlling the
with traditional Tomographic VAM, the rotation of the resin vat ensures factors identified, it is possible to significantly reduce sedimentation
that the light patterns intersect and superpose within the volume from during VAM, thereby improving the quality of the printed parts and
multiple angles, causing the intensity of the EDDF to exceed the resin’s expanding the range of resins that can be used in the process. This model
reaction threshold in the desired locations, producing a solid part. Chen can be used to digitally correct and manage the sedimentation process,
et al.’s method demonstrates improved performance over previous optimising the VAM process to reduce sedimentation-related issues. This
methods, particularly in situations of large scale, strong absorption, and study contributes to the understanding of VEM optimisation in VAM,
high complexity. When compared to the PM method proposed by particularly in the context of managing and reducing sedimentation
Bhattacharya et al., both methods yield acceptable geometry profiles, during the printing process.
but the ML-EM method provides a steadier distribution and higher The five papers reviewed in this section each present innovative
contrast, and maintains reconstruction fidelity with complex models approaches to optimising the VEM step in Tomographic VAM. Each of
more effectively than the PM method [15]. The study also highlights the these methods contributes to the advancement of this technology, of
advantage of implementing the ML-EM algorithm on a GPU platform, fering unique solutions to the challenges of VEM optimisation. However,
providing a high-speed data processing procedure for VAM printing. they also highlight the need for further research, particularly in
In another recent study, Webber et al. introduced a unique VEM demonstrating their full potential in producing physical VAM parts.
optimisation for tomographic VAM [38]. This method, referred to as 3D Notably, a gap in the literature is identified, with a lack of research
ray Tracing (3DRT), models optical rays in 3D and computes the pro investigating the VEM step in other types of VAM light dosage methods,
jections, enabling new printing configurations not previously possible as shown in Table 1, such as additive light superposition and subtractive
with conventional Radon transform based techniques. The 3DRT light superposition. This highlights an avenue for future research in this
methodology casts rays from each projector pixel into the medium rapidly evolving field.
volume, tracing each ray’s path and computing the energy dosage
delivered along it. This computation considers the light’s intensity at the 4.4.2. Optical interference correction
source, the resin’s absorption properties, and the ray’s path length Transmitted energy interference in VAM can significantly impact the
through the resin. The computed energy dosages are then used to accuracy and quality of the printed parts, as shown in Fig. 1. Current
generate a 3D map of the EDDF within the medium volume, corre applications of VAM primarily utilise photopolymerisation, resulting in
sponding to the 3D object model. This map is used to determine the light interference related to transmitted light. Three main types of light
patterns the projector emits to solidify the resin in the desired locations, interference which can occur include: distortion, attenuation, and
forming the 3D object. The 3DRT method is iterative, refining the light scattering.
patterns in each iteration until the difference between the computed and
7
• Distortion refers to the alteration of the light waveform, which can
[15]
[34]
[38]
[39]
[37]
cause deformities in the printed parts, thereby decreasing precision
Ref
and accuracy.
• Attenuation is the reduction in the intensity of light as it passes
acetone, additional 405 nm UV

through a medium, which can result in a loss of energy and decrease
(15 min), vacuum chamber

treatment and 405 nm UV
curing efficiency.
Twice rinsed with 50◦ C
Isopropyl alcohol soak

• Scattering is the diffusion of light as it travels through a medium,
exposure (5 min).
which can cause non-uniform curing, leading to inconsistent me
Post Processing
light exposure.
chanical properties and overall weaker structures of parts.
The studies presented in this section primarily focus on correcting

N/A
N/A
N/A
these phenomena, while they may also have elements of VEM
optimisation.
(C23H38N2O8) / 2-Methyl-4-(methylthio)-2-
BPAGDA/PEGDA/ Methyl-4′-(methylthio)-2-
In Tomographic VAM, lensing distortions created by the cylindrical

morpholinopropiophenone/ Irgacure 907
vial of the vat are typically mitigated using an index-matching bath or a

DUDMA / PEGDA 700 / EDAB / TPO-L
cylindrical lens. A 2021work by Orth et al. proposes a computational

approach that eliminates the need for such hardware, thereby simpli
BPAGDA / PEGDA / CQ / EDAB
Urethane dimethacrylate IPDI
fying the printing process and avoiding potential fluid spills [40]. They
Resin Ingredients for VAM
morpholinopropiophenone
employ a Radon-space resampling technique, derived from detailed

ray-tracing analysis, to correct lens distortions. This approach is inno
vative because it allows for the correction of distortions in the compu
tational space, rather than relying on physical hardware adjustments.
Ray tracing is used to simulate intensity maps of the light source
entering the vial, addressing both refraction-induced ray distortion and
N/A
non-telecentric projection. Their simulations indicate that this

non-telecentricity correction is crucial for maintaining print resolution
and accuracy away from the vial’s centre, even when the vial is
initiation behaviour
immersed in an index-matching bath. The study also demonstrates that

Polymerisation
ignoring lensing distortion can cause severe deformation of the applied

dose profile, which can be fully recovered with lensing and
Non-linear
Non-linear
Non-linear
non-telecentric ray distortion correction.

N/A
N/A
In a subsequent study, building on the findings of their 2021 work,

Orth et al. developed a method for optimising energy transmission in
VAM that faithfully and quantitatively reconstructs and displays the part
7 mm* x 15 mm* x
in real time during the printing process [41]. This work highlights that
Demonstrated
Printed size
to produce repeatable and accurate printing results, the optimal expo

10 mm ^3*
⌀10 ×10
sure time, which is the duration for which the resin is exposed to light,
38 mm
N/A
N/A
must be known and accounted for in VAM. The developed method,

referred to as Optical Scattering Tomography (OST), records images of
the rotating vat and builds up sinograms of each layer of the part being
printed. OST uses the scattering caused by the mismatched refractive
printing time
Demonstrated Printed sizes were calculated from the figure and figure scale bar.
Exposure/
indexes of the liquid monomer and the solid polymer as an optical

(seconds)
contrast mechanism, enabling subsequent tomographic reconstruction

9–13
~36
N/A
N/A
414
and, therefore, real-time geometry monitoring of the part being fabri

cated. This process corrects for distortions in the optical imaging system
N/A indicates that information is either not available or not applicable.
that could interfere with the accurate reconstruction of the printed ob
Wavelength
ject. Several parts were printed using OST, which exceeded other
Comparative Overview of Studies Focused on VEM Optimisation.
recently reported high fidelity, index-matched VAM systems in terms of

(nm)
N/A
405
405
405
405
accuracy. The authors attribute the increased fidelity of the prints to the
combination of improved projection calculations, detailed projection
optics modelling, and optimised process control afforded by OST. This
Light dosage
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
optimised energy delivery method was demonstrated using methacry

method
late resins and the authors believe this result is applicable to other resins
with large refractive index differentials between the
un-photopolymerised resin and final parts. However, the authors ex
press concern that this energy dosage delivery optimisation method may
Denmark
Country
Canada
not be compatible with all resins, specifically those that experience little
China
USA
USA
or no change in refraction index during polymerisation. In contrast to

the their previous work, this study addresses the optical interference
2021
2021
2023
2023
2023
Year
caused by the refractive index mismatch between the liquid monomer

and the solid polymer. While both papers aim to correct optical inter
ference in VAM, they approach the problem from different angles.
Bhattacharya
Tianhang Chen
Daniel Webber
The distortion and attenuation of light when it passes through the

Salajeghe
Charles M.
Rackson
resin, especially for low optically translucent resins, is a current chal

Roozbeh
Indrasen
Authors
Table 1
lenge faced with VAM. Madrid-Wolff et al. addressed this issue by

characterising the optical properties of a resin and using this
*
8
information to develop a correcting algorithm (called a mask) that
[40]
[42]
[41]
counteracts light scattering, thereby increasing printing fidelity in
Ref
complex non-transparent resins [42]. The authors used a camera
orthogonal to the optical axis to capture images of the cuvette’s lateral
Wiped clean, heated to 75◦ C (120 min).
Sonication in isopropyl alcohol (3 min)

facet, recording the scattered light’s exponential decrease with depth
temperature, 405 nm UV exposure

and the original light pattern’s blur increase along its propagation. A
(10–20 min), air-dried at room

Fourier transform was then applied to the recorded data, resulting in an
Isopropyl alcohol immersion

attenuation map in frequency space, which was used to calculate the
correction mask. This mask indicates how to boost spatial frequencies at
different depths to counterbalance the scattering effect. The method was
(120 min) at 60◦ C.

Post Processing
experimentally demonstrated using a tomographic volumetric printer
and was shown to be applicable to hard organic scattering acrylates and
soft cell-laden hydrogels. This paves the way for exciting opportunities
in printing inside turbid materials with particularly interesting appli
cations for bioprinting cell-laden. The ability to accurately print within
non-transparent or turbid materials is important in bioprinting, as many
SR399 / PRO21905 / 0.60 mm phenyl
phosphine oxide / TiO2 nanoparticles

BPAGDA / PEGDA250 / CQ / EDAB
DUDMA / BPAGDA / Ebecryl 8413

bioinks and hydrogels used for encapsulating cells are not entirely clear.
Given the potential applications in bioprinting, it was crucial to deter
bis (2,4,6-trimethyl benzoyl)

mine the impact of the correction method on living cells. The correction
for scattering did not seem to affect cell viability 1 hour after printing,
indicating that the method is safe for use with living cells. However, the
authors note that the effectiveness of their method is limited by the ratio
of the average distance light travels in the resin before it gets scattered to
the inner diameter of the vial used for printing.
The three studies reviewed offer significant advancements in optical
interference correction within the field of VAM. Orth et al. initially
proposed a computational approach to correct lens distortions, simpli
30 mm × 30 mm ×
⌀14 mm × 10 mm
10 mm × 8 mm ×
fying the printing process by eliminating the need for lens correcting
Demonstrated
hardware and addressing both refraction-induced ray distortion and
Printed size
non-telecentric projection. They later developed a method for real-time
20 mm*
10 mm*
monitoring of the printing process using OST, optimising energy de
livery in VAM and demonstrating its applicability to hard organic scat
tering acrylates and soft cell-laden hydrogels. In contrast, Madrid-Wolff
et al. focused on characterising and correcting light scattering within the
printing time
resin itself, developing a method that counteracts light scattering and

Exposure/
increases printing fidelity in complex non-transparent resins, particu

(seconds)
144–288
larly beneficial for printing with low optically translucent resins often
N/A
used in bioprinting applications. However, the effectiveness of both Orth
36
et al.’s and Madrid-Wolff et al.’s methods is limited by certain factors,

such as the physical setup of the printer and the ratio of the average
Light irradiance
distance light travels in the resin before it gets scattered to the inner
power (mW/
diameter of the vial used for printing. These studies, detailed in Table 2,
collectively contribute to the advancement of tomographic VAM, each
cm2)
3.80
0.53
N/A
offering unique improvements to address the challenges associated with

optical interference.
Wavelength
4.4.3. Optimising optical configuration and exposure

The VAM process heavily relies on energy transmitters to emit, shape
(nm)
460
405
460
and focus the direction and timing of energy flow, thereby determining
the distribution of energy dosage. To improve the final print quality,
Advances in Optical Interference Correction for VAM.
various methods have been developed to fine-tune these components

Light dosage
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
and their configurations.

In their work, Loterie et al. introduced and explored the significance
method
of low-etendue within the optical configuration and a novel low-etendue

optical configuration for VAM [43]. The researchers utilise a ray-optics
analysis to highlight the importance of the low etendue for maintaining
Switzerland
high resolution across the vat, especially for high viscous resins
Country
Canada
Canada
(>10 Pa⋅s). A VEM optimisation process was also used, which employed
a camera feedback system that leveraged the transparency of the resin
and vat. This system monitored the print and adjusted the intensity of
2021
2022
2022
Year
the VEM process for the next step, similar to the OST method developed
by Orth et al. [41]. Using low-etendue optics and VEM optimisation
process, the researchers reported the volumetric printing of parts with
Antony Orth
Madrid-
high-resolution structures, such as suspended structures of 80 µm, and

Anthony
Authors
Wolff
Table 2
Orth
Name
Jorge
hollow structures of 500 µm, in 25 seconds or less. The approach allows

Lead
for high-resolution printing of complex structures in a short time.

*
9
However, the use of low-etendue reduces the optical volume exposure
[43]
[44]
size, thereby limiting the producible printability size of the energy
Ref
transmitter. Future research may explore the use of low-etendue print
ing approaches combined with volumetric stitching of printed parts to
SR399 Sartomer/ phenyl bis(2,4,6-trimethyl
diacrylate / Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate

Bisphenol A glycerolate(1 glycerol/phenol)
create larger components, similar to CLIP (Continuous Liquid Interface
Production), whilst maintaining the high resolution. Alternatively, an
optical configuration that can alter the etendue during the printing
process to allow for variable resolution prints could be developed,

though such a system would likely be complex and could introduce
benzoyl)phosphine oxide
(Mn 250)/Irgacure 907

additional challenges.
A current challenge with Tomographic VAM is the presence of stri
ations in printed parts. Rackson et al. hypothesised that these striations
occur due to the Self Written Waveguide (SWW) effect [44]. This phe
nomenon is where variations in the refractive index of the solidified
resin cause an increase in light intensity, leading to faster solidification
of subsequent resin region compared to its surroundings. This effect,
known to occur in many photopolymer exposure systems and is known
Identified Feature
80 µm positive and
500 µm negative
to have complex properties [45]. Rackson et al. introduced a new
approach, referred to as the latent cure method, to eliminate the stria
Smallest
tions in VAM printed parts. This method employs diffuse light in the
final step of the solidification process, instead of highly directed
(µm)
N/A
patterning beams. The printing process proceeds as usual with patterned
illumination, but just before the resin reaches the polymerisation reac
~12.50 × ~12 mm
tion threshold, the patterned illumination stops, leaving a latent image
Demonstrated
of the desired geometry within the resin. A diffused light is then used to
Printed size
uniformly expose the entire resin vat, stopping before undesired resin
solidification occurs. This approach develops the part without striations,
N/A
* *2
as it makes the solidification of the whole part more instantaneous, and
the uniform diffused light is less affected by variations in the refractive
index. Furthermore, this optimisation can be applied to other VAM
methods, such as additive light superposition, and it has the potential to
Exposure/ printing
<30
(405) 215, (455) 12

reduce issues related to part sedimentation during the printing process
time (seconds)
by dramatically shortening the solidification step. A restriction to this
method is that it might not completely eliminate striations but only
reduce their occurrence or visibility. Some level of striations might still
be present, especially in complex or large-scale prints. Furthermore, the
uniform exposure used in the latent cure method decreases the
dose-contrast between the in-part and out-of-part regions, and therefore
sources penetrating
increasing potential of out-of-part solidification and in-part non-

Number of light
solidification. This could potentially reduce the systems printing

Overview of Studies Concentrated on Optimising Optical Configuration and Exposure.
dimensional accuracy, resolution, and compatible resins.

resin vat
The pivotal role of the energy transmitter in VAM systems, along

with its potential to significantly enhance this technology’s capabilities,
is detailed in Table 3. Loterie et al. focused on optimising the optical
1
configuration in VAM through the use of low-etendue optics and a VEM

optimisation process, achieving high-resolution prints but with limita

Wavelength
tions in print size. Rackson et al. tackled the challenge of striations in

405, 455
VAM prints by introducing the latent cure method, which modifies the
(nm)
405
optical exposure, reducing striations but potentially impacting dimen

*2 For certain entries, a third dimension was not provided
sional accuracy and system error tolerances. The energy transmitters

have a range of parameters that could be altered, such as placement,
Light dosage
Tomographic
Tomographic
arrangements, intensity, wavelength, timing, angles of freedom, and

method
more. As such, future research will undoubtedly explore how these pa
rameters can be manipulated to further enhance the capabilities of VAM
technology.
Switzerland
Country
4.5. Resin formulation development

USA
Resin formulation for VAM is a sophisticated process as the meth

odology relies on a well-defined critical energy dose or non-linear
2020
2022
Year
behaviour to ensure control over the medium reaction generated by

the EDDF, producing high-quality and consistent parts. The critical en
ergy dose represents the minimum amount of energy required to solidify
Charles M.
Rackson
Loterie
the resin, transforming it into a solid shape that holds its form. A non-
Authors
Damien
Table 3
Name
Lead
linear resin is one that does not exhibit a linear relationship between
the energy received and the degree of solidification. These properties are
*
10
not limited to VAM and are crucial for other vat polymerisation tech network that can be achieved. This denser network is a result of more
niques such as TPP (Two-Photon Polymerisation 3D printing). To pro monomers being available to react and form bonds during the poly
duce these properties, the formulation is dependent on two fundamental merisation process. The ability to use high-viscosity resins therefore not
components: the photoinitiating system and the selection of monomers only broadens the range of materials that can be used in VAM but also
and oligomers, which serve as structural back bones and cross-linkers. enhances the quality and performance of the printed objects.
The photoinitiating system is crucial for converting light into Despite this, the technology of VAM, particularly in the context of
chemical energy, initiating the polymerisation reaction. This system is resin formulation, is still in its early stages, with a limited selection of
finely tuned, incorporating photoinitiators, inhibitors, and other addi resins that have been demonstrated to suit these requirements. Further
tives, to match the specific requirements of the VAM’s optical configu research is necessary to improve the formulation of compatible resins,
ration and selected crosslinkers. On the other hand, the selection of broaden the applications of VAM, and enhance its printing accuracy.
monomers and oligomers influences the mechanical and chemical This section reviews recent advances in resin development, both for
properties of the final printed parts. Monomers and oligomers act as the specific applications and to expand VAM’s printing capabilities. The
building blocks of the polymer network, with their composition and research has been divided into focused categories for ease of under
structure determining the degree of cross-linking and bulk material standing. For a deeper discussion into current Tomographic VAM ma
properties, and, consequently, the resin’s behaviour during and after terials, covering novel materials such as viscous acrylates, elastomers,
polymerisation. Advanced resin formulations may also incorporate epoxies, and gelatin-based hydrogels, we will refer the reader to the
functional additives to enhance properties such as shape memory, op recent in-depth paper [46]. This reference offers additional insights and
tical clarity, and biocompatibility. explores the cutting edge in VAM material development, complementing
A distinctive capability of VAM is that it allows for the use of high- the discussions presented here.
viscosity resins, unlike traditional vat polymerisation methods that
rely on a layer-by-layer approach, indeed, CAL VAM approaches work 4.5.1. Resin composition
better with higher viscosity resins, reducing sheer forces within the Resin composition can be changed in a variety of ways, including to
rotating vat. This capability stems from VAM’s distinctive characteristic achieve greater compositional and wavelength trigger flexibility and to
of not requiring the addition of new material within the printing volume minimise resource wastage.
during the process. This aspect of VAM opens the possibility of using Regehly et al. first reported the use of dual-colour photoinitiators in
higher monomer concentrations or chain lengths, which can signifi additive light superposition, also referred to as Xolography, in 2020
cantly enhance the mechanical properties of the final printed parts, such [31]. The unique resin formulation used in their study spatially limited
as increasing the toughness and strength, due to the denser cross-linking the initiation of polymerisation to the intersection of two orthogonal
Fig. 6. First column illustrating the 3D digital model. Second column shows photographs of printed parts within the resin vat using this additive manufacturing
technique. Third column shows photographs of the printed parts after post-processing. a-c) 8 mm diameter spherical cage with free-floating ball. d-f) Anatomical
model derived from the Manix CTA dataset, 30 mm in width. g-i) Aspherical Powell lens for laser line generation, 9 mm in width.[31].
11
light sources at wavelengths 375 nm and 585 nm. The resin’s poly which could potentially reduce the manufacturing time. However, the
merisation process involved the irradiation of a spiropyran molecule study is preliminary, and further research is needed to optimise the
(photoswitch) with the 375 nm light source, causing bond breakage and process and fully understand the implications of using visible light in
a transition to the latent merocyanine state. This state, when exposed to VAM. Additionally, the safety and efficiency of using visible light in
the 585 nm light source, could absorb radiation, generating the excited VAM still need to be thoroughly investigated. Furthermore, the study
benzophenone moiety and initiating the radical polymerisation process. did not provide comprehensive data on the mechanical properties of the
The researchers demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach by printed parts, which is crucial for determining the practical applications
fabricating free-floating parts with no solidified supporting structures, of using visible light in VAM.
showcasing a wide range of geometries and greater detail compared to Pazhamannil et al. explored a novel approach to VAM by leveraging
traditional additive light superposition, shown in Fig. 6. An advantage of commercially available, low-viscosity SLA photosensitive resins, such as
the resin is that if the latent merocyanine is not exposed to the 585 nm ’Anycubic Eco UV’ [49]. The use of these commercial resins not only
light source, it reverts back to the initial spiropyran form over time makes VAM more accessible and cost-effective, but it also simplifies the
(thermal half-life t1/2 = 6 s). This provides a self-erasing mechanism for regulatory approval process for certain applications, such as biomedi
the resin, meaning any part of the resin which is not properly exposed cine, where specific resins are already approved. The researchers suc
during the printing process will revert to it’s the liquid state, aiding in cessfully printed centimetre-range samples using tomographic VAM,
error correction, reusability, and waste reduction. This method repre demonstrating the viability of using these resins in VAM. They also
sents a significant advancement in additive light superposition VAM, conducted comprehensive tests, including overprinting, UV-Visible
offering a flexible alternative to relying on the non-linear properties of spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and
the resin for all types of VAM. This study opens up new avenues of Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), to thoroughly understand the
research in areas such as computational algorithms, resin formulation, properties of these resins. Furthermore, the study showcased the possi
and mechanical and optical configurations. However, the use of bility of using commercially available products, like a BenQ DLP pro
dual-colour photoinitiators and the specific wavelengths required may jector, as the energy transmitter in VAM. This research not only opens up
limit the types of usable resins for this method, potentially restricting the new possibilities for resin compositions in VAM, but it also paves the
range of materials and properties available for this method. way for the faster advancement and broader adoption of the technology,
Researchers have shown interest in exploring alternative resin potentially leading to the development of new industry adoption and
chemistries for use in Tomographic VAM. Cook et al. conducted a study applications.
on an alternative crosslinking resin formulation that used thiol-ene Toombs et al. introduced a novel type of material for use in VAM, a
chemistry [47]. Thiol-ene chemistry, compared to commonly used thermally reversible gel-state organic photoresist derived from ethyl
acrylate chemistry in VAM, offers several potential advantages, cellulose, a plant fiber derivative [50]. This material exhibits the ability
including lower cytotoxicity, better biocompatibility, and a broader to transition between solid and liquid states with changes in tempera
range of mechanical properties. Acrylate chemistry is based on the re ture, a property that significantly enhances its applicability in VAM. The
action of acrylate monomers and an initiator to form a polymer, typi resin was formulated by dissolving ethyl cellulose in trimethylolpropane
cally through a free radical mechanism. This results in the desired triacrylate at high temperatures, followed by the addition of a photo
non-linear behaviour due to the inhibition of dissolved molecular oxy initiator. Upon cooling, the solution formed a gel that could maintain its
gen. In contrast, thiol-ene chemistry is based on the highly specific structure for approximately 25 days. The team demonstrated the capa
radical reaction between thiols and alkene or alkyne functional groups, bilities of this novel resin by printing a mock auditory device designed to
which results in a covalent bond. The reaction can be initiated by light custom-fit a model of a human ear. This device also encapsulated an
without the use of a photoinitiator, although catalysts can be used. induction LED and a circuit board, demonstrating that multi-density
Unlike in acrylate chemistry, oxygen inhibition is negligible in the components could be integrated easily into the part, without the need
radical initiation of thiol-ene reactions. To compensate for this and for extra supports. The gel-state photoresist was able to support the
induce non-linear behaviour, a nitroxide-based radical scavenger, partially fabricated geometry without the need for additional supports
TEMPO, was used as an inhibitor, making it suitable for use in VAM. The or anchors, showcasing its potential for overprinting complex,
results showed that thiol-ene samples had a wider range of mechanical multi-material constructs. The researchers employed tomographic VAM
properties compared to the acrylate samples. By changing the relative for both cm-scale and µm-scale printing. After the wanted geometry was
monomer composition, the modulus, toughness, and ultimate strain of printed, the surrounding unpolymerised gel was liquefied by heating
the thiol-ene samples varied by over two orders of magnitude, from 0.12 and could be reused. This unique approach circumvented sedimentation
to 412 MPa, 0.5–36 mJ m-3, and 36.1–293% respectively. This versa issues, without the need for additional hardware, VEM optimisation or
tility makes thiol-ene resin systems a significant advancement in VAM, modification to the apparatus. However, thermally-reversible gelation is
as they offer a wider range of mechanical properties and offer exciting a unique property, is material specific and doesn’t address sedimenta
possibilities for future resin development. tion for other types of VAM resins, which would require separate
Various combinations of wavelengths can be used for VAM, mixture development. This study, however, highlights the potential of
depending on the chemistry of the resin and of the initiators. Ultraviolet using a thermoreversible gelator resin in VAM to mitigate sedimentation
radiation is often used. However, more literature is using visibile issues. Further research into other types of resins could expand upon
wavelengths instead. James et al. have investigated the feasibility of these findings and potentially uncover additional methods for
using visible light for tomographic VAM in a process termed Visible improving the VAM process through resin optimisation.
Light Induced Volumetric 3D Printing (VLI-V3DP) [48]. The study While few, the studies above illustrate the potential for innovative
focused on using visible light in the 470 and 530 nm range to cure the resin formulations to enhance the capabilities of VAM technology,
resin. The researchers successfully found a resin that could be cured highlighting the importance of continued research and development in
using visible light, composed of 0.11% Bis(2, medium development. Detailed in Table 4, these studies explore various
6-difluoro-3-(1-hydropyrrol-1-Yl)phenyl) titanocene as the photo resin formulations, including dual-colour photoinitiators, thiol-ene
initiator and 99.89% poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) as the chemistries, and the use of visible light photoinitiators, each contrib
polymer. This opens up the possibility of using a wider range of additives uting uniquely to advancing VAM. This exploration of alternative
in the resin formulation and energy transmitters in VAM, as the majority chemistries not only broadens the potential material base for VAM but
of research on VAM uses a 405 nm light source, as presented in Table S1. also opens up new possibilities for resin development, as seen in the
The study also demonstrated that by adjusting the power supplied to the advances made by Cook et al. in thiol-ene chemistry and James et al.’s
energy transmitters, the photopolymerisation rate could be controlled, exploration of visible light polymerisation.
12
4.5.2. Modulating structural characteristics of printed parts
[47]
[31]
[48]
[49]
[50]
Ref Structural properties play a crucial role in determining the func
tionality of a printed part. In the field of additive manufacturing, not
dried, post-cured with 405 nm UV light
alcohol rinse, 5-minute FormLabs Form

surrounding unpolymerised gel, excess
only is the achievement of desired structural performance important,
Isopropyl alcohol wash; post-cured in

Isopropyl alcohol wash (10 min), air-
Further exposure with 405 nm light
liquid removed, 3-minute isopropyl

exposure, heated to 70◦ C (20 min).
but the ability to alter these properties within a single part within the
Isopropyl alcohol wash, UV light
TEMPO / TMPTA / Ethyl Cellulose Heated in water bath to liquefy

printing process is also of great interest.
405 nm UV chamber (40 W).

Wang et al. explored how the mechanical properties of VAM printed
parts, specifically stiffness, can be adjusted [51]. The researchers
developed a method referred to as dual-colour tomographic volumetric
at 60 C (120 min).
Post Processing
Cure post-curing
3D printing (dual-colour Tomographic VAM). This method uses two
light sources with different wavelengths to initiate independent poly
merisation initiation mechanisms in the formulated resin. The chemistry
◦
of acrylates and epoxy allows for selective wavelength-specific initiation
of polymerisation for tunability of mechanical properties. The re
UDMA/ N-methyl diethanolamine,
searchers achieved a modulus gradient of 5 MPa /μm and printed parts

Bis(2,6-difluoro-3-(1-hydropyrrol-
Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate,
TEMPO/ Irgacure 907 / tri thiol
with contrasting stiffness zones. The chemistry involved in this process is

ICN monomer / triallyl ICN /
1)PETA/ triethanolamine, 2)
based on a mixture of BPAGDA, PEGDA, and EEC monomers. Acrylates

3)UDMA/2-hydroxyethyl
methacrylate/N-methyl
undergo polymerisation through the free radical mechanism, while the

1-Yl)phenyl)titanocene
epoxy uses the cationic polymerisation mechanism. This VAM energy

Anycubic Eco UV
diethanolamine.
transmitters involved two light sources that function in parallel, each

corresponding to a different wavelength and initiation mechanism. This
TEGDAE
chemistry enables selective initiation of polymerisation, creating two

intertwined polymer networks without covalent bonds between them.
The light intensity ratio from these wavelengths can be adjusted for
every single voxel, allowing for specific chemical and mechanical
~283 positive
Feature (µm)
property modifications at the voxel level. The study demonstrated that

Identified
Smallest
the inclusion of epoxy within the acrylate resin did not affect its
N/A
N/A
520
non-linear behaviour, making it suitable for VAM. This work achieved a

80
modulus gradient of 5 MPa /μm, and demonstrated printed parts with

10 mm x 15 mm
’zones’ of an average compressive modulus of ~50 MPa and other zones

Demonstrated
Printed size
of ~300 MPa, showing a prominent contrast of stiffness in a single part.

~14 mm ×
~40 mm ×
~30 mm ×
~8 mm ×
~17 mm*
However, the sensitivity to inhibitor distribution introduces an addi

30 mm*
⌀1 ×3
tional layer of complexity to an already intricate system. Despite this,

N/A
with careful control and calibration, the benefits of this method, such as
the tunability of mechanical properties of printed VAM parts, can be
Depends on length
Exposed until the
desired object is
fully realised, making it a highly advantageous approach if executed

printing time
(print speed
observed to
correctly.
55 mm^3/s
materialise
Exposure/
(seconds)
Schwartz et al. investigated the potential of Shape Memory Polymers

~30
N/A
(SMPs) in tomographic VAM [52]. They formulated a thiol-ene-based

10
SMP resin, which was calibrated for use in VAM by experimenting

penetrating resin
with various SMP/monomer mixtures. This allowed them to achieve

Number of light
optimal glass transition temperatures and mechanical properties. The

study focused on SMPs with glass transition temperatures between
sources
30–40 ◦ C, which hold significant promise for applications in biomedical

vat
fields at physiological temperatures. To demonstrate the concept’s

1
viability, the researchers printed thermally actuated self-standing tri

Wavelength (nm)
printing, 442 µm-

455 for cm-scale
pods and 3-arm soft robotic gripper structures using these SMPs. The
Summary of Innovative Resin Compositions in the field of VAM.
scale printing
study demonstrated that glass transition temperatures could be pro

grammable by simple alterations in chemical composition, although
375, 585
470, 532
each SMP formulation’s distinct reaction would need to be charac

405
405
terised. The researchers identified areas for further work, including

enhancing the printing precision in thiol-ene systems, additional cyclical
2020 Germany Additive light
Light dosage
superposition
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
Tomographic
characterisation of shape memory, and a deeper exploration of diverse

thiol–ene monomer mixtures and their possible thermal shape memory
method
responses. The study demonstrated the potential of integrating the 3D

geometric and overprinting capabilities of VAM methods with respon
Year Country
sive materials such as SMPs, paving the way for innovative uses like
2023 India
recoverable, smart-polymer encapsulated electronics, sensing

2020 USA
2023 USA
2023 USA
load-bearing frameworks, and biologically relevant materials including

targeted drug delivery capsules and deployable stents [53]. However,
while the study highlights the vast potential of integrating SMPs in VAM,
the SMPs in this study exhibit their shape memory effect at around 60◦ C,
Caitlyn C. Cook
Martin Regehly
Ribin Varghese
Pazhamannil
Lead Authors
limiting their use for live-cell applications as this temperature is above

Sagil James
Toombs
Joseph T.
the typical safe physiological temperature range of 30–40◦ C. Despite

Table 4
Name
this, the demonstrated potential of SMPs in VAM opens up exciting

possibilities for future research and applications.
*
13
Salvekar et al. demonstrate the feasibility of solid-state crosslinking parts, exploring the unique methodologies, achievements, and chal
as a solution for VAM, which is particularly useful for harsh environ lenges associated with this innovative application of VAM.
ments such as outer space missions [54]. They used a special thermal gel Kollep et al. successfully created silicon oxycarbide ceramic parts
that undergoes ultraviolet crosslinking in the solid state, meaning the gel using Tomographic VAM, employing a liquid preceramic acrylate-
is in a rigid, non-flowing form during the printing process, which con mediated polymer resin they developed [55]. They utilised a specially
trasts with traditional VAM methods that typically involve liquid resins. formulated liquid preceramic acrylate-mediated polymer resin, which
The fabricated hydrogels were characterised and their was well-suited for VAM systems due to its non-linearity. With the
water-content-dependent heating/cooling/water-responsive shape non-linearity of the resin suited for VAM systems, they printed a variety
memory effect was explored. This shape memory capability is required of ceramic parts in complex shapes, including a screw with three full
to remove the deformation induced in the process of eliminating the revolutions with a channel going down its centre, 3D crosses, and a
uncross linked part from the crosslinked part in the final step of this ten-level spherical woodpile structure. The methodology involved a
procedure. The study also demonstrated that the glass transition tem post-pyrolysis step where the parts were heated to 1000◦ C, resulting in
peratures could be programmable by simple changes in chemical the calcination of the organic fraction and the creation of the silicon
composition. However, it’s important to note that this research was not oxycarbide ceramic part. After being printed, the green body transitions
conducted on a traditional VAM system. Instead, Salvekar et al. used a to the polymer-derived ceramic via a pyrolytic process. The green bodies
unique methodology where a special thermal gel is solidified at room undergo a gradual heating process, pausing at 375◦ C, then escalating to
temperature and then crosslinked using UV light through a 2D mask. 1000◦ C and where they remain for an hour to finalise the ceramic
This methodology, while innovative, does have its limitations. The use conversion. The study demonstrated that the produced parts displayed
of masks to define the areas to be crosslinked inherently limits the robust resilience against thermal stress and aggressive chemical condi
complexity of the 3D structures that can be produced. As a result, this tions. The parts were exposed to rapid thermal shock cycles of 15 s
method may be constrained to printing full cross-sections of patterns, heating up under the flame of a butane torch and 10 s of cooling down,
with limited ability to create objects featuring complex internal struc and they retained their shape and did not crack. They were also sub
tures or intricate 3D geometrical details. merged for 1 h in aqueous corrosive baths and retained their mass,
In summary, these studies highlight the innovative approaches being demonstrating their resistance to high temperatures and corrosion.
taken to manipulate structural properties within the field of VAM. Wang However, the pyrolytic transformation process results in significant
et al.’s dual-colour tomographic VAM method demonstrates the poten reduction in mass and results in a contraction between the initial green
tial for voxel-by-voxel customisation of mechanical properties, while body and the polymer-derived ceramic. This shrinkage and the presence
Schwartz et al.’s work with SMPs opens up exciting possibilities for of bubbles are current challenges in using preceramic polymers
future research and applications, despite the challenge of achieving following calcination. To prevent bubbles, various heating strategies can
suitable glass transition temperatures for biomedical applications. Sal be applied. Part shrinkage, however, is more difficult to prevent and the
vekar et al.’s unique approach to solid-state crosslinking, although not a parts in this study experienced up to 31 ± 1.7% volume shrinkage and
traditional VAM method, offers a potential solution for VAM in harsh 54.0 ± 0.2% mass loss upon calcination. Despite these challenges, the
environments, even though it may be limited in terms of the complexity study highlights that new resins can be developed to create parts that are
of 3D structures that can be produced. These explorations, detailed in resistant to thermal stress and harsh chemical environments.
Table 5, underscore the vast potential of VAM, while also highlighting Toombs et al. also produced silica glass parts using a variation of
the challenges that must be addressed to fully realise this potential. Tomographic VAM called microscale CAL [56]. The system uses a
coupled laser light source and an optical fibre with a small mode field
4.5.3. Ceramics size to reduce the etendue, similar to a previously mentioned study by
Thus far, the primary focus of VAM has been on the polymerisation of Loterie et al. [43]. The glass nanocomposite resin formula employs
resins to produce polymer parts. However the potential of VAM extends acrylate chemistry (CQ and EDAB) to create non-linear properties, and
beyond polymers, with recent research demonstrating the feasibility of incorporates TEMPO as an inhibitor to maintain non-linear properties
creating ceramic parts using this technique. In this section, we delve into ensuring compatibility with VAM. This resulted in the creation of a
the research that has leveraged VAM techniques to produce ceramic photopolymer-silica nanocomposite, which underwent a two-step
Table 5
Overview of Structural Characteristics of Printed Parts in the field of VAM.
Year Country Light dosage Wavelength Number of Light Exposure/ Demonstrated Resin Ingredients Post Ref
method (nm) light sources irradiance printing Printed size for VAM Processing
penetrating power time
resin vat (mW/cm2) (seconds)
2022 Denmark Tomographic 365, 455 2 (365) (365 + 455) 40 mm × 7 mm BPAGDA / PEGDA / Isopropanol- [51]
32.53–6.51, 360–900, × 3 mm EEC rinsed, air-
(455) (455) dried in
4.62–1.04 300–360, aluminium.
(365) 406
2022 USA Tomographic 405 1 45 or 63.30 192 25 mm × TEGDAE / TA-ICN / Methylene [52]
25 mm × TME-ICN chloride/IPA
20 mm wash, 405 nm
UV exposure
(20 min),
heated to
120◦ C (1 hr).
2022 Singapore N/A 365 1 N/A 180–360 ⌀15 mm × Pluronic F127 N/A [54]
16 mm ((C3H6O⋅C2H4O)x)
/ Deionized water /
Pluronic F127DA /
Irgacure 2959
14
thermal treatment: debinding and sintering. The debinding treatment
[55]
[56]
removed the polymer binder matrix, leading to the formation of a porous
Ref
silica brown part. In the sintering phase, the nanoparticles of the brown
part coalesce, resulting in a clear, compact glass part. An isotropic linear
TPO/IPA mixture, heated at 80◦ C (1 h), followed

Dipped in toluene, placed in isopropyl alcohol,
shrinkage of 26% was observed during this sintering phase, aligning
air-dried, double UV exposure, submerged in
Rinsed in ethanol or PGMEA, vortex mixed,

with the expected shrinkage determined through thermogravimetric
debinded at 600◦ C, sintered at 1300◦ C

analysis. The resulting microscale CAL silica glass beams were smoother
and had significantly higher fracture strengths compared to those pro
duced using SLA, thanks to VAM’s ability to reduce microcracks and
indentations. In addition, microscale CAL showed potential for creating
silica glass parts with geometric freedom, optical transparency, low
surface roughness, and high fracture strength, making it a promising
Post Processing
technology for mechanical metamaterials, 3D microfluidics, and
free-form optics. Although microscale CAL produced a low figure error
by pyrolysis.
in spherical surfaces, a figure error of up to 60 μm persisted in aspheric
lens surfaces, indicating that further improvement is needed for it to
compete with current commercial technologies. The study demonstrated
the potential of micro-CAL in producing complex, high-strength fused
TMPTA / HEMA / CQ / EDAB

Silica glass nanocomposite /

silica components.
These studies both successfully created ceramic parts using VAM, but
SPR 684 / BDDA / TPO

with distinct methodologies and reported outcomes. Kollep et al. used a
liquid preceramic acrylate-mediated polymer resin, while Toombs et al.
employed a glass nanocomposite resin formula. Both studies faced
challenges with shrinkage, but Toombs et al. managed to achieve a
/ TEMPO
consistent isotropic linear shrinkage of 26%, which was in line with
theoretical predictions. Furthermore, the microscale CAL method used
by Toombs et al. reported smooth silica glass parts with higher fracture
ESTIMATED - 200
strengths, while Kollep et al.’s method reported strong resistance to
Feature (µm)
thermal stress and harsh chemical environments, which is a significant
Identified
advantage in certain applications. Both studies underscore the potential
Smallest
20–50
of VAM in creating complex ceramic parts with unique properties,
paving the way for further advancements in this field. These advance
ments could lead to the development of new resins and improved
8 mm × 4 mm* *2
methodologies, overcoming current challenges such as shrinkage and
Demonstrated
bubble formation, and expanding the potential applications of VAM in

Printed size
creating ceramic parts. Detailed resin formula comparisons and post

5 mm^3
processing methodologies of these studies can be found in Table 6.
4.5.4. Biomedical
In the following section, we delve into the transformative potential of
VAM in the biomedical field. Researchers have harnessed this innovative
printing time
Exposure/
technology in a variety of applications, ranging from the creation of

(seconds)
personalised medicine to the engineering of complex tissue constructs.

30–90
N/A
One of the key advantages of VAM is its speed and low-force / gentle
fabrication approach, as demonstrated in a study by Rodríguez-Pombo
et al. [57]. This study demonstrated that researchers could use VAM to
Wavelength
fabricate personalised medicine within 17 seconds, by printing

paracetamol-loaded tablets via additive light superposition The resin
Comparative Summary of Ceramic Part Fabrication via VAM.
(nm)
405
442
used in the study relied on LAP as the photoinitiator, and PEGDA as the
solvent for paracetamol to maintain non-linear properties. Water or

PEG300 were included as varying dilutions to dictate drug release. The
Light dosage
Tomographic
Tomographic
research team discovered that the rate at which drugs are released can
be adjusted by modifying the ratio between the monomer and the
method
diluent in the photosensitive resin. They noted that the optimal light
intensity was proportional to two thirds of the projector’s projection
brightness, and the collective light dose needed for a satisfactory degree
Switzerland
of cross-linking varied for each individual resin. They suggested that the
Country
use of artificial intelligence might accelerate the developmental stages

USA
by predicting the 3D printing capability of Printlets prepared by alter

native 3D printing methods. Furthermore, they proposed that VAM
2022
2022
Year
could be combined with non-invasive diagnostics tools or drug moni

toring methods, especially in the form of biosensors, to establish an
adaptive approach for tailored medicines in response to these clinical
Max Kollep
Toombs
Joseph T.
outputs. A potential application for this technology is to be used for

Authors
Table 6
Name
drug-loaded medicine devices, allowing for personalised medicine and

Lead
potentially providing significant improvements in health outcomes

*
15
[58–60]. However, further research is required to investigate the constructs demonstrating liver-specific ammonia detoxification that can
biocompatibility of the reported resin before it can be implemented for be enhanced by the architectural profile of the constructs. The metabolic
larger applications. activity of the organoids was assessed after printing with VBP,
Researchers have demonstrated that bioprinting using VAM, also Extrusion-Based Bioprinting (EBB), and cast Gel-MA, and compared to a
known as Volumetric Bioprinting (VBP), is a powerful tool for bio Matrigel control. The results showed superior viability and undisturbed
fabrication applications. In a study conducted by Bernal et al., entire average size of the VBP-printed organoids, with a significant difference
cell-laden parts with arbitrary sizes and geometries were successfully in the number of dead cells compared to the other processing methods.
printed using VBP within tens of seconds, showcasing its potential for The authors suggest that the preservation of organoids structural sta
the development of large living tissue constructs [61]. Unlike other bility throughout the VBP process results in the rapid acquisition of
point-by-point additive manufacturing technologies, VBP does not polarity markers when the initial differentiation process starts. How
impose any stress-induced cell damage or phenotype alterations, which ever, the authors acknowledged that the interaction between the cells
can occur during extrusion through a nozzle. The study also demon and the delivered multiple tomographic light projections onto a
strated VBPs flexibility of geometrical freedom, by printing a fluidic cell-laden photopolymer remains not entirely clear. This study high
valve inspired by the ball-and-cage cardiac valve prosthesis without the lights the potential of VBP in advancing regenerative medicine and
need for a sacrificial support structure, a feat not possible with other personalised drug testing by demonstrating its capability in creating
additive manufacturing technologies. Upon connection to a fluidic sys organoid-laden constructs that mimic liver function.
tem, the valve showed unidirectional flow, demonstrating functionality. The versatility and adaptability of VAM are further demonstrated in
Additionally, a trabecular bone model constructed from a a study by Qiu et al., where a new type of resin was developed for use
Micro-Computed Tomography (μCT) scan of a bone explant laden with VBP [62]. The resin is based on thiol–ene photo-clickable Polyvinyl
Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) was successfully bio-printed with an Alcohol (PVA) and thermo-sensitive sacrificial gelatin, which produces
interconnected porous network. The smallest feature measured 144.69 non-linear polymerisation behaviour. This approach allows for the rapid
± 13.55 μm. The study showed that using a formulated resin in VBP photofabrication of cell-laden hydrogel constructs within 7–15 seconds.
could safely generate living tissue constructs, which did not impact cell The methodology involves the formulation of resins with varying con
survival, and had no statistically significant difference in the preserva centrations of PVA, gelatin, and photoinitiator. The resins are then
tion of chondroprogenitor cell viability compared to conventional chilled to form gels through physical crosslinking of the sacrificial
hydrogel casting and other well-known bioprinting technologies. This gelatin component, which increases the viscosity of the resin. The
work highlighted the potential for VBP as a powerful and flexible tool for printing was conducted using the commerically accessible Tomolite v1.0
biofabrication applications. Furthermore, the study reports on the po volumetric printer [36]. During post-printing, the constructs are
tential of VAM’s efficient scaling ability, as demonstrated by the fact warmed to room temperature to allow the gelatin to melt and be washed
that a part with a volume of ~0.15 cm3 took 22.7 seconds to print, while out, leaving behind a soft PVA hydrogel construct. The authors
a part scaled up threefold (~4.14 cm3) required the same amount of demonstrated the site-specific immobilisation of molecules-of-interest
time. This is significant as it suggests that VAM has the potential to inside a PVA hydrogel through 3D tomographic thiol–ene photo
efficiently fabricate larger and more complex constructs in a relatively patterning. This technique involves immersing the printed construct in a
short amount of time, which could greatly benefit many applications. solution containing FITC-SH and LAP overnight at 4◦ C, then conducting
Rizzo et al. further demonstrated the versatility of VAM by devel a second printing step to specifically pattern the FITC-SH molecule
oping a new type of photoresin [35]. The developed gelatin-norbornene within the construct. The authors also demonstrate the ability to func
(Gel-NB) photoresin for VBP, demonstrated its application in a tionalise distinct areas of the printed matrices to direct cellular behav
commercially available stand-alone VAM machine (Tomolite, Readily3D iour and tissue development with spatial and temporal precision,
SA [36]). The Gel-NB photoresin was created using photoclick chemistry achieved through the use of the 3D tomographic thiol–ene photo
and a thiolated crosslinker, which involves the use of a photo-initiator, patterning technique. The authors believe this technique could open up
typically in combination with a small molecule such as azide or alkyne, new avenues for fabricating 3D tissue models that mimic biological
to generate highly reactive species under UV light exposure. The kinetics structures, and could pave the way for new innovative applications in
of the photo-click reactions produces non-linear behaviour in the resin, rapid biofabrication of customised 3D tissues and organs constructs for
allowing it to be compatible with VAM. The Gel-NB photoresin exhibits the field of regenerative medicine.
tuneable rheological properties, excellent biocompatibility, and high The potential of VAM in bone tissue engineering is explored in a
cell viability (>95% upon printing, >90% after seven days in culture). study by Gehlen et al. [63]. In their research, they merge a soft gelatin
The resin’s compatibility with the VAM process was optimised using the methacryloyl (GelMA) bioresin with 3D endothelial co- to produce
machine’s "Dose Test" function, which characterises the resin’s photo multi-cellular constructs resembling bone with improved function. The
sensitivity by projecting light into the resin-containing vat and fabri authors formulated and characterised a range of bioresins with different
cating a matrix of dots with varying light dosages. The researchers concentration levels of GelMA and LAP photoinitiator in terms of
successfully created perfusable branch models with low light doses printability, cell-compatibility and photo-reactivity. They identified a
(80–90 mJ cm2^-1) in just 10–11 seconds, with a writing resolution of bioresin with 5% GelMA and 0.05% LAP as the optimal formulation for
200 micrometres and using an VEM optimisation step called OSMO, as VBP enabling the creation of intricate, perfusable constructs in under
discussed early [47]. The low polymer content of Gel-NB (2.5%) 30 seconds while maintaining high cell viability (>90%). The printing is
compared to previous studies (10% Gelatin Methacryloyl (Gel-MA)) and completed with a commercially available Tomolite v1.0 volumetric
the fast printing speed significantly improve the efficiency of the VBP printer [36]. The fidelity of the constructs was validated by
process, making Gel-NB photoresins a promising candidate for future micro-computed tomography and confocal microscopy. The authors
bioprinting applications. discovered that this specially designed bioresin created a softer envi
Researchers have employed VBP to print epithelial liver organoids, ronment that was more conducive to the transformation of human
miniaturised 3D structures that mimic the functions of key organs. In a mesenchymal stem cells into bone cells, a process known as osteogenic
study by Bernal et al., the authors explored ways to improve the optical differentiation. They tracked the expression of specific markers that
properties and printing resolution of a bioresin through the use of indicate the development of bone cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) over
iodixanol, a water-miscible refractive index matching compound, to a period of 42 days. They found that the early markers of osteocytes
reduce scattering and optimise the performance of the bioresin [16]. (mature bone cells) were significantly increased in 3D co-cultures of
This allowed for the printing of complex 3D structures such as a gyroidal human mesenchymal stem cells and human umbilical vein endothelial
construct in under 20 seconds. They successfully created organoid-laden cells after 21 days. This suggests that the 3D environment and the
16
presence of endothelial cells (which line blood vessels) enhanced the explore the full potential of these unique properties of bioinks in various
bone-forming process. The authors also demonstrated the ability of VBP biomedical applications.
to create a model that mimics the structure of a blood vessel, where The future of VAM in the biomedical field is promising, with the
human umbilical vein endothelial cells self-organised into a lining potential to revolutionise personalised medicine, regenerative medicine,
similar to that found in actual blood vessels. This research takes and biofabrication. As our understanding of this technology continues to
advantage of the speed and precision of VBP and the benefits of growing grow, so too will its impact on healthcare and medicine.
different types of cells together in a 3D environment. It offers a prom
ising method for quickly creating 3D bone-like tissues with unprece 5. Discussion
dented functionality. However, the authors acknowledge that the
interplay between the cells and the precisely delivered multiple tomo 5.1. Overview
graphic light projections onto a cell-laden photopolymer is still not fully
understood, and further research is needed to understand the potential In the above section, we have highlighted the literature available in
cytotoxicity mechanisms such as reactive oxygen species during UV this space as well as the achievements and shortcomings of these studies.
irradiation. In this section, we present a summary discussion comparing and con
The use of silk-based bioinks in VAM is another area of interest, as trasting the reported studies in aggregate, on a group level, rather than
demonstrated in a study by Xie et al. [64]. The study focuses on the use individual works.
of two types of silk: silk sericin and silk fibroin. The researchers found In the field of VAM, the first reported system employed the additive
that the silk sericin constructs exhibited properties such as reversible light superposition method. However, a discernible shift towards the
shrinkage and expansion, or shape-memory, after post-fabrication pro Tomographic VAM method has been observed, with a substantial
cessing. This was achieved by immersing the printed constructs in 100% 83.34% of the studies investigated through this review adopting this
ethanol solution for at least 2 hours. Through this procedure, the water approach, these results can seen in Table 8. Several factors might ac
molecules within the constructs were substituted with ethanol mole count for this preference. Tomographic VAM offers advantages such as a
cules, causing changes in the dimensions, opacity, and mechanical comparably straightforward construction, and the existing well-
strength of the constructs. The shrinkage property of the printed established algorithm mathematics derived from the field of computed
construct was reversible, suggesting prospective implementations in tomography.
shape-memory materials, 4D printing, soft robotics, and drug delivery. It was also found that the works being published in this space were
Conversely, the silk fibroin constructs exhibited tunable mechanical from number of geographically dispersed groups. This indicates a global
properties, with their compressive moduli ranging from a few hundred interest in VAM. To date, a total of ten nations have published works in
Pascals (Pa) to almost 250 Megapascals (MPa). This tunability was this domain. Notably, the USA emerges as the predominant contributor,
achieved by manipulating the concentration of silk fibroin in the bio accounting for 40% of the research, closely followed by Switzerland at
resin and the post-printing processing methods. The authors identified 20%, as seen in Table 9.
that the enhanced mechanical performance was because of the forma The increasing interest of research in VAM over the years is evident
tion of a double-crosslinked network, which combined a photo in the increasing number of publications. As shown in Fig. 7, there has
crosslinked di-tyrosine network with the β-sheet domains of the silk been a continued rise in the number of research papers from 2017 to
fibroin. Both types of silk-based bioinks were found to be cytocompat 2022. Notably, 2022 witnessed a major jump in publications, indicating
ible. The researchers also demonstrated the ability of VAM, using a heightened interest and advancements in the field. The data for 2023,
commercially available Tomolite v1.0 volumetric printer, to create although only accounting for publications up to the end of June, already
complex morphologies with these resins, including a hollow triangle suggests a promising continuation of this trend. This assertion is further
construct, H-shaped channels embedded in cubes, a kidney-like supported by Fig. 7, which graphically represents the research output
construct, a tooth-like construct, and a heart-like construct, just to from 2017 to June 2023 and provides a projection into 2024. We have
mention a few [36]. The ability to fabricate such intricate hollow con included a projection for the growth of VAM publications for the
structs could prove particularly beneficial in the creation of vascularized remainder of 2023 and have shown this in Fig. 7. In order to create this
tissues. The study concludes that the use of VAM with silk-based bioinks projection, we have applied an exponential regression on the data
provides a promising path forward due to the unique properties of the spanning 2021 to mid-2023. The developed model demonstrates a good
silk-based bioinks, such as their tunable mechanical performances, fit to the existing data (R2 = 0.999) and forecasts an additional publi
reversible shrinkage and expansion, and high cell viability. However, cation of 14 papers by the end of 2023. Using this model, we were able to
the researchers also note that further research is needed to fully un forecast the cumulative number of VAM publications up to the start of
derstand the potential cytotoxicity mechanisms, the interplay between 2024.
the cells and the precisely delivered multiple tomographic light pro This upward trajectory in research output, combined with the global
jections onto a cell-laden photopolymer, and to explore the full potential interest highlighted by the predominant contributions from countries
of these unique properties of silk-based bioinks in various biomedical like the USA and Switzerland, emphasises the expanding footprint and
applications. potential of VAM in the academic and industrial landscape. However,
These studies presented highlight the transformative potential of while our projections provide a projection of VAM’s growth, other fac
VAM in the biomedical industry. The key benefits demonstrated by these tors could enhance the trajectory of VAM, accelerating its integration
studies include the speed and precision of VAM, its ability to create into various industries faster than anticipated. For instance, innovations
complex and intricate structures, whilst employing a gentle fabrication in technology dissemination, such as industry-wide campaigns and
approach which doesn’t apply any external mechanical forces. The collaborative research initiatives, are poised to further accelerate VAM’s
printing times across these studies range from a mere 7 seconds to just research and application spectrum. Moreover, as the additive
under 80 seconds, as shown in Table 7, highlighting the remarkable manufacturing community continues to explore new materials, energy
efficiency of this technology. VAM has shown its versatility and adapt sources, and VAM-specific software, these innovations could open un
ability in a wide range of applications, such as the fabrication of per foreseen avenues for VAM’s application, further enriching its potential
sonalised medicine to the creation of bone-like tissues and organoid- to revolutionise manufacturing processes and heightening research
laden constructs. However, it’s important to note that while these output.
studies have shown promising results, further research is needed to fully
understand the potential cytotoxicity mechanisms, the interplay be
tween the cells and the delivered tomographic light projections, and to
17
D.J. Whyte et al.
Table 7
Comparative Overview of Resin Formulations for Biomedical Applications using VAM.
Lead Year Country Light dosage Wavelength Light Exposure/ Demonstrated Smallest Vat Resin Ingredients for VAM Post Processing Ref
Authors method (nm) irradiance printing time Printed size Identified Volume
Name power (mW/ (seconds) Feature (µm) (mm)
cm2)
Paulina 2019 The Tomographic 405 N/A 22.70 8.50 × 9.30 mm* *2 144.69 ± 13.55 ⌀ 16.75 *2 GelMA/PBS/LAP Heated to 37◦ C, PBS wash, [61]
Nuñez Netherlands further crosslinking in Ru/
Bernal SPS bath, exposed to 130 lm
lamp
Riccardo 2021 Switzerland Tomographic 405 1–20 11.40–38 ~14 mm^2 × N/A 8.50 × Gel-NB/PEG4SH Heated in warm bath to [35]
Rizzo ~16 mm* 9.30 *2 37◦ C
Lucía 2022 Spain Additive light 385 N/A 17 Torus, ⌀11 mm × N/A 50 × 50 *2 Paracetamol Isopropanol wash (10 s), [57]
Rodríguez- superposition 4 mm, with ⌀3 mm (CH3CONHC6H4OH)/PEGDA UV exposure (375 nm,
Pombo hole 575/ PEGDA 700/PEG 300/LAP/ 20 C, 1 h)
◦
18
ACN
2
Paulina 2022 The Tomographic 405 9.98 17 ⌀5 mm × 2 mm 41.50 ± 2.90 ⌀10 * gelMA / PBS / LAP Heated to 37◦ C, PBS wash, [16]
Nuñez Netherlands positive and 104 365 nm light exposure
Bernal ± 5.50 negative (5 min)
Maobin Xie 2023 USA Tomographic 525 3 80 30 mm x 30 mm* N/A N/A Silk sericin (SS)/Ruthenium (II) Part immersion in ethanol- [64]
hexahydrate (Ru)/Sodium water mix (2–24 h), Left to
persulfate (SPS) dry (72 h)
Jenny Gehlen 2023 Switzerland Tomographic 405 1–32 2–64 5 mm×5 mm* N/A ⌀8 or ⌀18 GelMA / LAP Warmed to 37◦ C (10 min), [63]
transferred to cell culture
media
Wanwan Qiu 2023 Switzerland Tomographic 405 N/A 7–15 N/A 100 ⌀10 nPVA / PEG2SH / LAP Post-cured under 405 nm [62]
LED (5 min)

*
Additive Manufacturing 84 (2024) 104094

Table 8 need for a variety of multidisciplinary skills to work within this space.
Overview of the light dosage methods employed in VAM research papers from While the requirement for a multidisciplinary team is not unique to VAM
2017 to June 2023. as an additive manufacturing method, it is clear that there is a high
Light Dosage Method Used Number of Research Percentage of requirement for collaboration due to the deep interaction between
Papers Total polymer chemistry, optics, and engineering which are critical to suc
Tomographic 25 83.34% cessfully conducting VAM research. While other additive manufacturing
Additive light superposition 3 10% techniques might also have their unique requirements, the complexities
Subtractive light 1 3.34% of VAM’s EDDF production and its distinct fabrication approach place a
superposition
heightened emphasis on the need for these specialised skillsets and
components. As the field of VAM progresses, addressing these multi
disciplinary expertise, specialised material and new equipment chal
Table 9 lenges will be crucial for its broader application and success.
Distribution of research papers on VAM by country, showcasing the top five A difficult step of this review was comparing the produced works
contributing nations from 2017 to June 2023. from different parties, as each party presents different methods of
Country Number of Research Papers Percentage of Total evaluating the produced parts. Thus, for future work, we have identified
USA 12 40% properties that we would recommend be included when presenting
Switzerland 6 20% research results to allow the reader to fully understand how the pre
Canada 3 10% sented work correlates or compares with the existing body of knowledge
The Netherlands 2 6.67%
within the field. The properties found to provide the reader with a good
Denmark 2 6.67%
understanding of the performance, optimisation or novelty of the work
can be found in several of the column’s headings of Table S1, including:
5.2. Current major challenges in VAM light dosage method, wavelength, light irradiance power, exposure/
printing time, demonstrated printed size, smallest identified feature, and
While VAM offers promising advancements in the field of additive non-linearity polymerisation method. Light dosage method, wave
manufacturing, it is not without its challenges. One of the primary length, light irradiance power, and exposure/printing time provide in
challenges is the limited availability of commercial VAM printers. In the formation on how the energy is transferred to the medium being
literature reviewed, the Tomolite v1.0 stands out as the only commercial solidified and therefore is critical for understanding the solidifying
VAM printer mentioned multiple times (in four separate research arti methodology. So far, the only reported medium being used in VAM are
cles), underscoring its prominence in the field [36]. However, its sin photosensitive resins; therefore, these properties are exclusive to light.
gular prominence also highlights a significant gap in the market, with However, this may expand to other medium types in the future, in which
few commercial options available for researchers and industries alike. case appropriate alternatives of these properties would be used.
This limited availability can hinder the widespread adoption and Furthermore, a change in medium may also incorporate a change in
exploration of VAM technologies. energy transmitter, leading to new energy dosage methods as discussed
Beyond the challenge of limited commercial availability, VAM’s earlier. Exposure/printing time, demonstrated printed size, and smallest
intricate methodology further necessitates the use of highly specialised identified feature are significant as they describe the producible attri
equipment and materials. The precision required in producing an EDDF butes of printed parts and can be correlated to other additive
is vital, demanding equipment tailored specifically for this purpose. manufacturing technologies. As the non-linear property of VAM resin
Alongside equipment considerations, the choice of materials, predomi plays a key role in making it possible to initiate photopolymerisation in
nantly photosensitive resins, plays a pivotal role. These resins, especially 3D space, the non-linearity polymerisation method should also be
those with non-linear behaviours, introduce complexities in researching included so that the chemical mechanism can be categorised and
this topic. Their intricate response to the specific light patterns used in compared.
VAM can lead to difficult to predict outcomes during the polymerisation A standout property, not covered in Table S1 due to limited report
process. Such non-linearities demand a deeper understanding and pre ing, is the printing speed range expressed in terms of volume per second
cise formulation to ensure consistent results. This also underscores the (volume printing speed). In traditional additive manufacturing, printing
Fig. 7. A graphical depiction of the cumulative research papers on VAM up to the start of each indicated year, from 2017 through to June 2023. An exponential
forecast, derived from data between 2021 to mid-2023, has a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.999 and projects the anticipated growth in publications into 2024.
19
speed is gauged by the rate at which a part is printed, influenced by advantage in this context by providing greater degrees of light exposure
factors like part size and geometry. However, VAM’s distinct method than additive and subtractive light superposition methods, thereby
ology shifts the focus. Given its volumetric approach, properties like part increasing the likelihood of generating an adequate EDDF. Complicating
size might have a minimal impact on the overall printing time. This this further are opaque or reflective objects that do not completely block
makes volume printing speed a more indicative measure of efficiency. light but instead distort, reflect, or refract it, necessitating their
Providing a range for this speed offers readers insights into the consis consideration in VEM calculations. A potential promising approach to
tency of print time relative to the print size. In addition, as VAM con address these challenges involves integrating an initial step which
tinues to evolve and broaden its applications, there’s an anticipated characterises the printing volume, with the pre-existing volume, utilis
need for a standardised method to describe printing fidelity alongside ing the existing VAM optical configuration, cameras, to be then pro
the volume printing speed range. This could manifest as voxel print cessed in the VEM step, which includes calibration algorithms,
speed, given voxels’ influence on resolution, or another metric that potentially using A.I.
synergises volume printing speed and fidelity. As printing fidelity A notable limitation in the field of VAM is the dependency on
emerges as a sought-after attribute and a point of comparison, its in tailored photosensitive resins, as discussed earlier. This narrow focus on
clusion in VAM research descriptions becomes essential. a particular type of material restricts the versatility of VAM, limiting its
applications. Overcoming this limitation might involve exploring new
5.3. VAM’s edge and future energy dosage methods. While VAM predominantly uses light, exploring
other forms of energy, such as different bands of electromagnetic radi
In this review, we compared the printing times of various VAM ation (like radio waves or microwaves) or even other energy forms like
research studies, expressed in seconds, not minutes or hours. In VAM, a ultrasonics, could pave the way for using a broader range of materials.
10-minute print (600 seconds) is deemed slow, whereas in other AM By diversifying the energy sources, VAM could become compatible with
technologies, it’s considered extremely fast. On average, the printing different mediums, thereby expanding its applicability and addressing
times reported among the reviewed research was a remarkable one of its current major challenges.
85.5 seconds, with a range of 7–900 seconds. This level of speed is even As VAM matures, ensuring its accessibility to a broad range of users
more remarkable when you consider that VAM has been shown to becomes paramount, akin to the trajectories witnessed with other AM
maintain these fast printing times while scaling up the size of the part methods. This involves not only expanding the range of materials and
three times its original volume, breaking the long-held relationship energy sources but also making the technology more accessible and user-
between printing size and time. friendly. A pivotal step in this direction would be the production of
As discussed earlier, VAM has immense potential to assist in the standardised, pre-mixed resins that are readily available and affordable.
advancements of the biomedical industry. A current challenge in bio Such consumables would lower the entry barriers for diverse users
printing is the time it takes other additive manufacturing technologies to without the expertise to develop their own resins. Alongside this,
print the construct, especially when printing large centimetre-scale or developing VAM systems that are compatible to a wider range of pa
high-resolution grafts. The longer printing time imposes significant rameters, such as print volume, resolution, and material characteristics,
stress on cells, impairing their functionality because they are outside of is important to cater to a broader spectrum of applications and user
optimal cell culture environments throughout the printing process. VAM needs. Developing simplified and intuitive software interfaces, that
shows significant promise in biomedicine, thanks to its rapid printing allow for automation of many of the current VAM processes and settings
and absence of exerted forces during the process. Another potential would further enable users from various backgrounds, including small
benefit of VAM for biomedical applications is its printing nature of using businesses, educational institutions, and hobbyists, to adopt VAM
a vat, and therefore being able to control elements such as temperature, technology seamlessly. Finally, standardising practices and protocols
CO2 levels and oxygen restriction more easily and reliably. will play a critical role in ensuring compatibility across different systems
Examining the progression of additive manufacturing methodology, and enhancing user experience, further democratising VAM.
the point-by-point approach constructs objects by sequentially creating Democratising and advancing VAM paves the way for its integration
lines that form layers, culminating in the desired volume. The layer-by- into countless sectors and applications. The current VAM capabilities
layer method simplifies this process, directly forming the object’s vol explored extensively throughout this manuscript have already begun to
ume from these layers without the intermediary step of line formation. unlock a new dimension in the additive manufacturing methodology.
VAM represents a leap forward, eliminating the layering process alto Envisioning the future landscape of VAM, we present a mind map,
gether to fabricate the three-dimensional volume in a singular, contin shown in Fig. 8, illustrating the expansive potential reach of VAM’s
uous operation. Expanding on this the next advancement entails printing capabilities across diverse industries such as optics, biomedical engi
volume-by-volume, a concept referred to as overprinting, a technique neering, pharmaceuticals, and more. These are just some of the potential
demonstrated in studies [50,52]. This process, aptly named, involves applications where VAM’s unique advantages can be leveraged, high
printing over a pre-existing volume, seamlessly integrating new material lighting the technology’s capacity to revolutionise current
with the existing structure. This is achieved by positioning a pre-existing manufacturing methods, and its potential to open doors to new in
volume body within the resin of the build volume, followed by executing novations across various industries. Furthermore, each potential in
the VAM process to print new volumes around it. The pre-existing vol dustry application has been linked to one or more of VAM’s distinct
ume may comprise either a previously printed part or, more intrigu capabilities as an additive manufacturing technology. In the following,
ingly, an external component, device, or item. Expanding this could we highlight the unique capabilities of VAM as well as the capabilities
involve printing volume segments in succession, leading to continuous shared with existing AM methodologies that enable the future projected
volumetric printing. Furthermore, if the resin was changed between industrial impacts outlined in Fig. 8.
prints, it could further produce interesting and novel multi-material Unique Capabilities of VAM:
whole parts. Potentially leading to researching conductive resins to
produce functional devices or producing parts with greater variation • Speed of Production - Significantly faster print times than other AM
and controllable mechanical properties. technologies. The acceleration in production speed could lead to
Nevertheless, there are challenges to this avenue which are required refinement of production cycles and facilitation of real-time
to be overcome. The most obvious obstacle arises from the inability of manufacturing, resulting in reductions in inventory costs and
light to penetrate solid objects, necessitating advanced VEM processes enabling just-in-time production models.
and optical configurations that consider the pre-existing volume within • 3D Layerless Fabrication - Constructs 3D objects in a single contin
the print area. Tomographic VAM, with its rotating vat, offers a potential uous operation, eliminating layer interfaces. This is in contrast to
20
Fig. 8. Envisioning the Future Impact of VAM Across Industries.
other technologies, such as CLIP, which print continuously but bioprinting and materials research, where ambient conditions play a
within two-dimensional planes. The resulting more homogenous critical role in material properties.
parts could pave the way for new applications in various fields
including printing lenses with optical clarity, or improving structural Shared Benefits with Other AM Technologies:
integrity of high-stress applications.
• Overprinting Capability - Incorporates or envelops pre-existing ob • Efficient Material Use - Reduces waste by using only the material
jects within prints for composite structures. This capability is necessary for the part.
particularly transformative for industries aiming to embed elec • Complex Geometry Creation - Enables the creation of complex ge
tronics or sensors directly into parts, revolutionising fields such as ometries not possible with traditional manufacturing.
robotics, IoT and consumer device manufacturing. • Prototyping Agility - Rapidly accelerates prototyping and design
• No Mechanical Interference - No external mechanical forces exerted iteration. This is further heightened due to VAM’s speed of
during printing, preserving the integrity of sensitive or delicate production.
materials. This feature could greatly enhance the development of • Customisation and Personalisation - Offers the flexibility to
biomaterials and soft robotics, where maintaining material proper customise parts per specific requirements.
ties is vital for functionality. • Potential for Multi-Material Printing - Although currently limited,
• Inherent Environmental Control - Enables precise control over holds promise for advanced multi-material capabilities.
printing conditions as there is no need for external components to
enter the vat. Allowing for regulating critical environmental factors 6. Conclusion
such as CO2 levels, oxygen concentration, and pressure, and broaden
the range of materials that can be used, especially in fields like In this paper we present the first review which exclusively focuses on
21
and addressed the entirety of the emerging field of VAM. Our research Data Availability
thoroughly examines the current state of VAM, reviewing 30 research
papers which were used to highlight the advancements, achievements, No data was used for the research described in the article.
and challenges in VAM. We have characterised the technology and
provided a definition of VAM that distinctly differentiates it from other Appendix A. Supporting information
additive manufacturing methods which facilitates a clearer compre
hension of the technology. Additionally, we categorised VAM into three Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
distinct categories based on their ’light dosage methods’, offering a online version at doi:10.1016/j.addma.2024.104094.
structured approach to the various methodologies within the field.
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Additive Manufacturing 84 (2024) 104094

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Volumetric additive manufacturing: A new frontier in layer-less 3D printing

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a high-level overview of a general VAM system.

Monovoxel printing, as described by Sanders et al. [30], involves a 3. Review criteria

Fig. 2. Flow diagram of structured literature search methodology.

4.3. Tomographic volumetric additive manufacturing 4.4. Refinements of VAM methods

• Distortion refers to the alteration of the light waveform, which can

acetone, additional 405 nm UV

(15 min), vacuum chamber

Twice rinsed with 50◦ C

Isopropyl alcohol soak

The studies presented in this section primarily focus on correcting

In Tomographic VAM, lensing distortions created by the cylindrical

vial of the vat are typically mitigated using an index-matching bath or a

cylindrical lens. A 2021work by Orth et al. proposes a computational

employ a Radon-space resampling technique, derived from detailed

non-telecentric projection. Their simulations indicate that this

immersed in an index-matching bath. The study also demonstrates that

ignoring lensing distortion can cause severe deformation of the applied

non-telecentric ray distortion correction.

In a subsequent study, building on the findings of their 2021 work,

to produce repeatable and accurate printing results, the optimal expo­

must be known and accounted for in VAM. The developed method,

indexes of the liquid monomer and the solid polymer as an optical

contrast mechanism, enabling subsequent tomographic reconstruction

and, therefore, real-time geometry monitoring of the part being fabri­

recently reported high fidelity, index-matched VAM systems in terms of

optimised energy delivery method was demonstrated using methacry­

or no change in refraction index during polymerisation. In contrast to

caused by the refractive index mismatch between the liquid monomer

The distortion and attenuation of light when it passes through the

resin, especially for low optically translucent resins, is a current chal­

lenge faced with VAM. Madrid-Wolff et al. addressed this issue by

information to develop a correcting algorithm (called a mask) that

Wiped clean, heated to 75◦ C (120 min).

Sonication in isopropyl alcohol (3 min)

temperature, 405 nm UV exposure

(10–20 min), air-dried at room

Isopropyl alcohol immersion

(120 min) at 60◦ C.

SR399 / PRO21905 / 0.60 mm phenyl

phosphine oxide / TiO2 nanoparticles

DUDMA / BPAGDA / Ebecryl 8413

bis (2,4,6-trimethyl benzoyl)

resin itself, developing a method that counteracts light scattering and

increases printing fidelity in complex non-transparent resins, particu­

et al.’s and Madrid-Wolff et al.’s methods is limited by certain factors,

offering unique improvements to address the challenges associated with

4.4.3. Optimising optical configuration and exposure

various methods have been developed to fine-tune these components

and their configurations.

of low-etendue within the optical configuration and a novel low-etendue

high-resolution structures, such as suspended structures of 80 µm, and

hollow structures of 500 µm, in 25 seconds or less. The approach allows

for high-resolution printing of complex structures in a short time.

However, the use of low-etendue reduces the optical volume exposure

SR399 Sartomer/ phenyl bis(2,4,6-trimethyl

diacrylate / Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate

to produce repeatable and accurate printing results, the optimal expo

and, therefore, real-time geometry monitoring of the part being fabri

optimised energy delivery method was demonstrated using methacry

resin, especially for low optically translucent resins, is a current chal

increases printing fidelity in complex non-transparent resins, particu

increasing potential of out-of-part solidification and in-part non-

optimisation process, achieving high-resolution prints but with limita

optical exposure, reducing striations but potentially impacting dimen

Resin formulation for VAM is a sophisticated process as the meth

However, the sensitivity to inhibitor distribution introduces an addi

viability, the researchers printed thermally actuated self-standing tri

study demonstrated that glass transition temperatures could be pro

each SMP formulation’s distinct reaction would need to be charac