8 Motivations For Volunteering Time With Older Adults
8 Motivations For Volunteering Time With Older Adults
8 Motivations For Volunteering Time With Older Adults
RESEARCH ARTICLE
a1111111111
a1111111111
a1111111111 Abstract
a1111111111
a1111111111 Improved health, wellbeing and quality of life are associated with older adults living well at
home. Enabling older adults to remain at home requires organisations to consider different
workforce models to support these initiatives. Volunteers are often used by organisations
providing such services. However, given the changing nature of the volunteer industry, vol-
unteer recruitment and retention practices must be better understood. This study sought to
OPEN ACCESS
understand individuals’ motivations to volunteer in aged care home support. Eighteen volun-
Citation: Same A, McBride H, Liddelow C, Mullan
teers were recruited from not-for-profit aged support organisations in Perth, Western Austra-
B, Harris C (2020) Motivations for volunteering
time with older adults: A qualitative study. PLoS lia. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, and five themes were thematically
ONE 15(5): e0232718. https://doi.org/10.1371/ interpreted: What’s Important to Me?, Learning and Growth, Somewhere to Belong, Meet
journal.pone.0232718 Me in the Middle, and Not Just a Number. Fulfilling volunteers’ desires for interest, social
Editor: Heidi H. Ewen, University of Indianapolis, connection, self-growth, recognition, and support appeared conducive to positive volunteer-
UNITED STATES ing experiences. These findings may suggest avenues to capture and retain volunteers in
Received: December 17, 2019 aged care home support.
Accepted: April 20, 2020
Competing interests: The authors have declared volunteer numbers in residential care per fortnight (1,276 more volunteers) from 2012 to
that no competing interests exist. 2016. Conversely, there has been a decrease in both the number of volunteers per fortnight
(14, 850 less volunteers) and the overall number of hours volunteered per fortnight (51, 842
less hours) in home care and support services from 2012 to 2016 [5].
Recent changes in social context, such as longer working hours, dual-income households,
and reduced opportunities for holidays [6,7] has made engagement in volunteering less feasi-
ble for the majority of people. As of 2014, it was estimated that 31% of Australian adults
engaged in formal voluntary work within a structured organisation, a slight drop from 2010
when approximately 34% of Australian adults volunteered [8]. Previous research has shown
particular groups within the community are more likely to volunteer compared to others. For
example, females are more likely to volunteer compared to males [8] and similarly those with a
bachelor’s degree or higher are more likely to engage in voluntary activities than those without
such qualifications. Although understanding which groups in society are more likely to engage
in volunteering is beneficial, it does not always aid in successful recruitment and long-term
retention of volunteers. Research suggests that motivations are the most important factor in
both the initiation and maintenance of volunteering behaviour [9–12].
The most common approach to exploring the motivations of volunteers is the functionalist
approach [13]. The functionalist approach of volunteer motivations [14,15] was developed
using quantitative methods, and focuses on both the social and personal functions of volun-
teering behaviour, which are contributed to by the individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions.
The underlying assumption of the theory is that people volunteer in order to fulfil underlying
social and psychological functions [14]. Prior research has found that people volunteering in
similar roles may have different underlying motivations for engagement. For instance, across a
range of studies involving volunteers from health, social outreach, disaster relief, and univer-
sity settings, Clary and colleagues [15] identified several key motivations underlying volunteer-
ing; protective, values, career, social, understanding and enhancement. Protective motivations
are described as those which protect the ego from negatively perceived aspects of the self, such
as by reducing guilt experienced via realising others’ disadvantage [15]. Values-oriented moti-
vations are present where a person volunteers as a vehicle for expressing or enacting their own
personal values, often aligned with benefitting others, or altruism [15]. People may also volun-
teer due to career-related motivations, where individuals perceive volunteering as beneficial in
gaining industry-specific experiences, skills, or contacts [15]. Social motives may be served by
volunteering, in that individuals may have the opportunity to spend time with others or build
new relationships and social networks [15]. Volunteering may also be motivated by a desire to
engage with new experiences, learning, or skills-building, as described by the Clary and col-
leagues’ understanding function [15]. Finally, enhancement motivations encapsulate those
wherein a person volunteers due to self-oriented reasons, such as self-development or self-
esteem [15].
Following on from this research, Stukas and colleagues [16] found that sporting volunteers
reported their primary motivation to be either social engagement, or enhancement and self-
growth. Thus, understanding individual motives for voluntary engagement is important for
both initiating and maintaining volunteers. Volunteering motives have primarily been
explored using quantitative methods, such as with Clary and colleagues’ research [see 9,16–
19]. However, some qualitative studies have successfully identified and developed different
typologies and theoretical insights by interviewing volunteers [20,21]. Previous qualitative
studies have suggested that further qualitative research with volunteers is needed to identify
motives not otherwise captured using quantitative methods [22], and thus build on the existing
literature on volunteer motivations.
Although studies have previously identified motives across various volunteering sectors
[see 22–24], research exploring the motives for volunteering in aged care organisations is lim-
ited. Existing research in aged care volunteering primarily focusses on the psychological and
physical benefits for older adults who volunteer [25–27], or the experiences of older adult vol-
unteers who engage in both informal and formal volunteering [28,29], rather than the reasons
individuals volunteer in the aged care sector.
Method
Overview
This research used a qualitative research design, wherein semi-structured interviews were
employed to gather contextually rich data from interviewees. Volunteer interviewees were
recruited through social media advertisements, contact with volunteer agencies and via snow-
ball sampling by explicitly asking interviewees if any of their friends or colleagues came to
mind for participation in the study. Researchers adhered to methodological guidelines by
Braun and Clarke [30] throughout the collection of qualitative data and thematic analysis of
interview transcripts. Ethical approval was obtained from the University’s Human Research
Ethics Committee (HRE2017-0861).
Participants
The researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with a total of 18 participants, with
both current volunteers (N = 11) and recently exited volunteers (N = 7) from a Perth aged care
home support service organisation. A total of 7 males and 11 females were interviewed, rang-
ing from 23–79 years of age, with one month of volunteering experience to 16 years with their
organisation. Almost all interviewees were living in the Perth Metropolitan area, with one par-
ticipant from regional Western Australia. Twelve interviewees were retired, three unemployed
but seeking work, one unemployed under other circumstances (e.g. medical), one was both
working and studying, and another was working full-time. Current and previous volunteers
had primarily volunteered in such settings as gardening, home maintenance, at-home help ser-
vices, transport, office settings, and shopping and other outings. Participants had the choice to
be interviewed either in person or over the phone. To be eligible for the study interviewees
needed to be currently residing in Western Australia, over the age of 18 years, and engaged in
a current volunteer role or have recently exited a volunteering role in an aged care home sup-
port service.
psychologists and occupational therapists with prior experience in studies on the topic of vol-
unteering. To best investigate diverse factors around volunteering, the questionnaire aimed to
explore three primary areas; volunteer motives, volunteer experiences, and volunteer thoughts
and appraisals of volunteering, with example questions including “What were your motiva-
tions or reasons for volunteering?”, “Why did you choose this service e.g. gardening, transpor-
tation, home care?”, and “Can you tell me about why you chose this organisation to volunteer
with?”.
It has previously been suggested that data saturation can occur within a minimum of 12
interviews [31], but that heterogeneity among the sample can influence this number. Given
this, 15 interviews were conducted over the phone, and three face to face. After obtaining
informed consent either digitally or in-person, researchers asked volunteers questions from
the semi-structured interview guide, utilising prompts and additional questions to explore
points of personal relevance and interest to each interviewee.
With consent to participate given orally, interviews were recorded by the interviewer and
later transcribed verbatim in preparation for analysis. Interviews ran for approximately 35–45
minutes each. Any names or other identifying information were redacted from transcripts
throughout the transcription process and pseudonyms have been used throughout.
Data analysis
Volunteer interviews were thematically analysed by researchers two and three using an induc-
tive thematic analysis approach, following the six guidelines proposed by Braun and Clarke
[30]. An inductive thematic analysis is where the analysis is grounded in the data rather than
from existing theories. Each transcript was approached with a preliminary read-through for
researcher familiarisation with the data by two researchers. Both researchers then interpreted
analytic codes, line-by-line, from the transcribed interviews. These codes were further refined
into latent codes, and then into themes and subthemes to better capture the underlying ideas
of each dataset. This process was repeated for each transcript until no further themes could be
interpreted from the data, and thematic saturation was reached [32]. Throughout analysis,
researchers conducted some coding independently and some in collaborative meetings, in the
interest of researcher triangulation. If disagreements arose during the process of theme identi-
fication, they were resolved through collaborative discussion between researchers. Once con-
sensus had been reached regarding the identification and segmentation of themes, themes
were collaboratively named and defined, and further reviewed by the rest of the team. Themes
were sent to other team members for review and feedback. This was done to strengthen
dependability by ensuring no radical interpretations, and to reduce potential researcher bias.
Relevant quotes were selected from a diverse range of the analysed transcripts to add further
depth to the themes interpreted from the data [30].
Quality procedures
To ensure quality and rigour in the current study as well as to allow triangulation, a team of
researchers divided the transcripts for analysis and met multiple times throughout this process.
The engagement in such confirmability processes aimed to reduce any subjectivity or bias in
the researcher’s interpretations and analysis of the data, increasing trustworthiness [33]. To
increase dependability, the researchers involved in data collection participated in reflexive
journaling, after each interview, to reflect on their own social position and how potential per-
sonal biases may influence the research process [34]. Additionally, the researchers involved in
data analysis journaled any broader ideas or concepts which appeared pertinent in relation to
underlying themes throughout the data. Although the sample was from one not-for-profit
organisation in a singular city, which may limit generalisability, the diverse age range, occupa-
tion and time engaged in volunteering allows for findings to be generalisable to wider
populations.
Findings
The analysis revealed that volunteers in one Perth aged care home support service organisation
expressed motives that were found to align with five key themes: What’s Important to Me?,
Learning and Growth, Somewhere to Belong, Meet Me in the Middle, and Not Just a Number.
Somewhere to belong
Interviewees expressed that opportunities to meet others, engage socially, and become part of
a community were important elements of the volunteer experience. When discussing some
initial reasons for volunteering, Nancy said “I also wanted to participate in the community was
the main reason. Just be part of the community I lived in and to help people.”. Whilst for
Nancy it seems like finding a broader sense of community was an initial motive, for others it
appeared to be a potentially unexpected yet enjoyable part of their volunteer role and subse-
quently the volunteer continuing their role. This can be seen when Suzanne, Muhammad, Tao
and, Daniel noted similar experiences “I’m starting to go to social. I would recommend it
because if they loved going out and meeting new people or doing stuff or if they just want to
like join a group, it’s nice to have people that you can talk to.”.
It was noted by some interviewees that volunteering could be an opportunity in which to
meet others with similar interests. One interviewee, Charlie, highlighted their positive social
experiences through volunteering where they noted “I do like the volunteering thing and it’s
kind of nice to get out and it helps to meet people and like-minded people.”. Thus, some par-
ticipants may perceive volunteering as a positive environment in which to foster meaningful
connections with others, built on a foundation of commonality and comradery. Interviewees
also spoke positively of group social events planned by their organisation. This is seen, for
instance, when Maria recalled “. . .all the depots used to get together, and we’d have a central
breakfast in a big hall or something. Then it got down to–we’d just have a get-together in May
of every depot.”. On finding a common time to suit many volunteers in a large organisation,
Victor noted “Even if it’s only an hour or one day a month. The hardest thing is trying to get
everybody together. But I don’t think that should stop it happening.”. Although Victor appears
to empathise with difficulties in planning larger events, having access to social opportunities is
still valued and is perhaps a criterion for many volunteers when selecting an organisation to
volunteer under. Where an organisation seeks to plan these social opportunities, it may serve
to foster an organisational ethos which mirrors volunteers’ own values of teamwork and com-
munity. Thus, in instances where an organisation makes the effort to plan social events, volun-
teers may feel as though their organisation hears their feedback and understands what is
important to them.
The only challenge that I had personally was because I don’t drive, I found it a bit of challenge
to get from where I’m living to the venue—to get from the venue and to get home again.
Because although it’s on bus route, it’s in not a very nice area.
more feasible when not impinging on other areas of participants’ lives, offering volunteers the
opportunity to volunteer when it is suitable for them.
. . .just even a text like on the day. Like not me just having to call up. If they’d just say ‘Oh,
you know,’ because literally all I’d do is say ‘What run are we going to be on tomorrow?’ and
that’s it. Like they could literally just send me a text and then I’d know because I spoke to
them.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the motivations of individuals who volunteer their
time with aged care home support services. The findings of the present study indicate there are
a wide variety of motivations that underlie initial engagement in aged care home support vol-
unteering roles, as well as the continued engagement of volunteers in this setting. It appears
these findings align with some of Clary and Snyder’s [15] volunteer functions, such as ‘values’,
‘understanding’, ‘enhancement’, and ‘social’ motives. Although conceptualised as a single
overarching theme in this analysis, paradigms of skill acquisition and personal development
captured by the theme ‘Learning and Growth’ appear consistent with Clary and Snyder’s [15]
functions of ’understanding’, where one might seek to develop knowledge related to new skills,
and ‘enhancement’, which describes personal and psychological growth. Similarly, topics of
personal importance addressed in the theme ‘What’s Important to Me?’ appear to share char-
acteristics with the function of ‘values’ posited by Clary and Snyder [15]. In addition, parallels
can be drawn between the theme ‘Somewhere to Belong’, and Clary and Snyder’s [15] ‘social’
function, both of which highlight the importance of building social connections and finding a
sense of community.
Despite these similarities, the present research differentiates itself from Clary and Snyder’s
[15] theory by identifying important external motives for volunteering. Such examples include
the theme ‘Meet Me in the Middle’, regarding the accessibility of nearby volunteering opportu-
nities, and the importance of organisation and consumer recognition described by ‘Not Just a
Number’. These themes both appear to describe factors which are external to the volunteer;
although expressed in terms of volunteer need, these themes describe elements of the volun-
teering experience which can be determined by the organisation through culture and policy.
Primary differences in the findings of the present study and the functionalist approach could
perhaps be attributed to a cultural shift; since the creation and refinement of the functionalist
approach, the needs and attitudes of volunteers may have shifted, as well as the demands of the
settings, roles, and organisations with which volunteers are now engaging.
The motivations found by the present study appear to align more with egoistic motives,
rather than altruistic attitudes. This finding is not uncommon in the literature, with previous
research also identifying egoistic motives for volunteering engagement being more pertinent
than altruistic motives [35,36]. Specifically, volunteers may now hold preconceived expecta-
tions around receiving something in return for their efforts [37]. Altruistic motivations may
bear relevance where an individual holds such humanitarian values as improving the welfare
or livelihood of others, with no anticipated gain of their own; the theme ‘What’s Important to
Me?’ may capture some aspects of altruism, dependent on the individual’s own values and
interests. However, the primary themes interpreted in the present research perhaps sway
toward egoism, where volunteers were seen to express desire for or satisfaction of fulfilment in
such areas as social engagement, skills building, and fostering interest. This dichotomy
between altruistic and egoistic motives provides an avenue for future research in aged care
home support volunteers, such that further understanding of the underlying attitudes may
provide implications for changes in volunteering policy and marketing.
Research by Son and Wilson [38] posited that increases in self-esteem encouraged volun-
teers to remain in their position for a longer stretch of time. This notion was echoed in the
present research in the theme Learning and Growth, such that it appears that the positive
impacts of volunteering on self-efficacy and self-confidence are recognised by volunteers as
valuable by-products of the volunteering experience. Similarly, elements of social connected-
ness and community discussed in the theme Somewhere to Belong have been highlighted as
salient factors in volunteers staying in roles over time [38,39]. The notion of volunteers being
recognised as individuals by their overarching organisation, as discussed in the theme Not Just
a Number, is supported by Phillips and Phillips [35] whose research suggested that opportuni-
ties for communication from a diverse range of the organisation’s volunteers could help indi-
viduals feel heard by their organisation.
Further, the findings of this study, when considered within a broader context of the existing
research into volunteer motives, may ultimately suggest that the motivations of volunteers
across diverse volunteering settings may be underpinned by similar foundational principles.
Given the diversity of volunteering settings (e.g. sporting, environmental, disability, aged
home care), it may simply be that finding ways to fulfil volunteers’ motivations and needs
must be adapted across different contexts [40].
Implications
Across aged care home support volunteering contexts, volunteers may be more attracted to
organisations offering a range of roles, such as outdoor volunteer positions in gardening and
transport, or indoor roles like shopping assistance or general support. Thus, organisations
should promote the choice of roles they can offer to prospective volunteers. Similarly, aged
care home support services should consider highlighting in marketing material how volunteer-
ing provides benefits, in attempts to appeal to the egoistic motives expressed by a number of
their volunteers. Advertisements that attempt to appeal to egoistic motives (e.g. advertising
“get your foot in the door”) may be a viable option. Organisations may also consider meeting
with current volunteers to ensure their volunteering goals and motivations are being fulfilled
by the organisation, such as CV-building or social engagement. Such strategies may aid in vol-
unteer retention in ensuring a mutually beneficial relationship between volunteer and organi-
sation. It may be that policy makers and volunteering organisations consider providing more
opportunities for volunteers to benefit themselves, as purely altruistic behaviour seems to be
less important in today’s busy and time-poor society [35,36].
To further both recruitment and retention of egoistically motivated volunteers, organisa-
tions might invest in upskilling volunteers in a range of areas useful to both the role and the
individual outside of their volunteering position. Advertising the availability of workshops or
certificates, such as first aid, manual handling courses, specialised driving for transport volun-
teers, or training in use of equipment, may show volunteers and prospective volunteers that
the organisation is willing to invest in and support them, whilst also providing a two-way bene-
fit between individual and organisation.
The findings also suggest that opportunities for individuals to engage in large-scale social
events with other volunteers are an important part of the volunteering experience. It may be
that such events foster greater feelings of community and belonging for volunteers and could
perhaps build a stronger volunteer network. Organisations should consider arranging regular
social events, which may encourage existing volunteers to stay involved with the organisation
long term, knowing they are able to engage socially with a community of like-minded individ-
uals. Similarly, in the interest of retention, recognition of volunteer efforts through certificates,
awards ceremonies, ‘employee of the month’ nominations, and other such incentives may cre-
ate a culture where volunteers feel appreciated, and further strive to perform, potentially at lit-
tle cost to the organisation and its consumers. Finally, none of these recommendations are
achievable without organisations taking the time to consider the unique perspectives of their
volunteer workforce. Opening channels for feedback and communication may address volun-
teers’ desires to feel heard, whilst also cultivating a deeper understanding of what volunteers
within a specific setting may need.
Conclusion
In the context of an ageing population and healthcare systems unequipped to support that
growth, the present research sought to understand motivations underlying volunteers in aged
care home support settings, in the interest of beginning to discern what might be needed to
grow an efficient and viable volunteer workforce. Interviews with current or recently exited
volunteers identified five primary areas of importance for volunteering: What’s Important to
Me?, Learning and Growth, Somewhere to Belong, Meet Me in the Middle, and Not Just a
Number. In instances where some or all of these needs were cited as being met, interviewees
seemed to speak more positively to experiences of volunteering, and noted intentions to either
continue volunteering, or re-engage if they had recently left a role. Conversely, those who
reported negative outcomes across these five broader areas appeared to express less satisfaction
and willingness to continue in their position. It is imperative to find ways to successfully
recruit and retain volunteers in aged home support contexts, in the interest of developing a
strong and skilled volunteer work force in this area. Through this, the volunteer industry can
effectively support ageing in place by improving the health, wellbeing and quality of life of
older adults, whilst simultaneously reducing burden on existing healthcare systems.
Supporting information
S1 Data.
(PDF)
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Hannah McBride, Caitlin Liddelow, Barbara Mullan.
Formal analysis: Hannah McBride, Caitlin Liddelow.
Funding acquisition: Anne Same, Courtenay Harris.
Investigation: Anne Same.
References
1. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Demographic Statistics June 2016 (cat. no. 3101.0). Can-
berra; 2017.
2. Harrington M, Jolly R. The crisis in the caring workforce. Parliamentary Library Briefing Book, Parlia-
ment of Australia. 2017.
3. Department of Health. Commonwealth Home Support Programme. 2019.
4. Aged Care Financing Authority. Sixth report on the funding and financing of the aged care sector—July
2018. 2018.
5. Mavromaras K, Knight G, Isherwood L, Crettenden A, Flavel J, Karmel T, et al. 2016 National Aged
Care Workforce Census and Survey–The aged care workforce. 2017.
6. Pocock B. The Effect of Long Hours on Family and Community Life. Brisbane; 2001.
7. Sathyanarayana Rao TS, Indla V. Work, family or personal life: Why not all three? Indian J Psychiatry.
2010; 52(4):295–7. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.74301 PMID: 21267360
8. Australian Bureau of Statistics. General Social Survey: Summary Results, Australia, 2014 (cat.no.
4159.0). Canberra; 2015.
9. Chacon F, Gutierrez G, Sauto V, Vecina ML, Perez A. Volunteer Functions Inventory: A systematic
review. Psicothema. 2017; 29(3):306–16. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.371 PMID:
28693699
10. Chacón F, Vecina ML, Dávila MC. The three-stage model of volunteers duration of service. Soc Behav
Personal an Int J. 2007; 35(5):627–42.
11. Omoto AM, Snyder M. Sustained Helping Without Obligation: Motivation, Longevity of Service, and Per-
ceived Attitude Change Among AIDS Volunteers. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995; 68(4):671–86. https://doi.
org/10.1037//0022-3514.68.4.671 PMID: 7738770
12. Garner JT, Garner LT. Volunteering an opinion: Organizational voice and volunteer retention in non-
profit organizations. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2011; 40(5):813–28.
13. Gage RL, Thapa B. Volunteer Motivations and Constraints Among College Students. Nonprofit Volunt
Sect Q. 2012; 41(3):405–30.
14. Clary EG, Snyder M, Ridge R. Volunteers’ motivations: A functional strategy for the recruitment, place-
ment, and retention of volunteers. Nonprofit Manag Leadersh. 1992; 2(4):333–50. https://doi.org/10.
1002/nml.4130020403 PMID: 10119110
15. Clary EG, Snyder M, Ridge RD, Copeland J, Stukas AA, Haugen J, et al. Understanding and assessing
the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998; 74(6):1516–30. https://
doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1516 PMID: 9654757
16. Stukas AA, Hoye R, Nicholson M, Brown KM, Aisbett L. Motivations to Volunteer and Their Associations
With Volunteers’ Well-Being. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2016; 45(1):112–32.
17. Agostinho D, Paço A. Analysis of the motivations, generativity and demographics of the food bank vol-
unteer. Int J Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark. 2012; 261(17):249–61.
18. Dávila MC, Dı́az-Morales JF. Age and motives for volunteering: Further evidence. Eur J Psychol. 2009;
5(2).
19. Greenslade JH, White KM. The prediction of above regular participation in volunteerism: A test of the
theory of planned behaviour and the volunteers functions inventory. J Soc Psychol. 2005; 145(2):155–
72. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.145.2.155-172 PMID: 15816345
20. Rehberg W. Altruistic individualists: Motivations for international volunteering among young adults in
Switzerland. Voluntas. 2005; 16(2):109–22.
21. Yeung AB. The octagon model of volunteer motivation: Results of a phenomenological analysis. Volun-
tas. 2004; 15(1):21–46.
22. Chacón F, Pérez T, Flores J, Vecina ML. Motives for volunteering: Categorization of volunteers ‘ motiva-
tions using open-ended questions. Psychosoc Interv. 2010; 15(1):48–56.
23. Welty Peachey J, Lyras A, Cohen A, Bruening JE, Cunningham GB. Exploring the Motives and Reten-
tion Factors of Sport-For-Development Volunteers. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2014; 43(6):1052–69.
24. Güntert ST, Neufeind M, Wehner T. Motives for Event Volunteering: Extending the Functional
Approach. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2015; 44(4):686–707.
25. Anderson ND, Damianakis T, Kröger E, Wagner LM, Dawson DR, Binns MA, et al. The benefits associ-
ated with volunteering among seniors: A critical review and recommendations for future research. Psy-
chol Bull. 2014; 140(6):1505–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037610 PMID: 25150681
26. Van Willigen M. Differential Benefits of Volunteering Across the Life Course. Journals Gerontol Ser B
Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2000; 55(5):S308–18.
27. Griep Y, Hanson LM, Vantilborgh T, Janssens L, Jones SK, Hyde M. Can volunteering in later life
reduce the risk of dementia? A 5-year longitudinal study among volunteering and non-volunteering
retired seniors. PLoS One. 2017; 12(3):e0173885. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173885 PMID:
28301554
28. Van Dijk HM, Cramm JM, Nieboer AP. The experiences of neighbour, volunteer and professional sup-
port-givers in supporting community dwelling older people. Heal Soc Care Community. 2013; 21
(2):150–8.
29. Celdrán M, Serrat R, Villar F, Pinazo S, Solé C. The Experiences of Retired Managers Acting as Volun-
teers in an Entrepreneurial Mentoring Organization. J Popul Ageing. 2018; 11(1):67–81.
30. Braun V, Clarke V. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006; 3(May 2015):77–
101.
31. Guest G, Bunce A, Johnson L. How Many Interviews Are Enough?: An Experiment with Data Saturation
and Variability. Field methods. 2006; 18(1):59–82.
32. Creswell JW. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Qualitative
Health Research. 1998.
33. Lincoln YS, Guba EGEG. Establishing Trustworthiness. In: Naturalistic Inquiry. 1985.
34. Guillemin M, Gillam L. Ethics, reflexivity, and “Ethically important moments” in research. Qual Inq.
2004; 10(2):261–80.
35. Phillips L, Phillips M. Altruism, Egoism, or Something Else: Rewarding Volunteers Effectively and
Affordably. South Bus Rev. 2011; 36(1):23–35.
36. Bussell H, Forbes D. Developing relationship marketing in the voluntary sector. J Nonprofit Public Sect
Mark. 2006; 7(3):244–57.
37. Walker A, Accadia R, Costa BM. Volunteer retention: The importance of organisational support and psy-
chological contract breach. J Community Psychol. 2016; 44(8):1059–69.
38. Son J, Wilson J. Volunteer Work and Hedonic, Eudemonic, and Social Well-Being. Sociol Forum. 2012;
27(3):658–81.
39. Haivas S, Hofmans J, Pepermans R. “What Motivates You Doesn’t Motivate Me”: Individual Differences
in the Needs Satisfaction-Motivation Relationship of Romanian Volunteers. Appl Psychol. 2014; 63
(2):326–43.
40. Millette V, Gagné M. Designing volunteers’ tasks to maximize motivation, satisfaction and performance:
The impact of job characteristics on volunteer engagement. Motiv Emot. 2008; 32(1):11–22.