Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

EN PHYS 1 – PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Subject Instructor: Engr. Frances Angelique T. Ubana
Module No. & Title: 10a. Fluids
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10a. Fluids
Outline of Topics
1. Density and Specific Gravity
2. Pressure
3. Buoyancy and Surface Tension

Specific Intended Learning Outcome/s (SILOs)

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:
• Determine the density and specific gravity of a body
• Understand what is meant by pressure and how it is measured
• Calculate the buoyant force that a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it

A fluid is any substance that can flow; we use the term for both liquids and gases. We usually think of a gas
as easily compressed and a liquid as nearly incompressible, although there are exceptional cases. We begin
our study with fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium situations. Like other equilibrium
situations, it is based on Newton’s first and third laws. We will explore the key concepts of density, pressure,
and buoyancy.

Lesson 1: Density and Specific Gravity

Density

An important property of any material is its density, defined as its mass per unit volume. A homogeneous
material such as ice or iron has the same density throughout. We use  (the Greek letter rho) for density. If
a mass m of homogeneous material has volume V, the density is

Two objects made of the same material have the same density even though they may have different masses
and different volumes. That’s because the ratio of mass to volume is the same for both objects. The SI unit
of density is the kilogram per cubic meter (1kg/m3) The cgs unit, the gram per cubic centimeter is also widely
used:

The densities of some common substances at ordinary temperatures are given in Table 1. Note the wide
range of magnitudes. The densest material found on earth is the metal osmium but its density pales by
comparison to the densities of exotic astronomical objects such as white dwarf stars and neutron stars.

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Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water at 4.0C (1000kg/m3); it is a
pure number without units. For example, the specific gravity of aluminum is 2.7.

Example Problem 1.1

Find the mass and weight of the air at 20°C in a living room with a 4.0m x 5.0m floor and a ceiling 3.0 m high,
and the mass and weight of an equal volume of water.

Solution:

Example Problem 1.2

The body of a man whose weight is 690 N contains about 5.2x10-3m3 (5.5 qt) of blood.
a) Find the blood’s weight and;
b) express it as a percentage of the body weight.

Solution:
a)

b)

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Lesson 2: Pressure
When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force
perpendicular to any surface in contact with it, such as a
container wall or a body immersed in the fluid. This is the force
that you feel pressing on your legs when you dangle them in a
swimming pool. While the fluid as a whole is at rest, the
molecules that make up the fluid are in motion; the force exerted
by the fluid is due to molecules colliding with their surroundings.

We define the pressure p as the normal force per unit area—that

is, the ratio of ⅆ𝐹⊥ to dA:

If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then

Where ⅆ𝐹⊥ is the net normal force on one side of the surface. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, where 1
Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Two related units, used principally in meteorology, are the bar, equal to and the
105 Pa and the millibar, equal to 100 Pa.

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at the bottom of this sea of air
in which we live. This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure
at sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm), defined to be exactly 101,325 Pa. To four
significant figures,

In everyday language the words “pressure” and “force” mean pretty much the same thing. In fluid mechanics,
however, these words describe distinct quantities with different characteristics. Fluid pressure acts
perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence pressure has no
intrinsic direction of its own; it’s a scalar. By contrast, force is a vector with a definite direction. Remember,
too, that pressure is force per unit area. A surface with twice the area has twice as much force exerted on it
by the fluid, so the pressure is the same.

Example Problem 2.1

In the room described in Example 1.1, what is the total downward force on the floor due to an air pressure of
1.00 atm?

Solution:

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Example Problem 2.2

Suppose that the pressure acting on the back of a swimmer’s hand is

1.2x105 Pa, a realistic value near the bottom of the diving end of a pool.
The surface area of the back of the hand is 8.4x10-3m2. a) Determine the
magnitude of the force that acts on it. b) Discuss the direction of the force.

Solution:

a)

b) In the figure, the hand (palm downward) is oriented parallel to the

bottom of the pool. Since the water pushes perpendicularly
against the back of the hand, the force is directed downward in
the drawing. This downward-acting force is balanced by an upward-acting force on the palm, so that
the hand is in equilibrium. If the hand were rotated by 90, the directions of these forces would also
be rotated by 90, always being perpendicular to the hand.

Pressure, Depth and Pascal’s Law

If the weight of the fluid can be neglected, the pressure in a fluid is

the same throughout its volume. We used that approximation in our
discussion of bulk stress and strain. But often the fluid’s weight is not
negligible. Atmospheric pressure is less at high altitude than at sea
level, which is why an airplane cabin has to be pressurized when
flying at 35,000 feet. When you dive into deep water, your ears tell
you that the pressure increases rapidly with increasing depth below
the surface.

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If p1 and p2 are the pressures at elevations y1 and y2 respectively, 

and g are constant, then

We can also express this equation in terms of the depth below the surface of a fluid. Take point 1 at any level
in the fluid and let p represent the pressure at this point. Take point 2 at the surface of the fluid, where the
pressure is (subscript zero for zero depth). The depth of point 1 below the surface is

The pressure p at a depth h is greater than the pressure p0 at the surface by an amount gh. Note that the
pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The shape of the container does not
matter.

Example Problem 2.3

The figure shows the cross section of a swimming hole.

Points A and B are both located at a distance of h=5.50 m
below the surface of the water. Find the pressure at each of
these two points.

Solution:

The pressure at point B is the same as that at point A, since

both are located at the same vertical distance beneath the
surface and only the vertical distance h affects the pressure
increment gh.

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Example Problem 2.4

Blood in the arteries is flowing, but as a first approximation, the effects of this flow can be ignored and the
blood treated as a static fluid. Estimate the amount by which the blood pressure P2 in the anterior tibial artery
at the foot exceeds the blood pressure P1 in the aorta at the heart when a person is a) reclining horizontally
and b) standing.

Solution:

a)

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Pascal’s Law

If we increase the pressure p0 at the top surface, possibly by using a

piston that fits tightly inside the container to push down on the fluid
surface, the pressure p at any depth increases by exactly the same
amount. This fact was recognized in 1653 by the French scientist
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) and is called Pascal’s law. It states that:

“Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished

to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.”

The hydraulic lift shown schematically in the figure illustrates

Pascal’s law. A piston with small cross-sectional area exerts a force
on the surface of a liquid such as oil. The applied pressure is
transmitted through the connecting pipe to a larger piston of area The
applied pressure is the same in both cylinders, so

Example Problem 2.5

In the hydraulic car lift shown, the input piston on the left has a
radius of 0.0120m and a negligible weight. The output plunger on
the right has a radius of 0.150 m. The combined weight of the car
and the plunger is 20,500 N. Since the output force has a
magnitude of 20,500 N, it supports the car. Suppose that the
bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger are at the same level, so
that h=0m in part b of the figure. What is the magnitude F1 of the
input force needed so that F2=20,500 N?

Solution:

Example Problem 2.6

The data are the same as in the previous problem. Suppose now,
however, that the bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger are
at different levels, such that h=1.10 m in the figure. The car lift
uses hydraulic oil that has a density of 8.00x102 kg/m3. What is
the magnitude F1 of the input force that is now needed to produce
an output force having a magnitude of F2=20,500 N?

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Solution:

Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, the tire is flat. The pressure has to be greater
than atmospheric to support the car, so the significant quantity is the difference between the inside and
outside pressures. When we say that the pressure in a car tire is “32 pounds” (actually 32lb/in2 equal to
220kPa or we mean that it is 2.2x105 Pa), greater than atmospheric pressure (14.7 lb/in2 or 1.01x105 Pa) by
this amount. The total pressure in the tire is then 47ln/in2 or 320 kPa. The excess pressure above atmospheric
pressure is usually called gauge pressure, and the total pressure is called absolute pressure. Engineers
use the abbreviations psig and psia for “pounds per square inch gauge” and “pounds per square inch
absolute,” respectively. If the pressure is less than atmospheric, as in a partial vacuum, the gauge pressure
is negative.
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔ⅇ

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Example Problem 2.7

Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is open to the atmosphere. What are the absolute
and gauge pressures at the bottom of the tank?

Solution:

Pressure Gauges

The simplest pressure gauge is the open-tube manometer. The U-shaped

tube contains a liquid of density often mercury or water. The left end of the
tube is connected to the container where the pressure p is to be measured,
and the right end is open to the atmosphere at pressure, p0=patm. The
pressure at the bottom of the tube due to the fluid in the left column is 𝑃 +
𝜌𝑔𝑦1 and the pressure at the bottom due to the fluid in the right column is
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 . These pressures are measured at the same level, so they
must be equal:

Where p is the absolute pressure, and p-patm is the gauge pressure. The
gauge pressure is proportional to the difference in height of the liquid
columns.

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Another common pressure gauge is the mercury barometer. It consists

of a long glass tube, closed at one end, that has been filled with mercury
and then inverted in a dish of mercury. The space above the mercury
column contains only mercury vapor; its pressure is negligibly small, so
the pressure at the top of the mercury column is practically zero.

Thus, the mercury barometer reads the atmospheric pressure directly

from the height of the mercury column.
Pressures are often described in terms of the height of the corresponding
mercury column, as so many “inches of mercury” or “millimeters of
mercury” (abbreviated mm Hg). A pressure of 1 mm Hg is called 1 torr,
after Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the mercury barometer. But these
units depend on the density of mercury, which varies with temperature,
and on the value of g, which varies with location, so the pascal is the
preferred unit of pressure.

Many types of pressure

gauges use a flexible sealed
tube. A change in the pressure
either inside or outside the
tube causes a change in its
dimensions. This change is
detected optically, electrically,
or mechanically.

Example Problem 2.8

A manometer tube is partially filled with water. Oil (which does not mix with water) is poured into the left arm
of the tube until the oil–water interface is at the midpoint of the tube as shown. Both arms of the tube are
open to the air. Find a relationship between the height of oil and height of water.

Solution:

Since the pressure p at the bottom of the tube is the same for both fluids, we
set these two expressions equal to each other

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Lesson 3: Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a familiar phenomenon: A body immersed in water seems to weigh less than when it is in air.
When the body is less dense than the fluid, it floats. The human body usually floats in water, and a helium-
filled balloon floats in air.

Archimedes’ Principle

“When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.”

To prove this principle, we consider an arbitrary element of fluid at rest. The entire fluid is in equilibrium, so
the sum of all the y-components of force on this element of fluid is zero. Hence the sum of the y-components
of the surface forces must be an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight mg of the fluid
inside the surface. Also, the sum of the torques on the element of fluid must be zero, so the line of action of
the resultant y-component of surface force must pass through the center of gravity of this element of fluid.

Now we remove the fluid

inside the surface and
replace it with a solid body
having exactly the same
shape. The pressure at
every point is exactly the
same as before. So, the
total upward force exerted
on the body by the fluid is
also the same, again equal
in magnitude to the weight
mg of the fluid displaced to
make way for the body. We
call this upward force the buoyant force on the solid body. The line of action of the buoyant force again passes
through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid (which doesn’t necessarily coincide with the center of
gravity of the body).

When a balloon floats in equilibrium in air, its weight (including the gas inside it) must be the same as the
weight of the air displaced by the balloon. A fish’s flesh is denser than water, yet a fish can float while
submerged because it has a gas-filled cavity within its body. This makes the fish’s average density the same
as water’s, so its net weight is the same as the weight of the water it displaces. A body whose average density
is less than that of a liquid can float partially submerged at the free upper surface of the liquid. The greater
the density of the liquid, the less of the body is submerged. When you swim in seawater (density 1030 kg/m3)
your body floats higher than in fresh water (1000kg/m3).

Example Problem 3.1

A 15.0-kg solid gold statue is raised from the sea bottom. What is the tension in the hoisting cable (assumed
massless) when the statue is a) at rest and completely underwater and b) at rest and completely out of the
water?

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Solution:
a)

a)

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Example Problem 3.2

A solid, square pinewood raft measures 4.0 m on a side and is 0.30 m

thick. a) Determine whether the raft floats in water, and b) if so, how much
of the raft is beneath the surface (see the distance h in the figure.

Solution:

References:
Physics 9th Edition by Cutnell, et. al.
Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update 13th Edition by Young, et. Al

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EN PHYS 1 – PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS Period: ___________________

Name of Student: ____________________________________________Course and Year: __________
Schedule (Time and Day): _____________________________________Final Rating: ______________
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10a. Fluids

Assessment Task:
Density and Specific Gravity

1. A hollow cylindrical copper pipe is 1.50 m long and has an outside diameter of 3.50 cm and an inside diameter
of 2.50 cm. How much does it weigh?

2. You win the lottery and decide to impress your friends by exhibiting a million-dollar cube of gold. At the time,
gold is selling for $426.60 per troy ounce, and 1.0000 troy ounce equals 31.1035 g. How tall would your million-
dollar cube be?

Pressure

3. Scientists have found evidence that Mars may once have had an ocean 0.500 km deep. The acceleration due
to gravity on Mars is 3.71m/s2. a) What would be the gauge pressure at the bottom of such an ocean, assuming
it was freshwater? b) To what depth would you need to go in the earth’s ocean to experience the same gauge
pressure?

4. An electrical short cuts off all power to a submersible diving vehicle when it
is 30 m below the surface of the ocean. The crew must push out a hatch of
area and weight 300 N on the bottom to escape. If the pressure inside is 1.0
atm, what downward force must the crew exert on the hatch to open it?

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5. A cylindrical disk of wood weighing 45.0 N and having a diameter of 30.0 cm floats on a cylinder of oil of density.
The cylinder of oil is 75.0 cm deep and has a diameter the same as that of the wood. (a) What is the gauge
pressure at the top of the oil column? (b) Suppose now that someone puts a weight of 83.0 N on top of the
wood, but no oil seeps around the edge of the wood. What is the change in pressure at (i) the bottom of the oil
and (ii) halfway down in the oil?

6. For the hydraulic lift shown, what must be the ratio of the diameter of the vessel at the car to the diameter of
the vessel where the force is applied so that a 1520-kg car can be lifted with a force of just 125 N?

Buoyancy

7. A 950-kg cylindrical can buoy floats vertically in salt water. The diameter of the buoy is 0.900 m. Calculate the
additional distance the buoy will sink when a 70.0-kg man stands on top of it.

8. A cubical block of wood, 10.0 cm on a side, floats at the interface between oil and water
with its lower surface 1.50 cm below the interface. The density of the oil is 790kg/m3.
a) What is the gauge pressure at the upper face of the block?
b) What is the gauge pressure at the lower face of the block?
c) What are the mass and density of the block?

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9. A rock is suspended by a light string. When the rock is in air, the tension in the string is 39.2 N. When the rock
is totally immersed in water, the tension is 28.4 N. When the rock is totally immersed in an unknown liquid, the
tension is 18.6 N. What is the density of the unknown liquid?

10. Normally, a Goodyear airship, such as the one in the figure, contains about 5.40x103m3 of helium (He), whose
density is 0.179 kg/m3. Find the weight WL of the load that the airship can carry in equilibrium at an altitude
where the density of air is 1.20 kg/m3.

Student’s Corner
Write your feedback and learning in this lesson.

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