Prepared: By: Sir Shakeel Ahmed Lodhi

UNIT-10 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

Wave: A method transports energy from one point to another point without transfer
ofmatter is called wave.

Formation of waves: Disturbance of medium is the cause of formation of wave

like,we can produce waves by using a rope, slinky spring, and water waves in the
ripple tank.

Wave motion by using a rope: We can produce waves on a rope by attaching one endto a wall and
continuously moving the other end up and down. These up and down movements produce oscillations or
vibrations. We can observe that the generated rope waves travel towards the wall, whereas the rope itself
moves only up and down. The rope is the medium through which the waves travel or propagate.

Slinky spring: a slinky spring is a pre-compressed helical or coiled spring.

Slinky spring

Waves in a slinky spring: Attach one end of the spring with the wall. Now moving
the free end of the slinky horizontally left and right continuously on the table will be
able to see the coils of the spring moving left and right, whereas humps travel to the
other end.
 An upward pulse moves to the right, followed by (b) A downward pulse.
(c) When the end of the slinky is most up and down continuously, a transverse wave is

Now moving the free end of the attached wall slinky spring continuously back and
forthas horizontally. You can observe the individual coil moving forwards and
backwards.
Where the coils are compressed, are seen travelling from the fixed end to the other end.

A compressed region moves to the right, followed by (b) a stretched region.

(c) When the end of the slinky is moved back and forth continuously, a longitudinal waveis
produced

In both of the above experiments, the slinky spring is said to be the

mediumthrough which the waves travel or propagate.

Triple tank: A ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used to demonstrate
thebasic properties of waves.

Waves in ripple tank: We can produce water waves with the ripple tank. In the
ripple tank, a small vibrator moves up and down the water surface, resulting in the
water particles at the surface that are in contact with the dipper being made to move
up and down. This up and down motion soon spread to other parts of the water

surface in the tank in the form of ripples. Here the water is the medium through which
the ripples travelor propagate.

Types of waves : There are two types of waves.

 1. Transverse wave
2. Longitudinal wave

Transverse wave
Definition: Transverse waves are waves that travel in a direction perpendicular to
thedirection of wave motion.

Example 1: Vibrations in a guitar string.

Example 2: Electromagnetic waves.

Transverse wave
Amplitude
Definition: Amplitude is the maximum displacement moved by a point on a
vibratingbody from the rest or mean position.

Unit: its SI unit is meter (m)

Crest: Crest is a point on a surface wave where the displacement of the medium is
at amaximum.

Trough: Trough is a point on a surface wave where the displacement of the

medium isat a minimum.

Longitudinal wave
Definition: Longitudinal waves are waves that travel in a direction parallel to
thedirection of wave motion.

Example 1: When the free end of slinky spring moves back and forth longitudinal
wavesproduce in it.

Example 2: Sound waves

Compression: In the longitudinal waves this is a region where turns of the

coil orparticles are closer together than average.
Rarefaction: In the longitudinal waves this is the region where turns of the
coil orparticles are further apart than average.

Mechanical wave Electromagnetic wave

Mechanical waves are such waves that Electromagnetic waves are such waves
need a medium for propagation. that do not need a medium for
propagation.

Mechanical waves are produced by Electromagnetic waves are produced by a

vibratory motion in the respective changing of electric and magnetic fields.
medium.

Sound waves, water waves and seismic Radio waves, microwaves, light waves
waves are some examples of mechanical and infrared waves are some examples of
waves. electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves consist of transverse Electromagnetic waves are only

as well as longitudinal waves. comprised of a transverse wave in nature.

Mechanical waves cannot travel through Electromagnetic waves travel through the
the vacuum. vacuum at the speed of 3×108 m/s

All mechanical waves travel through their All electromagnetic waves can travel
media at different speeds depending through transparent media at different
upon the physical properties of the speeds depending upon the refractive
respective medium. index of the respective medium.

Properties of waves

Reflection of the Waves

Definition: Bouncing back of waves into same medium by striking other
mediumsurface is called reflection of waves.

Reflected angle: The incident waves are reflected from the surface at the same angle.
 Obey law of reflection: The reflected waves obey the law of reflection, example,
theangle of the incident wave along the normal will be equal to the angle of the
reflectedwave.

Refraction of waves
Definition: When a wave enters from a region of deep water to a region of
shallowwater at an angle, the wave will change its direction.

Change in wavelength and direction: The wavelength of the plane waves shortens
and changes direction, as they move from the boundary between two media, deep to
shallow water.

Frequency remains constant: The frequency of water waves stays the same in
bothwaves because it is the same as the frequency of the vibrator.

Change in speed: Speed of a wave in water depends on water depth. Waves

travelfaster in deep water than in shallow water.

Diffraction of waves
Definition: The spreading of the waves near an obstacle is called diffraction.
 Generation of circular waves: Narrow the gap whose width is equal to the
wavelengthof the incoming ripples, the ripples that pass through the gap are almost
circular and seem to originate from a point source situated in the gap.

Diffraction of waves near an

obstaclewider the gap, less
spreading.

Wave

Characteristics:

Time period
Definition: Time period is the time taken for any one point on the wave to complete one
oscillation.

Unit: The SI unit of the time period is second(s).

Frequency
Definition: Frequency is the number of complete waves produced by a source per
unitof time.

Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period:

Frequency = Number of complete waves produced/ time

takenIf the number of waves produced = 1

And time taken

= TThen

f = 1/T

Unit: The SI unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz)

Wavelength ( λ)
Definition: Wavelength is the linear distance between two successive crests in a
transverse wave and two successive compressions and rarefactions in a
 longitudinalwave.

Unit: Its SI unit is metre (m).

Wave speed (v)

Definition: It is defined as the distance travelled by a given point on the wave, such
asa crest in a given interval of time.

DERIVATION:

Speed = Distance Travelled/ Time Taken

Let us consider for a wave

Distance travelled = λ and

Time taken= T,
Then

V = λ /T

Or V= f λ
Since, f=1/T
Unit: The S.I unit of wave speed is Meter per second m/s.

Wavefront: The wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all points that
arein the same phase.

Types of Wavefront: There are two types of wavefront.

1. Circular wavefront
2. Plane wavefront

Circular wavefront: In a ripple tank, a dipper can produce circular waves. These
waveshave a circular wavefront.
 Plane wavefront: In a ripple tank, a plane dipper can produce plane
waves. These waves have a plane wavefront.

Periodic motion: A motion repeating itself in an equal interval is referred to as

periodicor oscillatory motion.

Simple harmonic motion

Definition: when an object oscillates about a fixed position main position its
acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement from the main position and
hisalways directed towards the main position its motion is called SHM.
a ∝ -x
a = -k x
Where k is spring constant.

Example: Electromagnetic waves, alternating current circuits, and musical

instrumentsexecute the simple harmonic motion.
Simple pendulum
Pendulum: A simple pendulum consists of a small metallic bob of mass 'm'
suspendedfrom a light inextensible string of length 'l' fixed at its upper end.

Forces acting on a displaced pendulum:

When the bob of the pendulum is displaced at a small angle 'θ' to an
extremeposition, the forces that act upon it are as given underneath.

i. Tension 'T' along the direction of the string, and

ii. Weight W = mg, acting vertically downwards.

The weight is further resolved into its components mg sin θ and mg cos θ.

Motion of a simple pendulum and SHM: The motion of a simple pendulum is

veryclose to Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). SHM results whenever a restoring
force isproportional to the displacement, a relationship often known as Hooke’s
Law when applied to springs.
F = -kx

Where F is the restoring force, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement.

Using Newton’s Second Law, the resulting acceleration when there are no other
forces,this relationship becomes

ma = F = -kx

where m is mass and a is acceleration. The result is that the acceleration

vector isproportional to the displacement (and in an opposite direction).

Ball and bowl system and SHM: Let us examine that the motion of a ball placed
in abowl executes simple harmonic motion. When the ball is placed at the mean
position 'O', that is, at the centre of the bowl. In this position the net force acting on
the ball is zero. Hence there is no motion.
Now, what if we displace the ball to an extreme position 'A' and then release it? The
ballstarts moving towards the mean position 'O' due to the restoring force caused by
its weight component. At position 'O' the ball gets maximum speed and due to
inertia, it moves towards opposite extreme position 'B' with the restoring force that
acts towards the mean position, the speed of the ball starts to decrease. The ball
stops for a while at 'B' and then again moves towards the mean position 'O'. This
ball's to and fro motion continues about the mean position 'O'. This result shows that
the acceleration of the ballis directed towards 'O'.Hence, the ball's to and fro motion
about a mean position placed in a bowl is also an example of simple harmonic
motion.

Restoring force: The restoring force is a force which acts to bring a body
to itsequilibrium position.

Damped system: An oscillating system in which friction has an effect is a

dampedsystem.

Damped oscillations
Definition: The oscillations of a system in the presence of some resistive forces
aredamped oscillations.
Reduction in amplitude of oscillation: The resistive or damped forces progressively
reduce the amplitude of the oscillation.

Example 1: A knock against a table causes the table to vibrate. This reverberation
alsofades away often after completing many hundreds of vibrations.

Example 2: The practical application of damped motion is shock absorbers in

 automobiles. A shock absorber consists of a piston that moves through a liquid such
asoil. The upper part of the shock absorber is firmly connected to the body of the
automobile, when it travels over a bump, the automobile may vibrate violently. The
shock absorbers dampen these vibrations and convert their mechanical energy into
thethermal energy of the oil.

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“THE AIMS INSTITUE”

Prepared by: Sir Shakeel Ahmed Lodhi
Unit-11: Sound
Sound waves
Definition: Sound waves are mechanical, longitudinal waves comprising compressions
and rarefactions.

Production of sound by vibrating sources: A sound is a mechanical longitudinal

wave. The direction of vibration of air molecules is parallel to wave motion, similar to the
longitudinal waves produced when a slinky spring is vibrated to its direction of motion.

Example: The drum produces longitudinal sound waves by disturbing the molecules
surrounding it.

Compressions of sound waves: These are regions where air pressure is slightly
higher than surrounding air pressure.

Rarefactions of sound waves: These are regions where air pressure is slightly lower

than surrounding air pressure.

 Electric bell jar experiment: Sound is a mechanical wave that needs a material
medium such as gases, liquids and solids to propagate due to the vibratory motion of
particles of the medium that transport sound waves in the form of energy from one point
to another. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum demonstrated by the following
experiment.

Take an electric bell and an airtight glass bell jar and then suspend the electric bell inside the
jar. Connect the bell jar to a vacuum pump. When you switch on electric bell,you can hear the
sound of the bell coming from inside air and glass material. Now start the vacuum pump as the
air in the jar is gradually pumped out, the sound becomes fainter, although the same current is
passing through the bell and hammer that strikes the gong. After a while, you will hear the
faintest sound, when there is less air. If there were no air inside the jar there would be no
sound.
The electric bell still produces the sound, but now we cannot hear it. This is because
sound waves always need a medium to propagate sound energy. In the bell jar, it was a
vacuum hence sound waves cannot travel.

Speed of sound
Two direct methods for the determination of the speed of sound in air: There are
two methods for determination of the speed of sound which are described below.

The apparatus for each experiment is given in bold.

Method 1: Measuring Sound Between Two Points

Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points
 1. Two people stand a distance of around 100 m apart.
2. The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel.
3. One person has two wooden blocks, which he bangs together above his head.
4. A second person with the stopwatch starts watch when he hairs one of the clapsand
ends timing after 20 claps.
5. This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time.
6. Speed of sound can then we calculated using equation:
Speed of sound = Distance travelled by sound/time taken

Method 2: Using Echoes

Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

1. A person stands about 50 m away from a wall (or cliff) using a trundle wheel to
measure this distance.
2. The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo.
3. The person then starts to clap the blocks together repeatedly, in rhythm with the
echoes.
4. A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when he hears one of theclaps
and stops timing 20 claps later.
5. The process is then repeated and an average time calculated.
6. The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 × 50)m.
7. The total distance travelled by sound during the 20 claps will be (20 × 2 × 50) m.
 8. The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the
equation:
Speed of sound = 2 ×Distance to the wall / Time taken
Speed of sound: The speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on a
wave, such as a compression or a rarefaction, travels per unit of time.

Speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases:

●The speed at which a sound wave travels depends upon the medium and state of the
medium (steel, water, air).
● Sound moves faster in solid because the molecules/particles of solid are veryclose
to each other, as compared to liquid and gases.
The speeds of sound at 25 °C in various media.

Derivation of speed of sound:

Speed = Distance travelled /time taken.
Let us consider for a wave

Distance travelled = λ and

Time taken= T,
Then

V = λ /T

Or V= f λ
Since, f=1/T
Factors that affect the speed of sound: The speed of sound is affected by a
variety of factors. Two of the factors affecting the speed of sound in the air are given indetail
below.

Effect of Temperature: Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of

sound. Molecules of the medium at higher temperatures have more energy. Thus, they
can vibrate at a higher rate. As the molecules vibrate faster, sound waves can travel
more quickly. The speed of sound at room temperature 25°C in the air is 346 meters per
second. It is faster than 331 meters per second, which is the speed of sound in air at
0°C.

Mathematically: The formula to find the speed of sound at temperature T in the air is
given as follows:

Here v is the speed of sound, and T is the absolute temperature of the air. This formula
shows that the speed of sound in air is directly proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature.
Effect of humidity: Humidity also affects the speed of sound in the air. The effect of
water vapour on the speed of sound is minimum than that of dry air. The presence of
moisture in air replaces oxygen and nitrogen gases that reduce the density of air
because the molecular mass of water vapours (Molecular Mass = 18) is less than that of
oxygen (Molecular Mass = 32) and nitrogen (Molecular Mass = 28) gases since the
speed of sound in gases are inversely related to the square root of its density.

Thus, humidity increases, the density of the air decreases and sound travels faster.

Quality: It is defined as the characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish

between two sounds of the same loudness and pitch.

Loudness
Definition: It refers to the ability to distinguish between loud and a quiet sound.
 Factor on which loudness depends: Loudness is directly proportional to amplitude.

Pitch
Definition: It is the quality of sound that distinguishes between a shill and a flat sound.

Factor on which pitch depends: Pitch is directly proportional to frequency.

Sound intensity or acoustic intensity

Definition: It is defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit area in a direction
perpendicular to that area.

Unit: The SI unit of sound intensity is watt per square meter (W/m2).

Musical sounds
Definition: The sounds that are pleasant to our ears are called musical sounds.

Example: Sound produced by musical instruments such as the recorder, guitar, violin
and drum.

Sound waves: Regular repeating sound waves create musical notes.

Noise
Definition: Sound which has an unpleasant effect on our ears is called noise.

Example: The sound of motor vehicles, the slamming of a door, and the sounds of
 machinery.

Sound waves: Irregular repeating sound waves create noise.

Disadvantages:
1. The excessive noise level has harmful effects on human health as they can cause
conditions such as stress and disturb concentration. Over time, hearingloss, sleeping
disorder, aggression, hypertension and high stress levels can occur.
2. Noise is harmful not only to human health but also to other species.

Factors on which a safe level of noise depends: A safe level of noise depends on
two factors: the noise level; and the duration of exposure to the noise. The noise level
recommended in most countries is usually 85 – 90 dB overall an eight-hour workday.

Precautions: Noise pollution can be reduced to an acceptable level by replacing the

noise machinery with environment-friendly machinery and equipment, placing
sound-reducing barriers, or using hearing protection devices.

Decibel (dB) unit: The decibel (dB) unit is usually used for making the relativeloudness of
sounds detectable by human hearing.

Reflection of sound or an echo

Definition: The repetition of the sound after reflection is known as echo.

Minimum distance for hearing clear echoes: If we take the speed of sound 340 m/s
at a temperature of 20°C in air, the sound travels to the obstruction and reaches back to
the listener on reflection after 0.1 s. Hence, the total distance covered by the sound
from the point of production to the reflecting surface and back should be at least
 distance = speed × time
d = 340 m/s × 0.1 s
d = 34 m
Thus, for hearing clear echoes, the minimum distance of the obstruction from the source
of sound should be half of this distance, that is, 17 m.

Minimum time for hearing clear echoes: The sound sensitivity persists in our brain for
about 0.1 s. To hear a clear echo, the time interval between the produced original
sounds and the reflected one must be at least 0.1 s.

Echolocation: Echolocation is a technique to determine the location of objects using echo

sound.

Ultrasound: The sound with frequencies above the upper limit (20,000 Hz) of the
human range of audibility is known as ultrasound.

Audible frequency range: The range of frequencies of sound that a person can
hear is called the range of audibility for the audible frequency range.
● Audible frequency range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

Infrasonic
Definition: Sound with frequencies below the lower limit (20 Hz) of the human range of
audibility is known as infrasonic.

Example: The vibrations of the wings of a mosquito.

Different animals can hear different ranges of frequencies:

Applications of ultrasound techniques in industry and medicine:

Following are the applications of ultrasound techniques in industry and medicine.

Cleansing: Ultrasound is commonly used to clean many objects even in hard to reach
places, including jewelry, dental, surgical instruments and musical instruments. In this
process, objects to be cleaned are placed in a cleaning solution, and ultrasonic waves
are sent into the solution. Due to its high frequency, dust, grease, and contamination
particles detached and dropped. The objects thus get thoroughly cleansed.

Quality control: Ultrasound has higher penetrating power due to its very high
frequency. Thus, ultrasounds are also used to detect cracks, cavities, and flaws in metal
and concrete blocks. These invisible cracks or cavities inside the blocks reduce the
strength of the structure. Ultrasonic waves pass through the metal block, and detectors
are used to detect the transmitted waves. If there is any defect, the ultrasound will be
reflected, indicating the presence of the defect.

Sound navigation and ranging (SONAR): SONAR is extensively used in marine

applications. Due to their high frequencies, ultrasound waves can travel greater
distances. In this method, the transmitter sends out ultrasound pulses and measures
the time it takes for the pulses to reflect off a distant object and return to the source or
transducer. The position of that object can be identified and its movement can be
tracked. This technique is used to measure the depth of seabeds, locate and track

submarines at sea, and locate explosive mines below the surface of the water.

Echocardiography: Echocardiography is a painless and non-invasive medical imaging

procedure. A transmitter sends out pulses of very high frequency. The transducer is
positioned on the chest at specific locations and angles, the pulses move across the
skin and other body tissues to the heart tissues, where the pulses bounce or echo of the
heart structures. These pulses are then transmitted to a computer to create moving
images of the heart and valves. The image produced is called an echocardiogram.
Ultrasonography: It is a technique that uses an instrument ultrasound scanner. A
sonologist visualize the organs of the patient, such as the liver, gallbladder, and kidney
etc. It helps the doctor to identify abnormalities, such as stones in the gallbladder and
kidney or tumors and abnormalities in different organs. In this technique, the sound
waves penetrate the body and hit a boundary between tissues, e.g., between fluid and
soft tissue, bone and soft tissue, and get reflected from an area where their tissue
density changes. The instrument calculates the distance from the probe to the tissue or
organ boundaries using the speed of sound in tissue and the time of the return of each
echo. These pulses are then converted into electrical signals used to create
two-dimensional images of the organ.

Unit-12: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Prism: The prism is a triangular transparent block of glass or plastic. It is a solid
structure having three rectangular and two triangular surfaces.

Dispersion of light: Splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes
through a glass prism is called dispersion of white light.
Dispersion of light by a glass prism
Spectrum of light: The colour pattern produced in the dispersion is called a
spectrum of light.

Spectrum of visible light with corresponding wavelengths and their frequencies of eachcolor.

Dispersion of light through water droplets: When a rainbow appears, it

serves as an excellent demonstration of light dispersion and further evidence that visible
light has a spectrum of wavelengths, each of which is associated with the distinct colour.
At an angle of approximately 40 degrees above ground level, you must look into an area
of atmosphere with suspended droplets of water, or even a light mist, in order to see a
rainbow in the sky. Every droplet of water acts as a tiny prism, dispersing and reflecting
light to your eye. When you look at the sky, droplets emit wavelengths of light
associated with a color. There are several ways sun rays can enter through a drop.
 The dispersion by a water droplet.

Electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. It is

electric and magnetic fields that are oscillating, not material.

Emission of electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are radiated out when

charged particles oscillate. For example, vibrating atoms in a hot and glowing bulb
filament emit infrared and visible light in the house.

Medium: They can travel through a vacuum or space.

Mathematical equation of speed of electromagnetic waves: Like all other waves it

obeys the equation

Speed = frequency × wavelength

c=f×λ

Magnitude of speed of electromagnetic waves: All electromagnetic waves travel

through space or vacuum at the same speed of 300000 km per sec or 3 × 108 m.s-1.

Light-year unit: Light-year is the distance that light travels in one year.

1 light year equals to what meter:

1 year = 365 days
= 365 × 24
= 365 × 24 × 60 minutes
= 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 seconds
= 31536000 seconds

1 Light-year = Velocity × Time

= 300000 km/s × 31536000 s
 = 9.46 × 1012 m

Characteristics of electromagnetic waves: Some of the common characteristics of

electromagnetic waves are given as under;

1. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves in nature. They are composed of varying
electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicularly. The direction ofwave motion
is perpendicular to both electric and magnetic fields.
2. It cannot carry electric charge.
3. It can travel through space, travelling at the speed ofc =
3 × 108 m.s-1.
4. It will travel through a transparent medium; however, they will slow down when
travelling through a denser medium like water or glass.
5. It obeys laws of reflection, reflection, and diffraction.
Its frequencies depend only on the source that produces the wave. Thus, frequencies do not
change when it travels from one medium to another (air toglass).

Electromagnetic spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire distribution of

electromagnetic waves according to their frequencies or wavelengths.

Longest wavelength of electromagnetic spectrum: Radio waves have the longest

wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Shortest wavelength of electromagnetic spectrum: Gamma rays have the shortest

wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Uses of electromagnetic waves

(i) Radio waves - radio and television communications: In a radio system, a

microphone controls the current to the antenna so that the radio waves pulsate. The incoming
pulsations in the radio receiver control a loudspeaker to create a copy of the original sound.
Radio waves can direct around hills, so radio can receive signals even ifa hill blocks the direct
route from the transmitting antenna.
Radio waves are also used in television communication. Radio waves of
very-high frequency VHF and ultra high-frequency UHF waves are used to telecast
television programs. These waves have shorter wavelengths, and they do not diffract
around hills. So, there must be a straight path between the transmitting and receiving
antenna for good reception.
Magnetic resource imaging (MRI) is advanced medical imaging technique that
uses computer-generated radio waves and magnetic fields to create meticulous images
of the organs and tissues in the body. When the patient lies inside an MRI machine, the
magnetic field temporarily realigns water molecules in the body. Radio waves cause
these aligned molecules to produce faint signals, computed to produce 3-D MRI
images-like slices in bread.

MRI pic
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard used to exchange data
between fixed and mobile devices over short distances. Bluetooth used UHF radio
waves.

Bluetooth pic
Wi-Fi is a networking technology that uses radio waves to allow high-speed data
transfer over short distances.

Wi-Fi symbol pic

(ii) Microwaves - satellite technology and telephone: Satellite phones use microwaves
for communication, and satellite television uses microwaves to receive satellite television
programs. Microwaves can penetrate haze, light rain, clouds, and smoke as they have a higher
frequency of all ranges of radio waves. However, becausethese waves are highly directional,
the satellite dish and related components must be
aligned appropriately, without any obstruction between the transmitted satellite signals
and receiving satellite dish.

(iii) Infra-red - household electrical appliances, television controllers and intruder

alarms: Infra-red wireless remote controllers control various household electrical appliances
that send invisible signals to an infrared receiver on a device such as televisions, video
recorders, or hi-fi (hi fidelity) systems.
The human body also gives out infrared radiations because of the
rotational-vibrational motion of its atoms or molecules that motion sensors can detect.
Intruder alarms use these motional sensors that detect the changing pattern of infrared
radiations emitted by a warm body of an approaching person. This characteristic of
infrared waves has been used for security purposes, particularly in military technology.

(iv) Light - optical fibres in medical uses and telephone: The high flexibility of optical
fibres makes them also ideal for use in the medical industry.
An endoscope, a medical device, is a long tube consisting of optical fibres that
enable doctors to see abnormalities in organs such as stomach intestines inside a
human body.

Endoscopy
(v) Ultraviolet - sunbeds, fluorescent tubes, sterilization:
Sunbeds: Ultraviolet lamps that emit UVA and UVB radiations are used in sunbeds for
artificial tanning. It is popular in countries with long periods of limited sunlight. Under
medically controlled supervision, sunbeds beautify, provide the body with vitamin D, and
treat certain skin conditions.

Sunbed
 In fluorescent lamps, the inside of the tube is coated with white powder
(fluoresce), which gives off light when it absorbs ultraviolet. They are commonly used in
lightning houses, shops, and offices for decorating purposes.

Fluorescent watch time

Sterilization: As ultraviolet skills harmful bacteria, strong UVB and UVC
radiations are used to sterilize food and medical equipment in hospitals.

(vi) Applications of X-rays: The long-wavelength or low frequency X-rays are highly
penetrating that can pass through flash but not bones. In the medical imaging field,
radiologists use low frequency x-ray images to diagnose the X-ray images to diagnosethe
fracture in the bones or even tooth decay, tumors, and abnormal masses inside thebody.
Computer tomography (CT) scan is a computational diagnostic tool for
detecting diseases and injuries. It uses a series of low frequency X-rays and a computer
to produce a 3D image of soft tissues and bones.
Radiation Therapy is a cancer treatment that uses control doses of high
frequency X-rays to kill cancerous cells and shrink tumors.
Industrial radiography is a technique of inspecting materials to detect inside defects by using high frequency X-
rays. In this method, a beam of X-rays points at the tested item. A detector is aligned with the beam on the other
side of the item. The detector records X-rays that pass through the material. The thicker the material, the fewer
X-rays can pass through. More rays move through that region where the material is thinner because of a crack or
flaw. The detector computes a picture from the rays thatpass through, which shows cracks or flaws in that
material
 Unit-13: Geometrical Optics
Reflection of light
Definition: A phenomenon of returning light from the surface of an object when the light
is incident on it is called reflection of light.

Where;
Incident ray= It is the rate that falls on the surface.

Reflected ray= The ray which is reflected from the surface.

Normal= The line that is created when a perpendicular is made between two rays on a
reflecting surface.

P= Point of reflection

i= Angle of Incidence

r= Angle of Reflection

Laws of reflection
First law of reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
(i.e.<i=<r) is also known as the first law of reflection.

Second law of reflection: The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal to the reflecting surface all lie in the
same plane is also known as the second law of reflection.

Spherical mirror: A spherical mirror is a mirror with a curved reflecting surface.

Types of spherical mirror: There are two types of spherical mirror.

 1. Convex mirror
2. Concave mirror

Convex mirror
Definition: A convex mirror is a spherical mirror in which the reflective surface bulges
towards the light source.

Not focus: Convex mirrors reflect light outwords and are therefore not used to focus
light.

Concave mirror
Definition: A concave mirror has a reflecting surface that is recessed in word away
from the light source.

Focus: Concave mirrors reflect light inward to one focal point. They are used to focus
light.
 Spherical mirror equation: Let us think of an object placed p cm in front of a
spherical mirror of focal length f cm. The image is formed q cm from the mirror, then p,f
and q are related by the equation,

This equation is known as the mirror equation. This equation applies to both concave
and convex mirrors.

How can we use this equation: When applying the mirror equation, the following
points must be observed:

● That all distances p,f and q are measured from the optical centre p as an origin.
● All real distances are taken positively, while all virtual distances are taken
negatively.
A concave mirror has a positive focal length, while a convex mirror has anegative focal length.

Uses of spherical mirrors

Uses of convex mirrors:

1. Convex mirrors are often used as rear-view mirrors or ring mirrors in vehicles, also
called driver mirrors. These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle so the driver
can see traffic behind them for safe driving. Convex mirrors are curvedoutwards that
reflect the light outwards, allowing the drivers view of a much larger area of the field
behind them. These mirrors always give an upright, diminished and complete image of
the vehicles.
2. Convex mirrors are also used for Traffic Safety purposes to see the blind turns onthe
roads. Wide-angle vision allows drivers to see around blind corners and into hidden
corners. These mirrors need to be placed at the blind corners and locations to avoid
accidents and collisions of vehicles.
Uses of concave mirrors:
Concave mirrors also used by dentists, can see the tooth clearly and diagnose
any infection or germ attack.

Refraction of light
Definition: The bending effect of light as it passes from one transparent medium to
another is refraction of light.

Example 1: The pencil partly immersed in water in a beaker appears to be bent at the
interface of air and water, is an example of refraction of light.

Example 2: Fish kept in water in a glass aquarium appears larger than its actual size, isan example of refraction
of light.

Laws of refraction
First law of refraction: The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray all lie in the
same plane.

Second law of refraction or Snell's law: The refractive index can be defined as the
ratio of the sign of the angle of incidence to the sign of the angle of refraction when the
ray of light enters from one medium to another.

This law is also known as Snell's law.

Another equation of refractive index:

Effects of refractive index: The greater the value of the refractive index of a medium,the greater the change
in speed as well as the greater bending of light when it passes from air into that medium.

Change in speed: In refraction the speed of light wave is changed.

Change in wavelength and direction: The wavelength of the ray and its direction arealso
changed at the interface of two different mediums.

Frequency remains constant: The frequency of light during refraction does not
change as the color used remains unchanged.

Critical Angle: The angle of incidence that causes the refracted ray in the rare
medium to bend through 90° is called the critical angle.

Total internal reflection: If a ray passes from a dense medium to a rare medium
and its angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected
into the dense medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Telecommunication through optical fibres: Optical fibers consist of hair-size

threads made of flexible plastic or glass fibres that transmit light over long distances. An
optical fiber comprises two parts, an inner part 'core' with a high refractive index, coated
with another material 'cladding'. When a light ray enters the fiber and hits the cladding, it
is reflected internally in the core as the incidence angle is larger than the critical angle,
 even if the fiber is bent. Light rays entering the fiber are continuously reflected at the
interface between two refractive materials and cover long distances without energy loss.
Reflection through a prism: Let us perform an activity to illustrate the passage oflight
through a prism.

Tracing the passage of light rays through a glass prism

Activity:
1. Fix a paper sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.
2. Place the triangular prism resting on its base. Using a pencil, outline the prism.
3. Draw NEN' normal to one facet of the prism AB. Suppose an angle between 30°and
60°.

4. Fix two pins slightly apart on the line PE and label them as P and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other facet of the prismAC.
6. Fix two pins at R and S to appear in a straight line as those of the P and Q whenviewed
from the AC facet of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and also the prism.
8. At point F, produce the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray that is extended till it meets facet AC. SRF is the
emergent ray extended backward to meet at point G.
10. Now measure the angle of incidence <i, angle of refraction <r and the angle of
emergence <e and <d.
Repeat the experiment for additional angles.
Observations:
1. At surface AB, the ray of light enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC, the ray of light bends away from the normal as it travels from one
medium to the other medium.

Conclusions: The incident ray bends towards the normal when enters the prism and
bends away from the normal while leaving the prism.

Lens
Definition: The lens is a piece of transparent material such as glass or plastic.

Types of lenses: There are two types of lenses.

1. Convex lens
2. Concave lens

Convex lens
Definition: The convex lens converges the rays of light parallel to the principal axis on
the focal point after passing through it.

Focal length: A convex lens has a positive focal length.

Concave lens
Definition: The concave lens diverges the rays of light if they approach parallel to the
principal axis. After refraction light rays appear to originate from the focal point.

Focal length: A concave lens has a negative focal length.

Image: A concave lens always produces diminished, vertically upright and virtual images.

Monochromatic ray or light

Definition: Monochromatic rays are those rays which have a single wavelength or of
single tone color and have the same frequency.

Example: Light of sodium lamp.

Power
Definition: The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length.

Representation: The power is represented by the letter P.

Mathematically: The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by

Unit: The SI unit of power of a lens is 'diopter'. It is denoted by the letter D (1D=1m-1).

Lens equation: Suppose an object is placed p cm in front of a lens of focal length f

cm. Such that the image is formed q cm from the lens, then p, f and q are related by the
equation

This equation is considered the lens equation. This equation is applicable for both
concave and convex lenses.

Uses of Convex lenses

The Magnifying Glass: A magnifying glass is a thin converging lens that can be used
to make objects look bigger.

Figure (a) below shows how the word (Magnifying Glass) is placed such that object
distance is less than the focal length i.e., p<f.
If the object is placed closer to a convex lens than the focal length, the rays never tend
to meet at a point. Instead, they appear to come from the position behind the lens. The
image produced is upright and magnified. It is a virtual image because no rays converge
to form it, so it cannot be obtained on a screen. Figure (b) This type of use, a convex
lens, is often called a simple microscope.

The camera: A camera uses a convex lens to reproduce a small, inverted and real
image on photographic film that is placed on the back inside the diaphragm.

While the photograph is taken, the lens is removed in or out to focus the adjustments
from the film. The shutter opens and shuts quickly to allow a small amount of light
through the aperture into the camera. The photo-sensitive film is kept in darkness in the
diaphragm until the shutter opens.

A distant object requires the lens to film distance equal to the focal length of the lens. A
nearer object requires the lens to film distances slightly more than the focal length of the
lens.
The projector: A projector uses a convex lens as a projection lens and pair of
condenser lenses to produce a large, inverted and real image on screen.

In the projector, an object or a film is positioned between f and 2f from the projection
lens. A concave mirror is used to reflect the light from the lamp on to a pair of
condenser lenses so that the light from the lamp is concentrated on the film or slide,
illuminating it evenly and directing it through the film (object) to the projection lens. The
image formed on the screen is inverted, real and magnified.

Move the lens from the screen to obtain a large image. The lens is moved forward or
backward to get a sharp picture on the screen.

The photographic enlarger: The photographic enlarger uses a convex lens to produce
an inverted, real and magnified image of the film on photograph paper.

An enlarger is a specialized transparency projector used to produce photographic prints

from glass negatives or transparencies or microfilm. The photographic enlarger works
 on the same principle as a projector. In the case of the enlarger, object is placed at a
distance greater than F but less than 2F. In this way, we get an inverted, real and
enlarged image.

Resolving Power
Definition: It is defined as a measure of the ability of an optical instrument to form
separable images of close objects or to separate close wavelengths of radiation.

Example: We use a high resolving power microscope to see tiny organisms individually
and a telescope to view distant stars separately in the sky.

Magnifying Power
Definition: Magnifying power is defined as the ratio of the image size to the object size.

Example: We use the microscope of magnification 100, and then we can see the image
of that object 100 times bigger.

Mathematically:
Magnification = size of image/size of object
M = size of image/size of object
M = hi/ho

Microscopy: Microscopy is the field that uses microscopes to view objects that
cannot be seen with the unaided eye.

The near point of the eye: The near point of the eye is the minimum distance to
which one can see the objects distinctly without strain. It varies from person to person
with age. For a normal human eye, it is 25 cm.

The far point of the eye: The far point of the eye is the maximum distance to
which one can see the object. The far point of the normal human eye is infinity.

Simple microscope or magnifying glass

Definition: A simple microscope uses a convex lens to produce magnified images of
small objects. It is also called magnifying glass.
 Image: It produces an upright, virtual and magnified image.

Compound microscope
Definition: A compound microscope is an upright microscope that uses two sets of
lenses (a compound lens system) to obtain higher magnification than a stereo
microscope.

fo < fe: The objective lens has a shorter focal length, fo ,than the focal length of eyepiece
fe.

Magnification by compound microscope: When rays of light from a point on a nearby

object pass through an objective lens. The objective lens forms a small image I 1 on the
inside focal length of the eyepiece. This image behaves as an object for the eyepiece,
and the larger image I2 is formed at the near point of the normal human eye. This final
magnified virtual image makes an angle θi at the eyepiece.

Uses of Microscopes: The invention of the microscope allowed scientists to see cells,
bacteria, and other smallest structures that cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
Microscope gave them a direct view into the unseen world of extremely tiny objects.

Telescope
Definition: The telescope is also an optical instrument that uses two convex lenses, the
objective and the eyepiece.

fo > fe: The objective lens has a larger focal length,fo ,than the eyepiece, which has a
focal length,fe.
Uses of telescopes:
1. Telescopes have extended our sights to the universe. Earlier telescopes revealedthat
Earth was not the Centre of the universe. They also showed mountains and carters on
the Moon. Later telescopes have revealed geography and weather on the planets in our
solar system and new planets and asteroids.
Modern telescopes provide evidence of billions of galaxies, each containing billions
of stars. Telescopes are now discovering planets around the stars andpossible life
over there.
Human eye
Definition: The human eye is one of the light sensitive organs. It enables us to see the
beautiful world and the colors around us.

Image: The human eye uses a convex lens system to form a real, inverted, and small
image of an object on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.

The vision of distant objects: The curvature of the eye lens can be adjusted to some
extent by the ciliary muscles that change its focal length. When the muscles relax, the
lens becomes thin. Thus, its focal length increases. This refractive effect enables us to
see distant objects.

The vision of nearby objects: When you look at objects closer to the eye, the muscles
contract. The eye lens then becomes thicker. Hence, the focal length of the eye lens
decreases. This refractive effect enables us to see nearby objects clearly.

Defects of the eye and their correction by lenses

There are mainly two defects of eye
1. Short-sight or Myopia
2. Long-sight or Hyperopia

Short-sight or myopia
Definition: A person with short sight can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see
distant objects distinctly.

Effect: A person with this effect has a far point nearer than infinity. Such a person can
see clearly up to a distance of several meters.
 Cause: In a short-sight eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina
and not at the retina itself. This defect can be noticed when the lens is not thin enough
to look at distant objects. So the rays are bent inward too much and converge before
they reach the retina.

Correction: By placing a concave lens or contact of appropriate power in front of the

eye. A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back onto the retina, and
thus can correct the defect.

Long-sight or Hyperopia
Definition: A person with long-sight can see distant objects clearly but cannot see
nearby objects distinctly.

Effect: A person with this defect has a nearer point farther away from the near-normal
point (i.e., 25 cm). Such a person has to keep reading material beyond 25 cm from the
eye for comfortable reading.

Cause: In a long-sight eye, the image of a nearby object is formed behind the retina
and not at the retina itself. This defect can be noticed when the lens is not thick enough
to look at close objects. So the rays are not bent inward enough. The light rays from a
close-by object are focused behind the retina.

Correction: By placing a convex lens or contact of suitable power in front of the eye. A
convex lens of suitable power provides the additional focusing power required for
forming the image on the retina. Thus, the defect can be corrected.

Unit-14: Electrostatics
Electrostatics or Static Electricity: The study of charges while they are notmoving
is referred to as electrostatics or static electricity.

Electric charge
Definition: Electric charge is a basic characteristic of matter that causes electrical
processes.

Types of charges: There are two types of charges.

1. Positive charge
 2. Negative charge

Nature: Electric charge is a scalar quantity.

Unit: Its SI unit is coulomb.

1 coulomb: A coulomb is made up of 6.24×1018 natural units of electric charge such as

single electrons or protons.

Charge of one electron: the electron has a negative charge of 1.602176634×10-19

coulomb.

Repulsion: Like charges repel each other.

Attraction: Opposite charges attract each other.

Methods of charge formation: There are three methods of formation of chargeson

a body.

1. Induction
2. Conduction
3. Friction

Induction: It is a charging method in which a neutral object is charged without actually

touching another charged object.

Conduction: It is charging by contact where charge is transferred to the object.

Friction: The imbalance of electrons and protons can be easily created by friction when
two objects rubbing over one another. This process of charging is called charging by
friction.
Electrostatic charging by induction: Consider two metal spheres A and B
which are touching in the illustration. Take a rubber balloon that is negatively charged.
When we put the charged balloon close to the spheres, the repulsion between the
balloon's electrons and spheres' electrons causes electrons in the two sphere system to
move away from the balloon. Following that, electrons from sphere A are transported to
sphere B. As electrons migrate, sphere A becomes positively charged, whereas sphere
B becomes negatively charged. As a result, the entire two-sphere system is electrically
neutral. As depicted in the diagram, the spheres are then separated using an insulated
covering such as gloves or a stand. When the balloon is removed, the charge is
redistributed throughout the spheres.

Electrostatic charging by induction

Electroscope
Introduction: In 1600, British physician William Gilbert constructed the first
electroscope with a pivoting needle, called versorium.

Definition: An electroscope is a scientific instrument for detecting the presence of an

electric charge on a body.

Principle: The operation of an electroscope is based on the atomic structure of

elements; charge induction, the internal structure of metal elements, and the concept
that similar charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other. These four
concepts form the basis of the electroscope's working principle.
 Construction: An electroscope has a metal detector knob on top and metal leaves on
the connecting rod. When there is no charge present, the metals' leaves are allowed to
hang.

Coulomb's law or Coulomb's inverse-square law

Introduction: This law was introduced by a French physicist Charles Augustine de
Coulomb in 1785.

Statement: The magnitude of electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitudes of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 which are (r) distance a part,
than according to Coulomb's law

F α q1q2

and
F α 1 / r2

By combining the both equation

F α q1q2 / r2 or F =k q1q2 / r2

Where K = 9.0 x 109 N-m2/C2

Electric field or Dielectric field or Electrostatic field

Introduction: Concept of electric field was given by 'Michael Faraday'.

Definition: A region around the charged particle or object within which a force would be
exerted on other charged particles or objects.

Mathematically: The formula of electric field is given as

Whereas,
E is the electric field.
F is a force.
Q is the charge.

Causes: Changing magnetic fields or electric charges are the most common causes of
electric fields.

Unit: The SI unit of electric field is N/C

Direction: The electric field extends outwards radially from the positive point charge
and inwards radially towards the negative point charge.

Electric field lines: The electric field that surrounds a charge may be imagined as the
existence of a line of force all the way around it. Electric or electrostatic lines of force
refer to a system of imaginary lines around a charged object and indicating the stress
on that object. The configuration of lines of force around an isolated positive charge is
seen in figure (a).
While the arrangement of lines of force around an isolated negative charge is shown in
figure (b).

Such lines of force originate from the positive charge and terminate on the negative
charge, when these charges are placed near each other. They exert the force of
attraction on each other. This is shown in figure (c).
 While when two like charges are near each other, such lines will be in opposite direction
as shown in figure (d). There exists a force of repulsion between them.

Point charge: Point charge is an electric charge. When the linear sizes of charge
bodies are much smaller than the distance between them, their sizes may be ignored
and considered as a point charge.

Test charge: Test charge is a charge with a magnitude so small that placing it at a
point has a negligible effect on the field around the point.

Quantization of electric charge: The fact that all observable charges are always
some integral multiple of elementary charge e = 1.6×10-19 C is known as quantization of
electric charge.

Electrostatic potential or electric field potential or electric potential

orpotential drop
Definition: The amount of work that is done in order to transport a unit charge from a
reference point to a given location within the field without causing an acceleration.

Unit: The SI unit of electrostatic potential is volt.

1 volt: The potential difference that exists across a resistance of 1 ohm while a current
of 1 ampere is flowing through it, is equal to 1 volt.
 Factors on which electrostatic potential depends: The magnitude of electrostatic
potential depends on the amount of work done in moving the object from one point to
another against the electric field as shown in figure below.

Electric potential energy or electrical energy

Definition: When an object is moved against the electric field it gains some amount of
energy which is defined as the electric potential energy or electrical energy.

Causes: Electric potential energy is possessed by an object by the virtue of two

elements, those being, the charge possessed by an object itself and the relative position
of an object with respect to other electrically charged objects.

Factors on which electric potential energy depends: A charge with higher potential
will have more electric potential energy and the charge with lesser potential will have less
electric potential energy.

Applications of electrostatics: There are many applications of electrostaticswhich

are given below:

● The Van de Graaff Generator

● Xerography
● Laser Printers
 ● Ink Jet Printers and Electrostatic Painting
● Smoke Precipitators and Electrostatic Air Cleaning
Capacitor
Definition: The capacitor is a simple electronic device or component that is used to
store charge.

Construction: Two conductors of any shape (plates) carrying equal and opposite
charges, separated from each other by an insulating material medium called Dielectric
form a capacitor.

Working: First, we can note that a metal typically has an equal amount of positively and
negatively charged particles, which means it’s electrically neutral.

Capacitance
Definition: The ability of storing charges in a capacitor is known as capacitance.

Derivation: When the capacitor is connected to a battery of V volts, one plate draws
positive charge and the other plate draws negative charge from the battery until the
potential difference between the plates also becomes V volts.

Charge Q which resides on any one of the plate is directly proportional to the potential
difference between the plates.
 The constant C is called capacitance of the capacitor and the equation Q = CV is called
equation of capacitor.
So,

Unit: The unit of capacitance is Farad(1Coul/Volt).

1 Farad: If a charge of 1 Coulomb given to anyone of the plates produces a potential

difference of one volt between the plates, then the capacitance of the capacitor is said
to be 1 Farad.

Factors on which capacitance depends: Capacitance depends on these factors.

● Area of the plate. Capacitance increases if area of the plate increases.Hence
C∝A
● Distance between the plates. Capacitance increases if the separation distance
between the plates decreases.
Hence C ∝ 1/d
● Dielectric constant εr .capacitance increases if insulating medium of high
dielectric constant is used.
Hence C ∝ εr

Combination of capacitors: Combinations of capacitors are as follows.

1. Parallel combination
2. Series combination
3. Series parallel combination

1. Parallel combination of capacitors

Definition: A combination of capacitors in which the positive terminal of each capacitor
is connected with the positive terminal of the other capacitor and the negative terminal
of each capacitor is connected with the negative terminal of the other capacitor, is said
to be a parallel combination.

Derivation: If three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel and further
connected with a battery of V volts then: C1 draws charge Q1, C2 draws charge Q2, and
 C3 draws charge Q3. Then:
By applying capacitor equation. We get:

So capacitance becomes:

So now according to the equation the equivalent capacitance or overall total

capacitance is equal to the sum of individual capacitors.

Parallel combination of three capacitors

2. Series combination of capacitors

Definition: A combination in which the positive terminal of one capacitor connected with
the negative terminal of the other capacitor and the negative terminal of first capacitor is
connected with the positive terminal of the other capacitor, is said to be a series
combination.

Derivation: If three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series and further
connected with a battery of V volts. Then: Positive plate of capacitor C1 draws positive
charge +Q from the battery and negative plate of C3 draws charge -Q from the battery.

The charge +Q on the positive terminal (Left Plate) of C1 attracts free electrons from the
left plate of C2 and these free electrons are accumulated on the right plate of C1. Thus,
right plate of C1 becomes negatively charged with the charge -Q. In this way every
capacitor becomes charged.
 If voltage acquired by each capacitor is V1, V2, V3, by applying capacitor equation on C1,
C2 and C3 we get:

Then,

So now according to the equation:

The reciprocal of equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of
individual capacitance.

Uses of capacitors:
1. They are utilized in the process of tuning transmitters, receivers, and transistor
radios.
2. They are utilized to run table fans, ceiling fans, exhaust fans, air conditioner,
motors, coolers, washing machines, and many other appliances to keep them
running at a high efficiency.
 3. It is also common to find capacitors in the electronics circuitry of computers and
other products like smartphones.
4. It is possible to utilize capacitors to distinguish between high and low frequency
signals, which makes them valuable in electronics circuits. For instance, resonant
circuits, which are responsible for tuning radios to specific frequencies, require
the use of variable capacitors.

Unit-15: Current Electricity

Current
Definition: A current is motion of any charge moving from one point to another point.

Representation: Current is represented by I.

Unit: The SI unit of current is ampere.

Nature: Current is a tensor quantity.

Electronic current: When current flows from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal of battery.

Conventional current: When current flows from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal of battery.

Mathematically: Current can be calculated by

Types of current: There are two types of electric current.

 1. Direct current (DC)
2. Alternating current (AC)

Direct current (DC)

Definition: A current that always flows in one direction only is called direct current.

Example: The current we get from a battery is a direct current.

Alternating current (AC)

Definition: A current that reverses its direction periodically is called alternating current.

Example: Most power stations in our country produce alternating current.

Change indirection and Frequency: AC changes direction every 1/50 second and its
frequency is 50 hertz (Hz).

Advantage of AC over DC: One advantage of AC over DC is that it can be transmitted

over long distances without much loss of energy.

Potential difference
Definition: The potential difference is the difference in the amount of energy that
charge carriers have between two points in a field.
Mathematically: Equation of electric potential difference.

Unit: The unit of potential differences volt(V).

Electromotive force
Definition: The amount of energy required to move the charge from lower potential to
higher potential of the battery is called electromotive force (EMF).

Mathematically:
SI unit of EMF: The SI unit of EMF is volt(V).

CGS unit of EMF: The CGS unit of EMF: Statvolt or one erg per electrostatic unit of
charge.

Ohm's law
Introduction: This law was given by George Simon Ohm in 1826.

Statement: The current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the two ends of a conductor, provided the physical state (Dimension,
Temperature, etc) of the conductor remains same.

Mathematically: According to ohm's law

IαV
I= KV
Where K is constant of proportionality called conductance or physical state of conductor.
Conductance is opposite to resistance. Thus, K = 1/R
I=V/R
 V=IR
Where R is the constant called resistance.
Ohm's law limitations: There are some limitations to ohm's law. They are as follows:
● Ohm's law is an empirical law which is found true for maximum experiments butnot
for all.
● Some materials are non-ohmic under a weak electric field.
● Ohm's law holds true only for a conductor at a constant temperature because
resistivity changes with temperature.
● As long as the current flows, greater will be the temperature of the conductor.
● Heat produced in a conductor can be calculated by Joule's heat law H= I2Rtwhere I
is current, R is resistance and t is time.
● Ohm's law is not applicable to in-network circuits.
● Ohm's law does not apply directly to capacitor circuits and inductor circuits.
● The V-I graph of ohmic conductors is not really a straight graph. It does showsome
variation.

● The V-I characteristics of diodes are much different from ohmic conductors V-Igraph.

Non-ohmic device
Definition: The device that does not follow ohm's law is known as a non-ohmic device.

Example: The examples of non-ohmic devices are thermistors, crystal rectifiers,vacuum

tube and diode etc.

Resistance
Definition: The electrical resistance measures how much the flow of this electric charge
is restricted within the circuit.
Mathematically:
R= V/I
Unit: The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm(Ω).
Factor affecting the resistance:
● Electrical resistance is directly proportional to the length (L) of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the crosssectional area (A). It is given by the following
relation.
R = ρL/A
Where ρ is the resistivity of the material measured in Ωm.
● Electrical resistance is inversely proportional to the temperature of metallic
 conductors.
Resistivity: Resistivity is a qualitative measurement of a material's ability to resist
flowing electric current.

Uses of resistance: Resistance is also useful in things like transistor radios and TVsets.

The volume knob is actually part of an electronic component called a variable resistor. If
you turn the volume down, you are actually turning up the resistance in an electrical
circuit that drives the TV's loudspeaker. When you turn up the resistance, the electric
current flowing through the circuit is reduced. With less current, there is less energy to
power the loudspeaker - so it sounds much quieter.

Circuit
Definition: The method of connecting the electric components is called circuit.

Types of circuits: There are two types of circuits

1. Series combination circuit
2. Parallel combination circuit

Series combination circuit

Definition: When resistors are connected end to end such that there is only one path
for the current to flow then the combination is called series combination.

Derivation: Let suppose three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series, when
this combination is connected to a battery of V volts, it draws current I from the battery.
Re is called equivalent resistor and its resistance is called equivalent resistance.

Then, for series combination

........(i)
By applying Ohm's Law to each resistor. We have:

Using them in equation (I) we get:

 Thus equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistance.

Advantages:
1. It's employed when a large number of bulbs or lights need to be used at the same
time.
2. Because the circuit receives less current, it is safer.
3. Because all the bulbs, lights and appliances are connected together, it's easier toturn
them on or off.

Disadvantages:
1. Because all electrical appliances have only one switch, no single appliance maybe
turned off separately.
2. The second component of the circuit will not function if one component is used orquits
operating.
3. Because the voltage is distributed in series or combination, not all of the
components receive the same voltage.

Diagram showing three resistors connected in series

Parallel combination circuits
Definition: When there are multiple paths for current flow in a circuit, the combination of
resistance is referred to as parallel combination.

Derivation: Let suppose three resistors R1,R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. When
the combination is connected to a battery of V volts, it draws a current I from the battery.
Re is called equivalent resistor and its resistance is called equivalent resistance.

Then, for parallel combinations

By applying Ohm's law to each register. We have:

 Using them in equation (i). We get:

Thus the reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of

individual resistances.

Diagram showing three resistors connected in series

Advantages:
1. Each appliance can be turned on or off independently.
2. The voltage of each electrical appliance is the same as the power supply line.
3. If one electrical appliance stops working due to a problem, the other appliances will
continue to function.

Disadvantages:
1. Because the circuit can carry higher current, it is less safe.
2. If hundreds of appliances or lamps need to be turned on or off at the same time,this
method is difficult to apply.

Electric power: The rate at which the work is being done in an electrical circuit is
called an electric power.
Power dissipation
Definition: The rate at which the heat is dissipated is called power dissipation.

Representation: It is represented by P.

Unit: The SI unit of power dissipation is Watts(W).

Mathematically:
P = IV
Or
P = I2R
Or
P = V2/R

Joule's law
Introduction: This law was given by English physicist Joule.

Statement: When an electric current passes through a conductor, heat H is produced,

which is directly proportional to the resistance R of the conductor, the time t for which
the current flows, and to the square of the magnitude of current I.

Mathematically:

● The amount of generated heat is proportional to the wire's electrical resistancewhen

the current in the circuit and time of flow are not changed.
● The amount of generated heat in a conductor carrying current is proportional tothe
square of the current flow through the circuit when the electrical resistance and time
of flow are constant.
● The amount of heat produced because of the current flow is proportional to thetime
of flow when the resistance and current flow is kept constant.
Electrical components or circuit components and their uses: The
devices that make up an electric circuit are known as electrical components. Different
components are used for different purposes.

Switches or key: It is one of the most fundamental electrical components, it is used to

turn electric circuits ON and OFF. This simply implies that when you press or flick a
switch, current is allowed to pass through to the rest of the circuit.

Resistor: It is a two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistanceas a circuit element.

Battery: It is electrical source that store the chemical

energy and converts the chemicalenergy into electrical

energy.

Transducer: It is an electrical component that converts one form of energy into

anotherform of energy like microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.
LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors): A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is an
electronic component that is sensitive to light. It is used in automatic security lights.
● In low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little current can flow
through it.
● In bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low and more current can flow through it.

Thermistors: It is thermally sensitive resistors whose resistance is strongly dependent

on temperature. It is used to measure the temperature very accurately.

Relay: It switches which aim at OFF and ON the circuits electronically as well as
electromechanically.
Moving coil galvanometer: This device was invented by Luigi Galvano. It is an
electromechanical instrument used to detect and measure small amount of current
which is in the range between milliamperes or microamperes.

Working principle: This is a current detecting meter based on magnetic dipole torque.
Symbol:

Ammeter: An ammeter is an electromechanical instrument used to measure electric

current.

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter: A galvanometer can be converted into an

ammeter by connecting a low shunt resistance in parallel to the galvanometer.

Connection: An ammeter is used in a circuit always in 'series'.

Circuit diagram of ammeter

 Symbol: Its symbol is (A).

Symbol

Voltmeter: Voltmeter is an electromechanical instrument used to measure potential

difference.

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: A galvanometer can be converted into a

voltmeter if a high resistance is connected in series with galvanometer.

Connection: A voltmeter is used in a circuit always in parallel.

Symbol: Its symbol is (V).

Hazards of electricity: Electrical shock, fire, and arc flashes are the primary
hazards that are present in working with electricity. When the human body comes into
contact with either or both of the wires in an electrical circuit or with one wire of an
energized circuit and the ground, or with a metallic part that has become energized by
contact with an electrical conductor, the result is an electric shock.

Electrical shock depends on the pathway through the body, the amount of current, the
length of exposure, and whether the skin is wet or dry. Wet skin and wet conditions are
good conductors of electricity.

Damaged Insulation: Insulation refers to the sheath made of plastic that is wrapped
around wires in a circuit. If the insulation on a cable is damaged, the metal conductors
inside will be exposed.

It is possible for a person to receive an electric shock if he comes into contact with the
exposed wires, which could result in his death. Before replacing any damaged
insulation, attempt to cover any damaged insulation with electrical tape, make sure that
all power sources have been turned off and then replace that damaged insulation.

Overheating of cables: When a very high current is passed through a cable, there is a
possibility that the wire will overheat as a result of the excessive amount of energy.
Because of the overheating, their is a risk of electrical fires.

Safety measures in household electricity: To avoid any unwanted incidentfew

measures must be taken which are given below:

Fuses: Fuses prevent damage to electronic components caused by overheating. When

there is a significant amount of current running through the circuit, the wires that are
contained within the circuit will begin to overheat. A metal wire fuse with a low melting
point will become molten, breaking the circuit.

Different type of fuse used in electronic components

 The Circuit-Breaker: Breakers prevent damage to electronic components caused by
overheating. In the majority of applications found in the home, circuit breakers are used
to restrict the amount of current flowing through a single circuit. Although the circuit
breakers are available in a wide range of sizes, the maximum current that can flow
through a single circuit is typically 20 amps. 20 amps of current will heat the bimetallic
strip, bending it download and releasing the trip-lever. In the case of a high-current
spike, the bimetallic strip will be rapidly retracted by a small electromagnet made from
wire loops wrapped around a piece of iron.

Effects of electric shock on human body:

● Electric current of 0.001 A can be felt.
● Electric current of 0.005 A can be painful for human body.
● If electric current is of 0.01 A, resulting in the contraction of muscles in an
uncontrollable manner (spasms).
● Electric shock of 0.015 A can lead to a lack of control over the muscles.
● The electric current of 0.070 A passes through the heart; creates a significant
disturbance; and is almost certainly fatal if the current continues for more than
one second.
Unit-16: Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism: Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics that deals with the

electromagnetic force that occurs between electrically charged particles.

Electromagnetic force: The electromagnetic force is a type of physical interaction

that occurs between electrically charged particles.

Connection between electricity and magnetism: As the charge particles

start to move, they produce a magnetic field surrounding them as illustrated in figure.

Example: When electrons flow across a wire to charge your computer or phone, orswitch ON your TV,
the weak magnetic field.
 Magnetic field of a study current:
Pass a current-carrying conductor through a
cardboard sheet. Small compasses should be
placed near the conductor. Then, the
compasses will point in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force.

Fleming's right hand rule: Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction thecurrent
flows.

The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually
perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram.

● The thumb is pointed in the direction of

force.
● The first finger is pointed in the direction
of the magnetic field. By convention, it is
directed from the North to South
magnetic pole.
● Then the second finger represents the
direction of the induced or generated
current within the conductor.

Magnetic field: Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving
electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.

Example: Earth has magnetic field around it, because of flowing of liquid metal in theouter core cause
to generate electric current.
 Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines are
imaginary lines coming outward from thenorth
pole and going inward in a south pole and inside
a bar magnet, magnetic field willbe zero. The
magnetic field is strongest at the end of the pole
because magnetic field lines are very close at
the end of poles, while it is weakest at the
center.

Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction

Definition: A vector quantity measuring the strength and direction of the magnetic field
around a magnet or an electric current.

Representation: It is represented by B.

Unit: Its unit is tesla (N/(A×m)).

D.C motor
Definition: D.C motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.

Introduction: William Sturgeon invented the first D.C motor, while Frank Julian
Sprague invented the D.C motor that could run at constant speed under variable weight.

Construction: A D.C motor consists of following main parts.

Magnetic Field System: The magnetic field system of a D.C motor is the stationary
part of the machine. It produces magnetic field in the motor.

Armature: The armature of D.C motor is connected with the shaft and rotates between
the field poles after passing current through it.
 Commutator: A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current
input to the motor from the DC source into alternating current in the armature.

Brushes: The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from
the DC source into the armature.

Faraday's Law of Induction

Introduction: Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in
1831.

Statement: A voltage is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a

conductor and a magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to
the rate of change of the flux".

Mathematically: According to Faraday's law

Where:
ε = Induced emf
dΦ = change in magnetic flux
N = No of turns in coil

Factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f:

The factors involved in the induced emf of a coil are:
● The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to N, the total number of turns in the
coil.
● The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to A, the area of cross-section of the
coil.
● The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to B, the strength of the magnetic field
in which the coil is rotating.
● The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to '', the angular velocity of the coil.
● The induced e.m.f. also varies with time and depends on instant 't'.
● The induced e.m.f. is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic
field B and e.m.f. is zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to magnetic
 field B.
Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction
Statement: Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnetic field
produced by the induced current opposes the original magnetic field that produced the
current.

Explanation: Below illustration showing that, if magnetic field "B" is increasing, the
induced magnetic field will oppose it in
figure (a).

Magnetic field induced by induced current

As illustrated in figure (b), the induced magnetic field will once again oppose the
magnetic field "B" when "B" is decreasing. This time, "in opposition" suggests it's acting
to increase the field by opposing the decreasing rate of change.

Magnetic field induced by induced current

Derivation: Lenz's law derives from Faraday's law of induction.

When a magnetic field changes, an induced current will flow in the opposite direction, as
described by Lenz's law. That's why the minus sign ('-') appears in the formula for
Faraday's law to emphasize this point.
According to Faraday's law that the magnitude of the EMF induced in the circuit is
proportional to the rate of change of flux.

Where:
ε = Induced emf
dΦB = change in magnetic flux
N = No of turns in coil

Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy: To obey the law of energy conservation, the
direction of the current induced by Lenz's law must create a magnetic field that is
opposite to the magnetic field that created it. In fact, Lenz's law is a result of the law of
conservation of energy.

If the magnetic field created by the induced current is in the same direction as the field
that produced it, then the two magnetic fields would combine to make a larger magnetic
field.

By combining their magnetic fields, they may create a field that is twice as strong as the
original one, inducing a current twice as large in the conductor.

As a result, a new magnetic field would be produced, which in turn would induce a new
current. And so on.

Because of this, it is easy to understand that the conservation of energy would be

violated if Lenz's law did not state that the induced current must produce a magnetic
field that opposes the field that originated it.
Lenz's law and Newton's third law of motion: Lenz’s law states that in
electromagnetic induction, the direction of induced current is such that it opposes cause
of its creation. Remember the experiment of moving magnet towards and away from a
coiled wire. The galvanometer needle deflects towards right on moving magnet towards
left the coil.

Here, the third law of motion is followed because direction of induced current is
opposite to the force which we apply. Hence action i.e. motion of magnet and reaction
 i.e. induction of current are equal and opposite.

A.C generator: An AC generator is an electric generator that converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy in the form of alternative emf or alternating current. An AC
generator works on the principle of "Electromagnetic Induction".

Mutual induction
Definition: When an electric current passing through a primary coil changes with time,
an emf is induced in the secondary coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction
and the emf is called mutually induced emf.
Transformer
Definition: Transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit
to another without changing the frequency. It operates on an AC supply.

Working principle: Transformers operate based on the principle of mutual induction.

Construction: It consists of two coils which are magnetically linked to each other but
electrically isolated from one another although wrapped around the same iron core,
make up a transformer. The primary coil is the first of two coils in the system which is
connected to A.C input power. The secondary coil is the other coil which delivers the
power to the output circuit.
Working: When current passing through the primary coil generates magnetic field,
which is transmitted to the secondary coil through the core. The change in the field
causes an alternating e.m.f. to be generated in the secondary coil.
Types of transformer: The types of transformer are following.
1. Step up transformer.
2. Step down transformer

1. Step up transformer: The transformer is referred to as a step-up transformer if the

secondary voltage exceeds the primary voltage.

2.Step down transformer: A step-down transformer is one

in which the secondaryvoltage is lower than the primary
voltage.

Ideal transformer
Definition: An ideal transformer dissipates no power.

Mathematically: We may write the following mathematical expression for such a

transformer
Pp = P s
Vplp = Vsls

Role of Transformer in Power Transmission: Generation of electrical power

in low voltage level is very much cost effective. Theoretically, this low voltage level
power can be transmitted to the receiving end. This low voltage power if transmitted
results in greater line current which indeed causes more line losses.

But if the voltage level of a power is increased, the current of the power is reduced
which causes reduction in ohmic or P=I2R losses in the system, reduction in
cross-sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital cost of the system and it
also improves the voltage regulation of the system. Because of these, low level power
must be stepped up for efficient electrical power transmission.

This is done by step up transformer at the sending side of the power system network. As this
high voltage power may not be distributed to the consumers directly, this must be stepped
down to the desired level at the receiving end with the help of step down transformer.
Electrical power transformer thus plays a vital role

Unit-17: Introductory Electronics

Electronics: Electronics is the branch of physics and electrical engineering that
deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons and with electronic devices.
Fields of Electronics: Electronics may have two fields:

(1) Analogue
(2) Digital

Advantages of digital information over analogue information: Digital information

has several advantages over analogue information. Some of these advantages are:

(i) Easy storage.

(ii) Easy transmission.
(iii) Large amplification.
(iv) Less noisy signal (clear signal).
(v) Negligible power or line losses.

Advantages of digital electronic devices over analogue electronic devices: Digital

electronics devices have many advantages over analogue electronic devices. Some of these
advantages are:

(i) They have greater speed.

(ii) They are very sensitive.
(iii) Their displays are easily readable.
(iv) They are very accurate.
(v) They have better resolution.
(vi) They can monitor remote signals.
(vii) Their sizes are small.

Example of advantages of digital electronic devices over analogue electronic

devices Or Advantages of DVM over electrical voltmeter: A digital voltmeter (DVM)has
following advantages over electrical voltmeter.

(i) Higher accuracy.

(ii) Higher resolution.
(iii) Greater speed.
(iv) No parallax errors.
(v) Reduced human error.
(vi) Compatibility with other digital equipment.

Analogue electronics: Analogue electronics deals with circuits which have

continuously varying signals.
Example: radio, television, oscillator etc.

Analogue signal: An analogue signal is shown:

Digital electronics: Digital electronics deals

with circuits which have discrete signals.

Example: Computers, calculators, MP3 players etc.

Digital signal: A digital signal is shown:

Difference between analogue and digital electronics:

S. No. Analogue Electronics Digital Electronics

1. Measures continuously varying Measures discrete as well as

quantities. continuously varying quantities.

2. Analogue signals are in the form of a Digital signals are in the form of 0's
wave. and 1's. These two levels can be
joined to form a square wave.

3. Data can not be stored closely Data can be stored more closely
(compactly). (compactly) like in CD's..

4. Analogue signals are very much Digital signals are almost not
affected by noise (the unwanted affected by noise (the unwanted
voltage fluctuations). voltage fluctuations).

5. Analogue data can be transmitted Digital data can be transmitted more

less efficiently and reliably. efficiently and reliably.
 6. Amplified analogue signal does have Amplified digital signal almost does
noise. not have noise.

7. Analogue devices have high Digital devices have very high

precession. precession.

8. Examples of analogue devices Examples of digital devices include

include ordinary air thermometer, the computers, calculators, watches,
barometer, speedometer, vehicles, MP3 players, DVD's, laptops,
the mechanical watches etc. sensors, biometric machines, chip in
ID cards etc.

Both analogue and digital electronics are used in many devices: Both analogue
and digital electronics are used in many devices. Compact disc (CD) player is an example of
it. The basic principle of a CD player is shown in the following simplified block diagram:

Basic principle of a CD player

Music stored on a compact disc in digital form. An optical system picks up this data and
transfers it to the digital-to-analogue converter (DAC). The DAC changes this digital
data into an analogue signal (The original music). This analogue signal is amplified by a
linear amplifier and sent to speaker for us to listen. The reverse process to the above
 process was used when the music was originally recorded on the CD, using an
analogue to digital converter (ADC). A diagram of an analogue to digital convertor
(ADC) is shown in figure below.

Thermionic emission
Definition: Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a hot metal surface.

Demonstration of thermionic emission:

Apparatus: The vacuum tube shown in below figure is called a thermionic diode. This
vacuum tube consists of two electrodes called the anode and the cathode.

Experiment: The anode is positively

charged so attracts negative charges

(electrons).The cathode is negatively

charged so repels negative charges

(electrons).

The cathode shown is made up of tungsten

filament.

Normally the gap between cathode and anode cannot be crossed by the electrons when
the filament is switched OFF. As the filament is switched ON, the electrons escape from
the hot tungsten surface. These electrons are attracted across to the anode. Hence
thermionic emission occurs. Note that if air is in the tube instead of having vacuum in it,
thermionic emission still occurs.

Cathode rays
Definition: The beam of fast moving electrons is called cathode rays.

Properties or characteristics of cathode rays:

● They transfer negative charge (electrons).
● They transfer energy.
● They transfer mass.
 ● They transfer momentum.
● Their charge to mass ratio (e/m) is much larger than Hydrogen ion.
● Their properties are independent of the choice of gas in the tube and also the
metal used as cathode.

Electron gun
Definition: An electron gun makes the electrons to travel in straight lines like a beam
called "Cathode rays".

An electron gun as a source of

electron beam
Construction: It consists of cathode which is
connected to negative terminal, anodewhich is
connected to positive terminal, filament and
sealed glass tube.

Deflection of an electron by
electric field: Electrons can be deflected byelectric
fields.

Demonstration: The diagram given below shows

the deflection of an electron passingthrough a
uniform electric field at 90° to the direction of
motion of electron.

This field is generated by parallel charged plate.

The two plates are oppositely charged. Force
acting on electron is constant and towards the positive plate as a result electron follows
a curved path towards the positive plate.

Effect of electric field on an electron beam: The deflection pattern of an electron

beam is same to that of a single electron.

The effects of electric field on an electron beam are:

(i) The beam bends and changes direction.
(ii) The beam follows a parabolic (curved) path in the electric field.
 (iii) The beam of electron changes direction millions of times each second.
(iv) The energy and speed of electron beam increases. (v) The beam continues to movein a
straight line after passing through the electric field.

Deflection of an electron by magnetic

field: Electrons can be deflected bymagnetic fields.
Demonstration: The diagram given below shows
the deflection of an electron passingthrough a
uniform magnetic field acting at 90° to the direction
of motion of electron.

This field is generated by passing a current through a pair of plates (coils). In the above
figure the field is sing shown by "x" sign. This means that the field lines are
perpendicular to the page and are directed into the page. This produces a force that
acts at right angles downwards to the direction of motion of electron. If the field direction
is reversed, the force direction also reversed. The direction of the force can be found by
Fleming's left hand rule (Note that conventional current direction is opposite to that of
electron flow). The electron changes direction and bends. Because the force acts at
right angles to the direction of motion of electron, the electron will move in a circular
path.

Effect of magnetic field on an electron beam:

(i) The beam bends and changes direction.
(ii) The beam follows a circular path in the magnetic field.
(iii) The energy of electron beam does not change in the magnetic field.
(iv) The speed of electron beam does not change in magnetic field.

Cathode-ray Oscilloscope
(CRO): A Cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO) isgenerally referred to as
oscilloscope or scope.

Construction: A cathode ray

oscilloscope consists of different
components. The maincomponent
of a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is a cathode-ray tube. A
cathode-ray tube is shown in figure
below.
Working:
● The electron gun emits a beam of electrons (ie. cathode-ray) which is producedby the
cathode.
● When this electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen a bright spot is created on the
screen.
● The electron gun consists of a grid which is connected to (-ve) potential. It repelsthe
electrons and therefore controls the number of electrons reaching to anode and
screen. Thus it controls the brightness of the spot on the screen.
● The anode at (+ve) potential and is used to accelerate the electrons and to focusthem
 into a fine beam.
● The deflecting system consists of X- plates and Y plates to move the spot on thescreen.
● Y-plates cause deflection in vertical direction (up and down) when voltage is
applied across them. The vertical deflection of the electron beam can be changed
by varying the voltage across the Y- plates.
● X-plates cause deflection in horizontal direction (left and right) when voltage is
applied across them. The horizontal deflection of the electron beam can be changed
by varying the voltage across the X- plates.
Important controls: The figure below shows the front
panel of a CRO with theunderstanding of the important
terminals to be used.
The following are the four important controls on an
oscilloscope.
1. X-shift
2. Y-shift
3. Time base
4. Y-gain

● X-shift control moves the trace from the left or right of the screen to the centre of the
screen.
● Y-shift control moves the trace from the top or bottom of the screen to the centreof
the screen. The vertical deflection of the electron beam can be changed by varying the
voltage across the Y- plates.
● Vertical deflection (Y-gain) of the electron beam can be amplified by using this control.
This is done by varying the voltage applied across the Y-plates of the cathode-ray tube.
An amplifier circuit amplifies the voltage across the Y-plates inthe cathode-ray
oscilloscope.
● Time base: Horizontal (X) speed of the electron
beam on the screen can be adjusted by using this
control. This is done by varying the voltage applied
acrossthe X-plates of the cathode-ray tube. The
frequency of the time base is varied byan internal
circuit in the cathode-ray oscilloscope which
applies an alternating voltage across the X-plates. The time-base actually applies a saw
tooth voltage to the X-plates is shown in figure below.
Uses of the CRO: Some of the important
uses of cathode-ray oscilloscope are given below:
1. Measuring voltage
2. Displaying voltage waveforms
3. Measuring short intervals of time

The voltage to be measured is connected to the Y input of the oscilloscope. Two things
to be remember.
1. Y-axis is used to measure the voltage.
2. X-axis is used to measure the time.
So, the display on a cathode-ray oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against
time.
Basic operations of digital
electronics: Digital electronics-based
devices usediscrete signals. A digital signal
represents two opposite states. These
signals either represents a (ON, OFF, HIGH,
LOW. OPEN, CLOSE, UPPER, LOWER,
PLUS, MINUS,
TRUE, FALSE, MAX, MIN) states of a
system. There is no intermediate state is
possible(allowed).

Example: A block diagram of a security alarm

which operates through two switches isshown in figure.

It can be seen clearly from the above

diagram that:
● If either switch "p" or "Q" is OFF,
the alarm will remain OFF (quite).
● If both switches "P" and "Q" are
ON, the alarm will be ON (ringing).This
example could be demonstrated by the
following table:
The above table represents the logic behind the working of the alarm. In digital
electronics, this logic is implemented by "LOGIC GATES".

Logic Gates: The logic gate is the basic unit of digital logic circuits.

Examples: There are mainly three basic gates AND, OR, and NOT and these logical
gates perform AND, OR, and NOT operations in the digital system.

AND Gate: An AND gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and a single
output.

Operation: AND gate operates on logical multiplication rules.

Representation: AND operation using variables A and B is represented "A.B". here (.)
dot is a logical multiplication sign.

Boolean Expression: Y=A.B.

Truth table of AND operation using two input variables: Truth Table of AND gate
using two input variables A, B and output is Y. If any input is 0, then output Y becomes

0. If all inputs are 1 then output Y

becomes 1.
Boolean expression of AND gate is
Y=A.B
Truth table of AND operation using three input variables: Truth Table of AND gate
using three input variables A, B, C, and output is Y. If any input is 0, then output Y becomes 0.
If all inputs are 1 then output Y

becomes 1.
Boolean expression of AND gate is Y=A.B.C

OR Gate: An OR gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and produces a
single output, which is the logical OR of all those inputs.

Operation: An OR gate operates on logical Addition rules.

Representation: The logical OR is represented with symbol "+"

Boolean Expression: Y = A + B

Truth table of OR gate operation using two input variables: Truth Table of OR gate
using two input variables A, B and output is Y, If any input is 1 then output Y becomes 1and if all
inputs are 0 then output Y becomes 0.

Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B

Truth table of OR operation using three input variables: Truth Table of OR gate
using three input variables A, B, C and output is Y, If any input is 1 then output Y becomes
1 and if all inputs are 0 then output Y becomes 0.

Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B + C

NOT Gate: A NOT gate is a digital circuit that has a single input and a single output. It
is also known as INVERTER.

Operation: The NOT operates complement or invert of any input.

Representation: It is symbolized by the complement sign (') on the right side of the top
of the input variable or bar (-) sign on top of the variable.
 Boolean Expression: Y =A' or Y = Ā

Truth table of NOT gate operation using two input variables: Truth table of NOT
gate is A as input and Y = Ā as output.

NAND Gate: A NAND Gate could be constructed by connecting a NOT Gate at the
output terminal of the AND Gate.

Boolean Expression: or

Truth table of NAND operation using

two input variables: The Truth table of the
NAND gate shows A, B are the inputs and Y is
the output. When both inputs are "1" the
output, Y is "0". If any one of the inputs is "0",
then the output Y is "1".
 NOR Gate: A NOR Gate could be constructed by connecting a NOT Gate at the
output terminal of the OR Gate.

Boolean Expression:

Truth table of NOR operation using two input variables: The Truth table of the NOR
gate shows A, B are the inputs and Y is the output. If both inputs are "0", then the output, Y is
"1". If any one of the inputs is "1", then the output Y is "0".

Use of Logic Gates:

A seat belt alarm system: In Figure below, an AND gate is used in a simple
automobile seat belt alarm system to detect when the ignition switch is on and the seat
belt is unbuckled. If the ignition switch is on, a HIGH is produced on input A of the AND
gate. If the seat belt is not properly buckled, a HIGH is produced on input B of the AND
gate. Also, when the ignition switch is turned on, a timer is started that produces a HIGH
on input C for 30 s. If all three conditions exist that is, if the ignition is on and the seat
belt is unbuckled and the timer is running-the output of the AND gate is HIGH and an
audible alarm is energized to remind the driver.
 Intrusion detection and alarm system: A simplified portion of an intrusion detection
and alarm system is shown in Figure 17.31. This system could be used for one room in
a home a room with two windows and a door. The sensors are magnetic switches that
produce a HIGH output when open and a LOW output when closed. As long as the
windows and the door are secured, the switches are closed and all three of the OR gate
inputs are LOW. When one of the windows or the door is opened, a HIGH is produced
on that input to the OR gate and the gate output goes HIGH. It then activates and
latches an alarm circuit to warn of the intrusion.

Unit-18: Information and Communication Technology

Information technology: Information technology is the scientific approach for

storing information, organizing it for optimal use, and communicating it to others.

Telecommunication: The process of transmitting information over long distances is

known as telecommunication.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT): ICT refers to the

scientific techniques and tools to process, and transport large volumes of information in a
matter of seconds using electronic devices.

Components of Computer Based Information System (CBIS): Five

components must come together to create a CBIS as shown in figure below.

0. Hardware is machinery: This comprises the CPU and its supporting hardware.
Input/output, storage, and communication devices are examples of essential equipment.
1. Software: Software includes computer applications. They tell the CBIS's hardware
how to process data and turn it into meaningful information. Programsare usually
saved on chips or tapes.
2. Data: Programs utilize data to provide helpful information. It might be a phrase,
picture, or figure that has special significance. Data, like programmers, are usuallysaved
on chips or tapes until needed by the computer.
 3. Procedures: The guidelines for creating and using information systems. Theseare in
user manuals and papers. From time to time, these rules or techniques may be
revised. In order to accommodate these adjustments, the information system must
be adaptable.
4. People: A CBIS is useless without individuals who can impact the success or failure of
information systems. People develop and maintain the software, enterdata, and
construct the hardware that makes a CBIS work. People write the processes and
ultimately decide the CBIS's effectiveness.

Input hardware
Definition: The devices that are used to command the data to the computer are known
as input hardware devices.

Example: Mouse, joystick and keyboard.

Output hardware
Definition: The devices that are used to display processed data are known as output
hardware.
Example: Loudspeaker, screen, printer.

System software: System software is a type of computer program that is designed

to run a computer's hardware and application programs.

Communication system: Figure below shows a communication system. The

transmitter, transmission channel, and receiver are three of the most important parts of
any communication system.
The input signal is processed by the transmitter. The transmission channel is the
medium used to transmit the signal. Wires or coaxial cables may be used in the same
way as radio-wave and optical fiber cables. The transducer receives the output signal
from the receiver after it has been processed. To compensate for transmission loss, the
receiver may amplify the input signal.

Transducer: Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into other form
of energy.

Transmission Of Electrical
Signal Through Wires: The
mouthpiece and theearpiece are two
elements of the telephone system as
shown in figure below.

A thin metal diaphragm and carbon

granules are found in the mouthpiece
and receiver, respectively. The
diaphragm vibrates as we speak
through the mouthpiece. An electrical
current may travel through the wire
because the diaphragm vibrates
slightly, compressing the carbon.
At the opposite end of the line, the receiver reverses this procedure. An electromagnet
inthe receiver generates a changing magnetic field as a result of the electrical current.
Asa result of the receiver's thin metal diaphragm vibrating due to the magnetic field,
soundis produced.

Transmissions Of Radio Waves Through Space: The microphone converts

the radio station's sound waves into electrical impulses. The transmission aerial
consists of an antenna, and these signals are subsequently fed into the antenna.
Electromagnetic radio waves are produced when the charges on the transmission
antenna vibrate in response to electrical signals.

The modulated signal is selected and amplified by the receiver at the other end. In order
to get at the information signal, we need to use the demodulator, which extracts it. In
Figure below, we see a radio broadcast and reception system
in action.

Fax machine: A fax machine is a need for many enterprises across the globe.

There are two essential functions in the use of fax machines: scanning the page and
transmitting the resulting electronic signals over telephone line. An internal printer on
thereceiving system is used to print out a copy of the transmitted message once it has
been converted by the software.

Cell phone: In mobile phones, radio technology is used and it is a sort of radio that
allows for two-way communication between users.

There are radio transmitters and receivers

built inside the mobile phone's internal components. To communicate, it uses radio
waves to transmit and receive. When a mobile phone user makes a phone call, the
sound waves of the caller are transformed into radio waves. As soon as this signal is
received, it is routed to the caller's local base station and given a unique radio
frequency. The receiver's base station receives this signal through mobile switching
center (MSC), which transmits it to the transmitter. Afterwards, the caller's mobile phone
is connected to the call. The radio waves are converted into sound once again by the
mobile receiver as shown in figure.

Photo phone: A photo phone is a phone by which we can transmit and receive
sound as well as video.

Transmission Of Light Through Optical Fibers: Visible light waves are

substantially higher in frequency than radio waves. This implies that light beams can
convey information faster than radio waves or microwaves. An optical fiber was
employed as a transmission path.

Light entering the core of an optical fiber travels straight and meets the inner wall
(cladding). If the cladding incidence angle is below the critical angle, some light escapes
the fiber optics and is lost as shown in figure below. It then proceeds in a straight path
until it meets the inner wall again, and so on.

The benefit of optical fiber is that it can be used to transmit very large amounts of data
across great distances with little loss of quality. This characteristic of fiber optics
separates it from wire-based systems. Whenever electrical signals are transferred
across wires, the signal loss rises in direct proportion to the increase in data rate
delivered. As a result, the signal's range is reduced.

Computer: A computer processes, stores, and displays data. Hardware and software
are two components that are fundamental to the operation of a computer. "Hardware" is
a physical component of computer. CPU, monitor, keyboard, and mouse are a few
examples. CPU, a microprocessor, is the most important component of hardware. It is
the "brain" of computer, the unit that processes instructions and calculates results.
Software informs hardware what to do. A word processing program enables you to type
letters. The operating system (OS) is the software that governs the functioning of your
computer and any other connected devices. Windows and Linux are well-known
operating systems.

Uses: Today, computers are employed in almost every field, including medicine,
engineering, weather forecasting, transportation, and shopping malls.

Supercomputer
Definition: Supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the highest
operational rate for computers.

Application: Traditionally, supercomputers have been used for scientific and

engineering applications that must handle massive databases, do a great amount of
computation or both.

Information Storage Devices: These are devices that can be used to storeinformation
in a computer.

Primary Memory: Primary memory is made up of integrated circuits (ICs) that a

processor or computer can access immediately. Random Access Memory (RAM) is a
region in the memory where running programmers and services may be accessed by
theCPU. Whenever you turn off your computer, you lose all of your RAM's data. The
second part of memory is called read-only memory (ROM), which is a type of storage
medium that stores data on personal computers (PCs) and other electronic devices in a
way that doesn't change it. Among its many functions, it handles the majority of a
computer's input and output and stores any program or software instructions that are
loaded during bootup.

Secondary storage devices: It is used to keep the data in the computer for a long time.
When we open a software, data is transferred from secondary to main storage.

Example: Audio-video cassettes, hard discs, USBS, memory cards are the few
examples of secondary storage devices.
Audio And Video Cassettes: These devices are based on magnetism. Audio
cassettes consist of a tape of magnetic material on which sound is recorded in a
particular pattern of a magnetic field; figure below.

Recording of sound: For recording of sound, microphone changes sound waves into
electric pulses, which are amplified by an amplifier. Magnetic tape is moved across the
head of audio cassette recorder which is in fact an electromagnet; figure below.

Producing sound again: To produce the sound again, the tape is moved past the play
back head. Changes in magnetic field on the tape induce alternating current signals in
the coil wound on the head. These signals are amplified and sent to the loudspeakers
which reproduce the recorded sound.
In video tape/cassettes; Figure below, pictures are recorded along with sound.
 Magnetic Disks: There are different types of magnetic disks coated with a layer of
some magnetic material. The read/write head of disks are similar to the record and
replay head on a tape recorder. It magnetizes parts of the surface to record information.
The difference is that a disk is a digital medium-binary numbers are written and read.

Floppy disc: A floppy disc; Figure below is a small magnetically sensitive, flexible
plastic wafer housed in a plastic case. It is coated with a magnetic oxide similar to the
material used to coat cassettes and video tapes. Most personal computers include at
least one disk drive that allows the computer to write it and read from floppy disk.

Floppy disc

Hard Disk: Most users rely on hard disks as their primary storage devices. A hard
disk is a rigid, magnetically sensitive disk that spins rapidly and continuously inside the
computer chassis or in a separate box connected to the computer housing; Figure
below. This type of hard disk is never removed by the user. A typical hard disk consists
of several platters, each accessed via a read/write head on a moveable arm.

Compact Disc (CDs): It's a molded plastic disc with tiny "pits" and "lands" that
store digital data. Pits are CD's spiral tracks and lands lie between them; Figure below.
A laser beam scans the disc to read data. CD pits and lands reflect laser light differently.
This pattern of pit and land light reflection is transformed to binary data. The lands
represent '1' and the bits represent '0'. CDs can contain 680 MB of data.

Flash Drive: It is an electronics device and has Integrated circuits (ICs) that store
data. A flash drive may transfer data between computers; Figure below. This device can
hold a year's load of schoolwork. We may connect it to our key chain, or book bag.
Because of flash derive; we don't need to bring a hard drive or laptop with us when we
 move around the world.

Word Processing: Word processing is such a use of computer through which we

can write a letter, article, book or prepare a report. Word processing is a computer
program.

Data Management: To collect all information regarding a subject for any purpose
and to store them in the computer in more than one inters linked files which may help
when needed, is called 'data managing'.

Uses:
● The educational institutions, libraries, hospitals and industries store the
concerned information by data management.
● In big departmental stores and supermarkets, optical scanners are used to read,with
the help of a Laser Beam, the barcodes of a product which indicate the number at
which this product is recorded in the register; Figu.re below. In this
way, the detail about its price is obtained.

Barcode scanning
● NADRA, biggest data managing authority of Pakistan that manage the data of citizens
through the internet by issuing computerized identity card and Form B.

Internet: Internet is a network of networks, which spreads all across the globe.

Internet uses communication system: Recall that telephone communication system

is well defined, time proven system. Internet makes use of this system and many other
systems to connect all the computers. Thus like a telephone connection, any computer
of any city can establish a connection with any other computer of any other city and
exchange data or messages with it.

HTTP: HTTP, in full Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, standard application-level

protocolused for exchanging files on the World Wide Web.

Internet Services: The main services used on the internet include:

● Web browsing - this function allows users to view webpages.
● E-mail - Allows people to send and receive text messages.

Browsers: A browser is an application which provides a window to the Web. All

browsers are designed to display the pages of information located at Web sites around
the world.

Most popular browsers: The most popular browsers on the market today include
Internet Explorer, The World, Opera, Safari, Mozilla Firefox, Chrome, etc.

Electronic Mail: One of the most widely used application of internet is electronic mail
(or e-mail), which provides very fast delivery of messages to any enabled site on the
Internet.

Advantages of e-mail: Some advantages of e-mail are as follows:

Fast Communication: We can send messages anywhere in the world instantly.

Cost Free Service: If we have an internet access, then we can avail the e-mail
service free of cost.

Simple to Use: After initial set up of e-mail account, it is easy to use.

More Efficient: We can send our message to many friends or people only in one
action.

Sending of pictures or other files: Pictures or other files can also be sent throughe-
mail.
 Uses of internet: Here is the list of use of internet.
1. Faster Communication
2. Big Source of Information
3. Source of Entertainment
4. Access to social media
5. Access to Online Services
6. E-commerce

Unit-19: Atomic Structure

Atom: Atom is the smallest unit into which matter can be divided without releasing
electrically charged particles.

The structure of an atom in terms of a nucleus and electrons:

● The central hard-core of an atom is the nucleus which is the small, dense region
consisting of closely packed protons and neutrons.
● Around the nucleus, electrons revolve at high speed. The number of particles
(electrons and protons) depends on the type of atom.
● Most of the atom is empty space.
● Electrons are bound by a positively charged nucleus with the electrostatic force.

Geiger and Marsden α-scattering Experiment

Introduction: This experiment was conducted by Geiger and Marsden, two scientists.
 Experiment: Geiger and
Marsden used a beam of
positively charged α- particles
tobombard a thin gold foil
placed in a vacuum
surrounded by a ring-shaped
fluorescentscreen. After
bombarding the foil, the
scattered α-particles were
detected using a rotating
detector. When α-particles hit
the screen of light was
observed through the
detector; Figure.

Observations:
● The most of the α- particles were not deflected or only a few deflected throughsmall
angles.
● A small number of the α-particles were deflected through considerable largeangles
of more than 90°.
● A few of the α-particles were even deflected back through nearly 180°.

Rutherford’s postulates based on this experiment:

● The nucleus carries all the positive charge of atom and nearly all its mass.
● As a large number of α-particles passing through the foil undeflected suggestthat
 there exit large empty spaces in an atom.
● Those positively charged α-particles that deflected through large angles had come very
close to the positively charged nucleus. However, a few were repelledso strongly that
they bounced back.

Nuclear physics: The branch of Physics concerned with the study and
understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which
bind it together, is called nuclear physics.

The composition of the atom: Atoms consist of three elemental particles: electrons,
protons, and neutrons. The outermost region of the nucleus is called electron shell. It
contains electrons. Electrons have a negative (-) charge. The nucleus contains the
neutrons and the protons bound tightly together by the nuclear forces (gluons) as shown
in figure below. Neutrons carry no charge. The mass of a neutron is slightly larger than
that of a proton. Proton has an equal positive (+) charge that of an electron in
magnitude. An atom usually has an equal number of protons as electrons, so its net
charge is zero. Therefore, the atom is considered neutral.

A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of
particles: protons (red) and neutrons (blue) which are held together by the nuclear
forces (gluons)
Atomic number
Definition: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom element is called atomic
number.

Representation: Atomic number is represented by Z.

Atomic number distinguishes one element from other: It is the atomic number
which distinguishes one element from other.

Example: The atomic number (Z) of carbon is six and the atomic number (Z) of nitrogen
is seven. Similarly, each element has different atomic number.

Atomic number tells number of electrons: It is the atomic number which tells about
the number of electrons.

Nucleons: The protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.

Nucleon Number or Atomic Mass:

Definition: The number of protons and neutrons is known as nucleon number or atomic
mass.

Representation: It is represented by atomic number A.

Mathematically:
A=Z+N

Where;
Z: Atomic number
N: Number of neutrons
 Representation of nucleus: A nucleus is represented symbolically by

Where X represents the nuclide of a chemical element, A is the nucleon number, and Z
is the atomic number.

Example: 6 C 1 2 represents the carbon nucleus with six protons and twelve nucleons.
Thus, the total orbiting electrons are also six, and the neutron number is
A=Z+N
N=A-Z
N=12-6
N=6

Isotopes:
Definition: Two or more species of atoms of an element with the same atomic
number(Z) but have different atomic mass(A) are called Isotopes.

Example: The hydrogen atom (atomic number 1) has three isotopes with atomic
masses 1, 2, and 3.
Chemical properties: Isotopes have nearly identical chemical behavior or properties.

Physical properties: Physical properties of an isotope depend on its mass. The total
number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of mass number (symbol A) gives
isotopes different physical properties, i.e., mass, surface area, volume, and density.

Unit-20: Nuclear Structure

Binding energy: It is amount of energy required to separate a particle from a system
of particles or to disperse all the particles of the system.

Higgs Bosons: It is a type of boson which carries mass as well and known as god
particle.

Radio-isotope or radioactive element: If an isotope undergoes radioactivedecay is

called radio-isotope or radioactive element.

Radioactivity: The emission of α, β and γ radiation with the release of energy is

 known as radioactivity.

Activity or intensity of radiation

Definition: Activity is radioactive decay processes, the number of disintegrations per
second, or number of unstable nuclei that decay per second in a given sampling.

Unit: The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq).

1 becquerel= 1 nucleus decay per second.

Unit of radiation exposure dose which a person receives: Sievert (Sv)

Nuclear Stability Curve of All Isotopes: This graph has these salient featuresas
given below.

1. Stable isotopes lie along with the stability line.

2. Isotopes above the stability line have too many neutrons to be stable. The decayfor β-
(electron) emission reduces the number of neutrons.
3. Isotopes below the line of stability have few neutrons to be stable. The decay forβ+
(positron) emissions increases the number of neutrons.
4. The heaviest isotopes (proton number, Z> 83) decay by α emissions.

Many other infrequent types of decay, such as spontaneous fission or neutron emission,
are also observed

Nature of radioactive emission

Experiment: To describe the nature of three types of radiation α, β, and γ, the
radioactive source is placed inside the electric field. The radiation emitted from the
 source breaks down into three components: α and β -radiations bend in the opposite
direction in the electric field, while γ -radiation does not change its direction; Figure
below.
Conclusions:
● α deflected towards a negatively charged while the plate is positively charged.
● β deflected towards a positive plate that is negatively charged. It is deflectedmore
in the field, thus, much lighter than a particle.
● γ rays are not deflected by the field and carry no electric charge.

Further explorations: Further, it was found by further explorations that an alpha

particle is a helium nucleus comprising two protons and two neutrons with a charge of
+2e. Beta radiation is a streamlet of high-energy electrons. Gamma radiations are
photons that are electromagnetic radiations of ultra-high frequency.

Gluon: It is a type of boson (force carrier) which is an exchanging particle of strong

nuclear force.
Relative ionizing effects of radioactive emission: The phenomenon bywhich
radiations split matter into positive and negative ions is called ionization.

Nuclear radiations, i.e., alpha, beta, and gamma, can knock out electrons from atoms in
their paths, resulting in an ionizing effect. However, alpha particles have the most
significant ionization power than beta particles and gamma rays. It is due to the large
positive charge and large mass of alpha particles. Beta particles ionize a gas much less
than alpha particles. The ionization power of gamma rays is even less than that of beta
particles. The ionization of alpha particles in a gas is given in figure below.

Relative penetrating abilities of radioactive emission: The strength of

radiations to penetrate a certain material is called penetrating power.

An alpha particle has the shortest penetrating ability because of its strong interacting or
ionizing power. Alpha particle has a penetrating range of only a few centimeters in the
air; they can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper or by the skin. The beta radiation
interacts with the matter due to its charge and has a high penetrating range compared
to alpha particles. Beta particles have a range of several meters in the air. They can
 penetrate through thick paper but are stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum.
However, gamma rays range several hundreds of meters in the air. The gamma rays
are very penetrating, never completely stopped through lead, and thick concrete will
reduce their intensity. It is due to their high speed and neutral nature. Figure below
shows the relative penetrating abilities of three kinds of radiations.

Parent nucleus: The original nucleus before decay is called the parent nucleus.

Daughter nucleus: The nucleus

formed after decay is called the daughter
nucleus.

Radioactive disintegration:
Radioactive disintegration causes
nuclear transmutation and converts one
chemical element or isotope into another
chemicalelement or isotope.
Alpha (α)-decay: In alpha decay, the
proton number or atomic number (Z) of the parent nuclide reduces by 2, while its
atomic mass or nucleon number (A), decreasesby 4.

General equation:

Example 1: When radium 88Ra226 decays by alpha emission. The alpha decay leaves
the nucleus with 2 protons and two neutrons less than before. So the atomic number
drops to 86 and the atomic mass to 222. Radon has the atomic number of 86, so radon
is the new element formed. Its decay process can be written as,

Example 2: When radium 92U238 decays by alpha emission. The alpha decay leaves the
nucleus with 2 protons and two neutrons less than before. So the atomic number drops
to 90 and the atomic mass to 234. Thorium has the atomic number of 90, so thorium is
the new element formed. Its decay process can be written as,
238 → Th234 + α + Energy
92U 90

Beta (β)-decay: In beta decay, the atomic number (Z) of the parent nuclide increases
by one, and its atomic mass or nucleon number remains unchanged.
General equation:

Example: When carbon 6C14 decays by beta emission. The beta decay leaves the
nucleus with one more proton and one neutron less than before. So the atomic number
increases to 7, and the mass number remains unchanged. Nitrogen has the atomic
number of 7, so nitrogen is the new element formed. Its decay process can be written
as,

Positron emission or positive beta decay (β+ decay) or Beta (β)+

decay: A proton in the parent nucleus decays into a neutron that remains in the daughter
nucleus and the nucleus emits a neutrino and a positron, which is a positive particle like an
ordinary electron in mass but of opposite charge.

General equation:

Example: When carbon 6C10 decays by beta emission. The beta decay leaves the
proton with one more neutron and one proton less than before. So the atomic number
decreases to 5, and the mass number remains unchanged. Boron has the atomic
number of 5, so boron is the new element formed. Its decay process can be written as,
6C —> 5B + e + energy
10 10 +
Background radiations
Definition: These natural radiations that come from the surroundings are called
background radiations.

Sources from which over half of background radiations come: In some areas, over
half of these radiations come from radioactive radon 86Rn222 gas, rocks seeping, and some
types of granite.

Manufactured background radiation or man-made radiation: We allreceive

exposure to man-made radiation or background radiation.

Example: X-rays, radiation used to diagnose diseases and cancer therapy.

Sources: The fallout from nuclear explosives testing and also small amounts of
radioactive materials released to the surroundings from coal and nuclear power plants
are the sources of man-made radiation or background radiation.

Cosmic radiations
Definition: Our planet Earth is also exposed
to radiation from outer space calledcosmic
radiations.

Composition: Cosmic radiations consist of

electrons, protons, alpha particles, andlarger
nuclei.

Interaction with atmospheric atoms: The

cosmic radiation interacts with atoms in the
atmosphere to create a shower of radiation;
figure below, including X-rays, muons,
protons, alpha particles, electrons, and
neutrons.
Shower of radiation

Spontaneous decay
Definition: Spontaneous decay is a process in which environmental factors cannot
influence.

Explanation: Radioactive decay takes place naturally (all by itself). The process is
unaffected by pressure, temperature, chemical conditions, and other physical
conditions.
Random decay
Definition: A random decay is a process in which the exact time of decay of a nucleus
cannot be predicted.

Explanation:
Experiment: A detector like a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube can demonstrate the random
nature by observing the count rate of radioactive
disintegration. When a GM tube is placed near a
radioactive source, the counts are irregular. Each
count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus.
The variation of count rate over time of a sample
radioactive source is plotted on the graph. You can
see the fluctuations in count rate against time; figure
below that provides evidence for the random nature
of radioactivedecay over time.
The fluctuation shows the random nature of radioactive decay
Conclusion: It can be concluded from the experiment that
● The time of each decay cannot be predicted.
Half-life
Definition: The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half of the nuclei
present in any given sample to decay.

Example: Iodine-131 is a radioactive isotope of iodine. Iodine-131 has an eight-day

half-life, which means that half of an iodine-131 sample will be converted to other
elements within 8 days; Figure below. Half of the remaining iodine will decay in the next
eight days, leaving only one-fourth of the original amount of radium, and so on, the
decaying process continues.

Radioactive dating
Definition: Radioactive dating is a process by which the approximate age of an object
is determined by using certain radioactive nuclides.

Example 1: Radioisotope carbon-14 is used to measure the age of organic material.

Living plants and animals use carbon dioxide and become slightly radioactive
accordingly. While an organism is alive, the amount of carbon-14 remains constant
because fresh carbon-14 enters whenever the organism consumes nutrients; Figure
below.
 Cycle of Radio Carbon-14

When an organism dies, no more carbon is absorbed, and the radio carbon-14 presents
inside the organism starts decaying to nitrogen-14. Since the half-life of carbon-14 is
5730 years, archaeologists can estimate the age of remains by computing the activity of
carbon-14 in the live and dead organism.

Example 2: Radioisotope potassium-40 is used for dating rocks to estimate the age of
the geological specimen. The unstable K-40 is trapped when molten material cools to
form igneous rock. This K-40 decays to the stable argon nuclide Ar-40 with a half-life of
2.4 x 108 years. The age of the rock sample can be estimated by computing the
concentrations of K-40 and Ar-40.

Example 3: Uranium-containing materials that have been analyzed by radioactive

dating have allowed scientists to determine that the Earth is over 4.5 billion years old.

Radio-isotopes
Definition: A radioisotope is a kind of the same element with different masses. It
undergoes decay spontaneously and emits radiation to dissipate excess energy.

Example:
Naturally occurring radioisotopes: Hydrogen, the lightest element, has three
isotopes H1, H2 and H³. Only H³ (tritium) is unstable. However, it is a radioactive isotope
and undergoes nuclear decay.

Artificial radioisotopes: The stable and non-radioactive elements can also be

transmuted into radioactive elements by exposing them to neutrons, or alpha particles.
Here are some examples of the production of radioisotopes:
 In these examples, P32 and P30 produced are artificial radioisotopes.

Applications of radioisotopes in medicine, agriculture, and industrial

fields: Radioisotopes are often used in medicine, industry, and agriculture for various
beneficial purposes.

In medicine:
Radiotracers: Radioisotopes are used as radiotracers in medicine.

For example, a patient drinks a liquid containing radio iodine-131, a gamma emitter, to
check thyroid function. Over the next 24 hours, a detector measures the activity of the
tracer to find out how quickly it becomes concentrated in the thyroid gland.

Also, for the diagnosis of brain tumors, the phosphorous-32 isotope is used.

Curing various diseases: In

nuclear medicines, radioisotopes are
used for curing various diseases. For
example, cobalt-60 is a strong
gamma emitter. These rays can
penetrate in-depth into the body and
kill the malignant tumor cells in the
patient.
Treatment like this is called
radiosurgery.

Gamma knife radiosurgery

In industry:
Radiotracers: Radioisotopes are used as radiotracers in industry. A small amount of
short-lived radioactive substances is used in various processes and scanned the flow
rates of various materials, including liquids, powders, and gases, to locate leakages.
 Radiotracers are also used in the oil and gas industry to detect and estimate the extent
of oil fields.

Crack Testing: Gamma rays have high penetrating power, so they can photograph
metals to check cracks. A cobalt-60 is a natural gamma rays source and does not need
electrical power like an x-ray tube.

In agriculture:
Radiotracers: In agriculture, fertilizer uptake in the plant from root to leaves is traced by
adding tracer phosphorus- 32 to the soil water.

Nuclear reactions
Definition: Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are
produced from the collisions between two atomic nuclei.

Types: Types of nuclear reactions are given below:

1. Nuclear fission
2. Nuclear fusion

Nuclear Fission
Definition: Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus absorbs a slow-moving
neutron and splits or fissions into two smaller nuclei with the release of energy.

Example: When U-235 captures a neutron, an intermediate, highly unstable nucleus,

U-236 is formed that disintegrates only for a fraction of a second into two smaller nuclei
of nearly equal fragments, Kr-144 and Barium-89, called fission fragments accompanied
by two or three neutrons.

Measurements showed that about 200 MeV of energy is released in each fission event.
The following schematic illustration represents the fission of 92U235.
 Schematic illustration of nuclear fission

In nuclear fission, the total mass of the products is less than the original mass of the
heavy nucleus that is converted into energy.

Chain reaction: In each nuclear

fission, a few neutrons are emitted.
These neutrons can, in turn, trigger
further nuclei to undergo fission with
the possibility of a chain reaction;
Figure below. Computations show that
if the chain reaction is not controlled, it
will explode, releasing massive energy.
This fission chain reaction is controlled

in nuclear reactors.

The fission chain reaction in U-235

Nuclear Fusion
Definition: Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus with the release of energy.

Example: When a nucleus of Deuterium (1H2) is fused with a nucleus of Tritium (1H³),
then a Helium nucleus or alpha particle is formed as represented by the equation,

A schematic illustration of the fusion reaction is shown in figure below.

 Schematic illustration of nuclear fusion
The total mass of the final nuclei is always less than the mass of the original nuclei. This
loss of mass produces nuclear energy.

Radiation Hazards: The prolonged exposure to radioactive radiations (α,β,γ and

X- rays) can produce deep-sited burns, damage to cells or tissues, and the mutations ofthe
cells that can lead to genetic changes. Radioactive exposure can also cause cancerous growth
in specific body tissues.

Hazards of α-particles: The danger from α particles because of their lower penetration
power is minimal. If sources of α particles are lodged into the body, through the air, or
we cat, it can damage our body tissues.

Hazards of β-particles: The β particles are more penetrating and can damage the
body surface tissues. Sources of these particles that enter the body can be quite
damaging.

Symbol of radiation warning: the symbol of radiation warning is

This symbol, to be used on seed radiation sources, is aimed to alert anyone, anywhere,
to the danger of a vital source of ionizing radiation.

Radiation dosimeter: Radiation dosimeter is a scientific device that detects,

measures and calculates dose uptake of external high energy ionizing beta, gamma, or
X-ray radiation.

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“THE AIMS INSTITUE”

Prepared by: Sir Shakeel Ahmed Lodhi