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Transportation
Cyber-Physical Systems
Edited by
Lipika Deka
School of Computer Science and Informatics,
De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom
Mashrur Chowdhury
Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, SC, United States
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Tony Kenyon Chief Product Officer & SVP Engineering, R&D Guardtime,
Guildford, United Kingdom; The De Montfort University Interdisciplinary Group
in Intelligent Transport Systems (DIGITS), De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom
Sakib M. Khan Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, United States
Peter G. Larsen Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Martin Mansfield Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
John D. McGregor School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Linh Bao Ngo School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Julien Ouy CLEARSY, Aix-en-Provence, France
Roberto Palacin Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Ken Pierce Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Brandon Posey School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Srini Ramaswamy ABB, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, United States
Roselane S. Silva Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Bahia,
Salvador, Brazil
Seshadri Srinivasan Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore
(BEARS), Singapore
Xin Wang Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville,
SC, United States
Paul Whittington Department of Computing & Informatics, Faculty of Science &
Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
Foreword
Transportation is no longer limited by the physical world, as the cyber world is fast
becoming an intrinsic part of the transportation ecosystem. It collects vital data from
physical elements such as sensors and traffic management centres, controls elements
of the system (for example, traffic lights and vehicle brakes) when needed and provides
feedback or information, thus enabling the transportation ecosystem to provide safety,
security, mobility and environmental services through seamless connectivity. Trans-
portation infrastructure (roads, bridges, tunnels, waterways and rails) and transporta-
tion modes (cars, trucks, ships and trains) are interacting with the cyber world to
provide increasingly efficient services, and the role of the cyber world will increase
exponentially within the next decade and beyond. Such a marriage of the cyber- and
the physical world within the transportation sector is termed the Transportation
Cyber-Physical System (TCPS).
It is clear that the internet of transportation is on us, but are transportation students
and professionals ready? Knowledge of the physical elements of transportation
systems alone cannot equip students or professionals properly. Realising this, we
embarked on a journey to put together this book on the Transportation Cyber-
Physical System, as a collaboration between authors from either side of the Atlantic,
to prepare our students and professionals as planners, designers, developers, operators
and maintainers of the amazing world of the TCPS. This TCPS world promises safety,
efficiency, sustainability, mobility and other benefits that will help our future societies
thrive.
Soon TCPS will be mainstreamed in transportation systems operations and business
practices around the world. It is where the intelligent transportation systems will meet
the smart cities and regions of the future. It is where people will get the most out of
their transportation in connected communities. In TCPS, transportation will be an
enabler and accelerator for the productivity and sustainability of our societiesdnever
an impediment.
This book is intended to serve as a primary or supplemental textbook for upper-
level undergraduate and graduate courses related to TCPS, transportation systems or
intelligent transportation systems. This book will also serve as a reference text for
multidisciplinary professionals working in transportation-related areas. We are excited
to join the journey to all the amazing innovations that will come from the future TCPS
to help us live better. We hope this book will contribute to the future exciting world of
transportation in our connected societies.
Lipika Deka
Mashrur Chowdury
Acknowledgements
We are delighted to acknowledge the support from the Elsevier staff in the publication
of the book. They were always very responsive to our requests and questions.
We would also like to thank the chapter authors for their dedication in developing
the chapter manuscripts. This book would not have been possible without their
outstanding collaborations. We would also like to acknowledge the support of
Dr. Diganta Bhusan Das and Farzana Chowdhurydour professional achievements
have always been founded on their support.
Transportation Cyber-Physical
System and its importance for 1
future mobility
Lipika Deka 1 , Sakib M. Khan 2 , Mashrur Chowdhury 2 , Nick Ayres 1
1
School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom; 2Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Traditionally, decisions are determined and carried out by vehicle drivers or traffic
management centres. Drivers/centres make the decision by evaluating what they
observe from the information captured by different sensors and by themselves.
Thus, drivers/centres act as the controller. Also, smart controllers can assess existing
conditions after analysing data received from the monitoring sensors and then make
the decisions and automatically initiate the actuators.
This book is aimed at facilitating the accelerated growth in the research and devel-
opment of TCPS for the security, reliability and stability of the society at large through
contributions from experts and visionaries, bringing the knowledge that lays the multi-
disciplinary foundation of TCPS onto a single platform.
and hardware (such as the actual aircraft and its numerous electromechanical systems,
the air control system, runway, airport, etc.) and the human factor (as facilitators and
threats); which are all controlled and monitored through policies, performance goals
(e.g., safety, security, privacy, efficiency, carbon neutrality), performance metrics
(e.g., speed, weight, fuel burning rate, air quality, passenger throughput) and legal,
ethical and existing CPS within the aviation sector [6].
Figure 1.2 Integrated Air Traffic Management System enabled by SESAR [7].
6 Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems
elevation. After implementing the enhanced ACAS, the vertical rate at the approach of
the selected flight level will be automatically adjusted to reduce unnecessary flight
deck distraction.
The equivalent of SESAR is the Next Generation Air Transportation System
(NextGen) in the United States for modernising air traffic control, where its primary
aim is to reduce gridlock both in the sky and at airports through gradual replacement
of radar-based radio communication and manual processing of data with satellite-
based technologies and automation. A prominent example of a CPS within the Next-
Gen System is the Automatics Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) [8] for
replacing radar-based surveillance. ADS-B technology involves an aircraft automati-
cally and accurately determining its position through high-integrity GPS-based tech-
niques and periodically broadcasting this position to neighbouring aircraft and
ground-based air traffic control through a dedicated data link. This information helps
aircrafts to improve situational awareness and judge more accurately the safe self-
separation distance. ADS-B technology is seen to replace the task of the secondary
radar.
Sampigethaya and Poovendran [6] lay out the vision of the future of an integrated
aviation TCPS with self-monitoring and self-correcting aircrafts, a system that auton-
omously optimises and supports decision-making in all aspects from fuel efficiency,
interflight separation during landing, take-off or in-air to optimising operational rev-
enue and providing a personalised experience to passengers which will include their
desired relaxing/working environment while on board or at airports. Such a vision is
supported through advances in avionics software, which is making a paradigm shift
from distributed and isolated onboard system architecture to a more integrated
modular avionics-based architecture running on multicore and multiprocessing com-
puters. An integrated architecture allows for consistent and seamless interelement
connectivity, with modularity allowing for clean separation between individual
processes, which in turn allows for better management and isolation in case of errors
or attacks. Modularity is also supporting the inroad of off-the-shelf components, such
as sensors, actuators and radio frequency identification tags, which are getting
increasingly affordable, efficient and with lower carbon footprints. Advances in avi-
onics software are being supported through a shift in the onboard network to the
standardised aircraft data network based on commercial Ethernet. This integration
of software and communication is not limited to onboard systems, rather it integrates
the onboard systems to off-board systems on the ground, air and space through
several dedicated data links [6].
Given all these advances, a simple example of a future aviation TCPS is illus-
trated in Fig. 1.3 [6]. The altitude sensors, currently used for flight control, together
with other flight and individual conditions can be used to control the light transmis-
sion properties of the electrochromic aircraft windows. The automation of this
process can optimise crew operational performance that would otherwise have to
supervise central control or assist individual passengers. Such features though sim-
ple are envisaged to improve individual experience and performances of both crew
and passenger.
Transportation Cyber-Physical System and its importance for future mobility 7
Despite the obvious technological advancement in the field of aviation, there are
plenty of challenges and adversities yet to be conquered, and innovation to overcome
these adversities is driven by the huge potential for increased capacity, safety and
efficiency while being kind to the environment [9].
“The salt solution from the cell feed tank, located in the salt
treating building, flows by gravity through a piping system located in
a trench running the length of each cell building, and is delivered to
each cell unit through an automatic feeding device which maintains a
constant liquor level in the cathode compartment.
“The remaining solution percolates from the cathode
compartment through the asbestos diaphragm into the anode
compartment and flows from the end of the cell, containing from 8 to
12 per cent caustic soda, admixed with 14 to 16 per cent salt, into an
open trough and into a pipe in the trench and through this pipe by
gravity to the weak caustic storage tanks located near the caustic
evaporator building.
“The gas piping from the individual cell units to and including the
drying equipment is of chemical stoneware. The piping is so
designed that the gas can be drawn from the cells through the drying
equipment at as near atmospheric pressure as possible in order that
the gas can be kept nearly free of air. When operating, the suction at
the pump was kept at ¹/₂₀ inch or less. The quality of the gas was
maintained at a purity of 98.5 to 99 per cent. The coolers used were
very effective, the gas being cooled to within one degree of the
temperature of the cooling water, no refrigeration being necessary.
The drying apparatus consisted of a stoneware tower of special
design containing a large number of plates, and thus giving a very
large acid exposure. There was practically no loss of vacuum
through the drying tower and cooler. The gas pumping equipment
consisted of two hydroturbine pumps using sulfuric acid as the
compressing medium. The acid was cooled by circulation through a
double pipe cooler similar to those used in refrigerating work. The
gas was delivered under about five pounds pressure into large
receiving tanks located just outside the pump rooms, and from these
tanks into steel pipe mains which conducted the gas to the chemical
plant.”
The purity of the gas was such that it was not found necessary to
liquefy it for the preparation of phosgene.
Properties
Chlorine, at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperature, is a
greenish yellow gas (giving rise to its name), which has a very
irritating effect upon the membranes of the nose and throat. As
mentioned above, at a pressure of 16.5 atmospheres at 18° C.,
chlorine is condensed to a liquid. If the gas is first cooled to 0°, the
pressure required for condensation is decreased to 3.7
atmospheres. This yellow liquid has a boiling point of -33.6° C. at the
ordinary pressure. If very strongly cooled, chlorine will form a pale
yellow solid (at -102° C.). Chlorine is 2.5 times as heavy as air, one
liter weighing 3.22 grams. 215 volumes of chlorine gas will dissolve
in 100 volumes of water at 20°. It is very slightly soluble in hot water
or in a concentrated solution of salt.
Chlorine is a very reactive substance and is found in combination
in a large number of compounds. Among the many reactions which
have proved important from the standpoint of chemical warfare, the
following may be mentioned:
Chlorine reacts with “hypo” (sodium thiosulfate) with the
formation of sodium chloride. Hypo is able to transform a large
amount of chlorine, so that it proved a very satisfactory impregnating
agent for the early cloth masks.
Water reacts with chlorine under certain conditions to form
hypochlorous acid, HOCl. In the presence of ethylene, this forms
ethylene chlorhydrin, which was the basis for the first method of
preparing mustard gas. In the later method, in which sulfur chloride
was used, chlorine was used in the manufacture of the chloride.
Chlorine reacts with carbon monoxide, in the sunlight, or in the
presence of a catalyst, to form phosgene, which is one of the most
valuable of the toxic gases.
Chlorine and acetone react to form chloroacetone, one of the
early lachrymators. The reaction of chlorine with toluene forms
benzyl chloride, an intermediate in the preparation of
bromobenzylcyanide.
In a similar way, it is found that the greater number of toxic gases
use chlorine in one phase or another of their preparation. One author
has estimated that 95 per cent of all the gases used may be made
directly or indirectly by the use of chlorine.
Chlorine has been used in connection with ammonia and water
vapor for the production of smoke clouds. The ammonium chloride
cloud thus produced is one of the best for screening purposes. In
combination with silicon or titanium as the tetrachloride it has also
been used extensively for the same purpose.
On the other hand one may feel that, whatever bad reputation
chlorine may have incurred as a poison gas, it has made up for it
through the beneficial applications to which it has lent itself. Among
these we may mention the sterilization of water and of wounds.
In war, where stationary conditions prevail only in a small number
of cases, the use of liquid chlorine for sterilization of water is
impractical. To meet this condition, an ampoule filled with chlorine
water of medium concentration has been developed, which furnishes
a good portable form of chlorine as a sterilizing agent for relatively
small quantities of water.
Chlorine has also been applied, in the form of hypochlorite, to the
sterilization of infected wounds. The preparation of the solution and
the technique of the operation were worked out by Dakin and Carrel.
This innovation in war surgery has decreased enormously the
percentage of deaths from infected wounds.
CHAPTER VI
PHOSGENE
The first cloud attack, in which pure chlorine was used, was very
effective, but only because the troops attacked with it were entirely
unprotected. Later, in spite of the varied methods of attack, the
results were less and less promising, due to the increased protection
of the men and also to the gas discipline which was gradually being
developed. During this time the Allies had started their gas attacks
(Sept., 1915), and it soon became evident that, if Germany was to
keep her supremacy in gas warfare, new gases or new tactics would
have to be introduced.
The second poison gas was used in December, 1915, when
about 20-25 per cent of phosgene was mixed with the chlorine. Here
again the Germans made use of an industry already established.
Phosgene is used commercially in the preparation of certain
dyestuffs, especially methyl violet, and was manufactured before and
during the war by the Bayer Company and the Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik.
Phosgene can not be used alone in gas cylinders because of its
high boiling point (8° C.). While this is considerably below ordinary
temperatures, especially during the summer months, the rate of
evaporation is so slow that a cloud attack could never be made with
it alone. However, when a mixture of 25 per cent phosgene and 75
per cent chlorine, or 50 per cent phosgene and 50 per cent chlorine
is used in warm weather there is no difficulty in carrying out gas
attacks from cylinders. At the same time the percentage of phosgene
in the mixture is sufficiently high to secure the advantages which it
possesses. These advantages are at least three:
(a) Phosgene is more toxic than chlorine. It requires 2.5
milligrams per liter of chlorine to kill a dog on an exposure of 30
minutes, but 0.3 milligram of phosgene will have the same effect.
This of course means that a cloud of phosgene containing one-
eighth (by weight) of the concentration of a chlorine cloud will have
the same lethal properties.
(b) Phosgene is much less reactive than chlorine, so that the
matter of protection becomes more difficult. Fortunately, word was
received by the British of the intended first use of phosgene against
them and consequently they were able to add
hexamethylenetetramine to the impregnating solution used in the
cloth masks.
(c) The third, and a very important, factor in the use of phosgene
is the so-called delayed effect. In low concentrations, men may
breathe phosgene for some time with apparently no ill effects. Ten or
twelve hours later, or perhaps earlier if they attempt any work, the
men become casualties.
Pure phosgene has been used in projector attacks (described in
Chapter II). The substance has also been used in large quantities in
shell; the Germans also used shell containing mixtures with
superpalite (trichloromethyl chloroformate) or sneezing gas
(diphenylchloroarsine).
Manufacture
Phosgene was first prepared by John Davy in 1812, by exposing
a mixture of equal volumes of carbon monoxide and chlorine to
sunlight; Davy coined the name “phosgene” from the part played by
light in the reaction. While phosgene may be prepared in the
laboratory by a number of other reactions, it was quite apparent that
the first mentioned reaction is the most economical of these for large
scale production. The reaction is a delicate one, however, and its
application required extended investigation.
The United States was fortunate in that, for some months
previous to the war, the Oldbury Electrochemical Company had been
working on the utilization of their waste carbon monoxide in making
phosgene. The results of these investigations were given to the
government and aided considerably in the early work on phosgene
at the Edgewood plant.
Properties
Phosgene is a colorless gas at room temperatures, but becomes
a liquid at 8°. The odor of phosgene is suggestive of green corn or
musty hay. One liter of phosgene vapor weighs 4.4 grams (chlorine
weights 3.22 grams). At 0° C., the liquid is heavier than water, having
a specific gravity of 1.432. At 25°, the vapor exerts a pressure of
about 25 pounds per square inch. Phosgene is absorbed by solid
materials, such as pumice stone and celite. Pumice stone absorbs
more than its own weight of phosgene. Thus 5.7 grams of pumice
absorbed 7.4 grams phosgene, which completely evaporated in 60
minutes. German shell have been found which contained such a
mixture (phosgene and pumice stone). While the apparent reason for
their use is to prevent the rapid evaporation of the phosgene, it is a
question whether such is the case, for a greater surface is really
present in the case of pumice stone than where the phosgene is
simply on the ground. Phosgene is slowly decomposed by cold
water, rapidly by hot water. This reaction is important because there
is always moisture in the air, which would tend to lower the
concentration of the gas.
Phosgene is absorbed and decomposed by
hexamethylenetetramine (urotropine). This reaction furnished the
basis of the first protection used by the British. Later the catalytic
decomposition of phosgene into carbon dioxide and hydrochloric
acid by the charcoal in the mask furnished protection.
For most purposes a trace of chlorine in phosgene is not a
disadvantage; for example, when it is used in cylinders or projectors.
Under certain conditions, as when used as a solvent for sneezing
gas, the presence of chlorine must be avoided, since it reacts with
the substance in solution, usually producing a harmless material.
Chlorine may be removed from phosgene by passing the mixture
through cotton seed oil.
Protection
It was mentioned above that hexamethylenetetramine
(urotropine) was used in the early pads (black veil and similar
masks) and flannel helmets. This was found to be satisfactory
against chlorine and phosgene, in the concentrations usually found
during a cylinder attack. The mixture used consisted of urotropine,
sodium thiosulfate (“hypo”), sodium carbonate and glycerine. The
glycerine tended to keep the pads moist, while the other chemicals
acted as protective agents against the mixture of phosgene and
chlorine.
The introduction of the Standard Box Respirator with its charcoal-
soda lime filling increased very materially the protection against
phosgene. In this filling, the charcoal both absorbs the phosgene and
catalyzes the reaction with the moisture of the air with which the
phosgene is mixed, to form hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide.
Soda-lime absorbs phosgene but does not catalyze its
decomposition. This shows the advantage of the mixture, since the
hydrochloric acid, which is formed through the action of the charcoal,
is absorbed by the soda-lime. Experiments seem to indicate that it
does not matter which material is placed in the bottom of the
canister, but that an intimate mixture is the best arrangement. Using
a concentration of 5,000 parts per million (20.2 mg. per liter) a type H
canister (see page 217) will give complete protection for about 40
minutes; when the air-gas mixture passes at the rate of 16 liters per
minute the efficiency or life of a canister increases with a decrease in
temperature, as is seen in the following table (the concentration was
5,000 parts per million, the rate of flow 16 liters per minute)
Temperature Efficiency
° C. (Time in minutes)
-10 223
0 172
10 146
20 130
30 125
40 99
From these figures it is seen that at -10° C. the life is about 50
per cent greater than at summer temperature. As would be expected
the life of a canister is shortened by increasing the concentration of
phosgene in the phosgene air mixture. This is illustrated by the
following figures:
Concentration Life
p.p.m. (Time in minutes)
5,000 177
10,000 112
15,000 72
20,000 58
25,000 25
(25,000 p.p.m. is equal to 101.1 mg. per liter.)
There is rather a definite relation between the concentration of
the gas and the life of a canister at any given rate of flow. Many of
these relations have been expressed by formulas of which the
following is typical. At 32 liters per minute flow, C⁰ ˙ ⁹ × T =
101,840, in which C is the concentration and T the time.
Shell Filling
The empty shell, after inspection, are loaded on trucks, together
with the appropriate number of “boosters,” which screw into the top
of the shell and thereby close them. The trucks are run by an electric
storage battery locomotive to the filling unit. The shell are transferred
by hand to a conveyor, which carries the shell slowly through a cold
room. During this passage of about 30 minutes, the shell are cooled
to about 0° F. The cooled shell are transferred to shell trucks, each
truck carrying 6 shell. These trucks are drawn through the filling
tunnel by means of a chain haul operated by an air motor to the
filling machine. Here the liquid phosgene is run into the shell by
automatic machines, so arranged that the 6 shell are at the same
time automatically filled to a constant void. The truck then carries the
filled shell forward a few feet to a small window, at which point the
boosters are inserted into the nose of the shell by hand. The final
closing of the shell is then effected by motors operated by
compressed air. The filling and closing machines are all operated by
workmen on the outside of the filling tunnel.
The filled shell are conveyed to the shell dump, where they are
stored for 24 hours, nose down on skids, in order to test for leaks.
Tactical Use
Phosgene was first used in cloud attacks in December, 1915.
These attacks continued for about nine months and were then
gradually replaced, to a large extent, by gas shell attacks. Phosgene
was first found in German projectiles in November, 1916. These shell
were known as the d-shell. Besides pure phosgene, mixtures of