Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems

Lipika Deka
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Transportation
Cyber-Physical Systems

Edited by

Lipika Deka
School of Computer Science and Informatics,
De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom

Mashrur Chowdhury
Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, SC, United States
Elsevier
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
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products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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ISBN: 978-0-12-814295-0

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Lipika Deka: To my husband Dr. Diganta Bhusan Das and
son Anuron Bhusan Das.

Mashrur Chowdhury: To my father Manzur Chowdhury.

List of contributors

Shofiq Ahmed Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Virginia

University, Morgantown, WV, United States
Eduardo S. Almeida Department of Computer Science, Federal University of
Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
Amy Apon School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
Nick Ayres School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University,
Leicester, United Kingdom
Mashrur Chowdhury Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, United States
Lipika Deka School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University,
Leicester, United Kingdom
Kakan Dey Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, WV, United States
Huseyin Dogan Department of Computing & Informatics, Faculty of Science &
Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
John Fitzgerald Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Ryan Fries Department of Civil Engineering, Southern Illinois University,
Edwardsville, IL, United States
Carl Gamble Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Venkat N. Gudivada Department of Computer Science, East Carolina University,
Greenville, NC, United States
Longxiang Guo Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University,
Greenville, SC, United States
Michael Henshaw School of Mechanical, Electrical, and Manufacturing
Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
Yunyi Jia Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville,
SC, United States
xii List of contributors

Tony Kenyon Chief Product Officer & SVP Engineering, R&D Guardtime,
Guildford, United Kingdom; The De Montfort University Interdisciplinary Group
in Intelligent Transport Systems (DIGITS), De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom
Sakib M. Khan Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, United States
Peter G. Larsen Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Martin Mansfield Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
John D. McGregor School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Linh Bao Ngo School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Julien Ouy CLEARSY, Aix-en-Provence, France
Roberto Palacin Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Ken Pierce Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Brandon Posey School of Computing, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States
Srini Ramaswamy ABB, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, United States
Roselane S. Silva Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Bahia,
Salvador, Brazil
Seshadri Srinivasan Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore
(BEARS), Singapore
Xin Wang Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville,
SC, United States
Paul Whittington Department of Computing & Informatics, Faculty of Science &
Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
Foreword

I am delighted to provide the forward for this new and

timely book on Transport Cyber-Physical Systems.
We are on the cusp of something very exciting and
transformational in transport with the advent of new
digital and computing technologies, sensing and IoT
leading to the potential of an all-seeing, all-knowing
transport system and the emergence of key new tech-
nologies such as automation, electromobility and the
evolution of new business cases of how to do transport
through mobility as a service.
Underpinning these transformations are cyber-
physical systems that will sense, analyse, make sense
of and then manage and control the transport systems
and networks of the future. I am delighted that this book tackles this issue and provides
some clarity to stakeholders, practitioners and the research community as to what this
all means and how such systems will evolve in the future.
The book provides an insight to a panoply of the building blocks of cyber-physical
systems, including the architecture, communications, data management, modelling
and data processing, real-time control and the privacy and security aspects that under-
pin this, which are all useful reference materials for future implementers. However, to
future proof the material, this book also considers the education and skills needed to
deliver such systems in the future and the interaction with the end users through a
consideration of human factors.
A provision of case studies that cover many of the modes of transport are an impor-
tant aspect of the book. It illustrates that, with the underlying digital data and commu-
nications architectures we can finally be able to think of transport as a system, rather
than a set of loosely connected modes. Moreover, cross-learn from successes and best
practices in one mode to another.
In the context of the United Kingdom, as the Government moves towards its Grand
Challenge on the Future of Mobility and the support of major transport technologies
through the industrial strategy challenge fund, the book has a leading role to play in
informing the industry and providing a reference guide to many of the underlying
topics of TCPS in one place. Moreover, this book’s recognition of synergies is in
how we approach this in the United Kingdom and the United States, and the common
xiv Foreword

research questions we have, to deliver smart transportation in smart cities, eloquently

frames some medium to long term challenges of the transport sector.
Professor Phil Blythe
Professor of Intelligent Transport Systems and Chief Scientific Adviser,
Department for Transport School of Engineering
Newcastle University, UK
February, 2018
Preface

Transportation is no longer limited by the physical world, as the cyber world is fast
becoming an intrinsic part of the transportation ecosystem. It collects vital data from
physical elements such as sensors and traffic management centres, controls elements
of the system (for example, traffic lights and vehicle brakes) when needed and provides
feedback or information, thus enabling the transportation ecosystem to provide safety,
security, mobility and environmental services through seamless connectivity. Trans-
portation infrastructure (roads, bridges, tunnels, waterways and rails) and transporta-
tion modes (cars, trucks, ships and trains) are interacting with the cyber world to
provide increasingly efficient services, and the role of the cyber world will increase
exponentially within the next decade and beyond. Such a marriage of the cyber- and
the physical world within the transportation sector is termed the Transportation
Cyber-Physical System (TCPS).
It is clear that the internet of transportation is on us, but are transportation students
and professionals ready? Knowledge of the physical elements of transportation
systems alone cannot equip students or professionals properly. Realising this, we
embarked on a journey to put together this book on the Transportation Cyber-
Physical System, as a collaboration between authors from either side of the Atlantic,
to prepare our students and professionals as planners, designers, developers, operators
and maintainers of the amazing world of the TCPS. This TCPS world promises safety,
efficiency, sustainability, mobility and other benefits that will help our future societies
thrive.
Soon TCPS will be mainstreamed in transportation systems operations and business
practices around the world. It is where the intelligent transportation systems will meet
the smart cities and regions of the future. It is where people will get the most out of
their transportation in connected communities. In TCPS, transportation will be an
enabler and accelerator for the productivity and sustainability of our societiesdnever
an impediment.
This book is intended to serve as a primary or supplemental textbook for upper-
level undergraduate and graduate courses related to TCPS, transportation systems or
intelligent transportation systems. This book will also serve as a reference text for
multidisciplinary professionals working in transportation-related areas. We are excited
to join the journey to all the amazing innovations that will come from the future TCPS
to help us live better. We hope this book will contribute to the future exciting world of
transportation in our connected societies.
Lipika Deka
Mashrur Chowdury
Acknowledgements

We are delighted to acknowledge the support from the Elsevier staff in the publication
of the book. They were always very responsive to our requests and questions.
We would also like to thank the chapter authors for their dedication in developing
the chapter manuscripts. This book would not have been possible without their
outstanding collaborations. We would also like to acknowledge the support of
Dr. Diganta Bhusan Das and Farzana Chowdhurydour professional achievements
have always been founded on their support.
Transportation Cyber-Physical
System and its importance for 1
future mobility
Lipika Deka 1 , Sakib M. Khan 2 , Mashrur Chowdhury 2 , Nick Ayres 1
1
School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University, Leicester,
United Kingdom; 2Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC,
United States

1. Introduction of Transportation Cyber-Physical System

Ageing populations, climate change, advent of mega cities, increased energy require-
ments and overarching need for smart, green and integrated transport have been clearly
identified as the key global challenges faced by our modern society [1]. Immense
advancement in research and innovation in the field of embedded intelligence systems
has shown promise to be the key enabling technological solutions to address these ma-
jor challenges. Within these systems, physical elements such as sensors and actuators
function hand in hand with cyber elements such as software to monitor and initiate
physical processes, while the associated cyberspace, records and analyses store
data and support decision-making. Further, the simultaneous and equally rapid
advancement in the field of communications and the Internet of Things has allowed
embedded systems to be equipped with the power of collective knowledge as
opposed to functioning in isolation. For example, the collective intelligence gathered
from smartphones that act as sensors of the traffic network very quickly and easily
enable individuals and authorities to gauge the level of congestion, CO2 emissions,
etc., and hence take near real-time actions towards effective traffic management.
The term used to describe such systems that seamlessly integrate computational
algorithms and physical components with mutual communication much exceeding
the capability of relatively ‘humble’ embedded systems is Cyber-Physical System
(CPS).
The term CPS has been perceived and defined in a number of closely related ways.
In particular, there seems to be a noteworthy difference in how the term is used and
understood on either side of the Atlantic. In the United States [2], the CPS definition
seems to give equal emphasis to the ‘cyber’ and ‘physical’ components of CPS [3],
whereas the European Union (EU) definition [1] seems to give more emphasis on
the ‘cyber’ component of CPS.

Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814295-0.00001-0

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems

Definition of Cyber-Physical System as perceived in the United States:

Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of computation and physical processes.
Embedded computers and networks monitor and control the physical processes, usually
with feedback loops where physical processes affect computations and vice versa [2].

Definition of Cyber-Physical System as perceived in Europe:

Cyber-Physical System are systems with embedded software (as part of devices, buildings,
means of transport, transport routes, production systems, medical processes, logistic
processes, coordination processes and management processes), which:
• directly record physical data using sensors and affect physical processes using
actuators;
• evaluate and save recorded data, and actively or reactively interact both with the phys-
ical and digital world;
• are connected with one another and in global networks via digital communication
facilities (wireless and/or wired, local and/or global);
• use globally available data and services;
• have a series of dedicated, multi-modal human-machine interfaces [1].

Nevertheless, as Lee suggests, it would be most appropriate to define CPS without

linking it to its varied applications (as is suggested above in the US definition of CPS)
by regarding it as a ‘fundamental intellectual problem of conjoining the engineering
tradition as of the cyber and physical worlds’ [4].
CPS has driven innovation across diverse fields including transportation systems
within which it is termed as Transportation Cyber-Physical System (TCPS). Compared
to a traditional transportation system, TCPS can make the transportation systems
achieve higher efficiency and reliability by enabling increased feedback-based interac-
tions between the cyber system and the physical system in transportation. TCPS can be
broadly classified into three categories as shown in Table 1.1, which include: (1)
infrastructure-based TCPS, (2) vehicleeinfrastructure coordinated TCPS and (3)
vehicle-based TCPS.
The transportation system is the complex system of systems both enabling and
sabotaging societies, trade, politics and environment. Development within the field
of TCPS is enhancing efficiency while reducing environmental stress and meeting so-
cietal demands across the continually growing air, land and water transport of both
humans and goods. Such developments are continually occurring within multiple do-
mains including transportation modelling, big data analytics, real-time control and
optimisation, verification and validation, computer networks and cybersecurity.
Fig. 1.1 shows the conceptual overview of TCPS, where the decision such as activating
emergency braking system is implemented by the TCPS actuators such as the brakes
based on the data collected from TCPS sensors such as radars and cameras on cars.
Transportation Cyber-Physical System and its importance for future mobility 3

Table 1.1 Instances of Transportation Cyber-Physical System (TCPS)

Physical Cyber
Types of TCPS Components Components Applications

Infrastructure-based Traffic signals, Wired/wireless Real-time

TCPS infrastructure communication, infrastructure
sensors such as software monitoring,
cameras, traffic control,
computational etc.
devices in traffic
management
Centre, etc.
Vehicleeinfrastructure Vehicles and their Wireless Transit signal
coordinated TCPS associated communication, priority, queue
sensors such as software warning, etc.
GPS, traffic
signals,
computational
devices in traffic
management
Centre, etc.
Vehicle-based TCPS Sensing and Wireless Proximity
computational communication, detection,
devices inside the software such as black ice
vehicles. those embedded detection, etc.
Actuators such as in the electronic
gears, brakes, control units.
ignitor, etc.

Figure 1.1 A conceptual overview of Transportation Cyber-Physical System (TCPS).

4 Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems

Traditionally, decisions are determined and carried out by vehicle drivers or traffic
management centres. Drivers/centres make the decision by evaluating what they
observe from the information captured by different sensors and by themselves.
Thus, drivers/centres act as the controller. Also, smart controllers can assess existing
conditions after analysing data received from the monitoring sensors and then make
the decisions and automatically initiate the actuators.
This book is aimed at facilitating the accelerated growth in the research and devel-
opment of TCPS for the security, reliability and stability of the society at large through
contributions from experts and visionaries, bringing the knowledge that lays the multi-
disciplinary foundation of TCPS onto a single platform.

2. Transportation Cyber-Physical System examples and

its components
TCPS is critical to the safety, security and benefit of society and the environment
because they represent some of the most important infrastructure, such as the systems
for aviation, rail, road and marine transportation, and its components for the transpor-
tation of both humans and goods. The following sections will introduce TCPS within
the different transportation modes with examples. It must be noted here that the com-
ponents and examples listed here are not in anyway an exhaustive list.

2.1 Aviation Transportation Cyber-Physical System

Air transportation has the inherent ability to drive economic and social progress by
connecting people, countries, cultures and providing access to the global market,
making it the most far-reaching among all the transportation modes. Demand on air
traffic from both passenger and cargo is continually rising with 2017 seeing a 31%
rise in passenger demand compared to figures in 2012 [5], and consequentially to
serve this demand, the number of aircrafts is expected to double in the next 2 decades.
Intertwined with its immense socioeconomic benefits and subsequent increase in de-
mand, the aviation sector houses some of the most complex systems to date including
the unmanned aerial vehicles. Hence, the earliest and most advanced development of
CPS within the transportation sector has taken place within the aviation sector.
Modern aerospace systems have the immense potential of tightly coupling cyberspace
and the physical space. This is primarily due to the cyberspace technological advances
in the area of the internet, networking and information technology, with advances in
performance goals such as cyberspace reliability and availability, security and privacy
and performance metrics, such as bandwidth, throughput, latency and both software
and data size [6], which are all mandatory requirements for the real-time operational
environment.
The physical elements of aviation TCPS are widely diverse, ranging from the
uncertain natural airspace (such as clouds, pressure, precipitation, storms, wind, air
pockets, temperature, solar interference, surrounding wildlife, etc.); infrastructure
Transportation Cyber-Physical System and its importance for future mobility 5

and hardware (such as the actual aircraft and its numerous electromechanical systems,
the air control system, runway, airport, etc.) and the human factor (as facilitators and
threats); which are all controlled and monitored through policies, performance goals
(e.g., safety, security, privacy, efficiency, carbon neutrality), performance metrics
(e.g., speed, weight, fuel burning rate, air quality, passenger throughput) and legal,
ethical and existing CPS within the aviation sector [6].

2.1.1 Examples of aviation Transportation Cyber-Physical System

In Europe the developments from the CPS point of view in the Air Traffic Management
(ATM) area are happening under the umbrella of the Single European Sky ATM
Research (SESAR) programme, which is a collaborative venture between the EU
and EUROCONTROL as the main founding bodies together with partners from air-
ports, air navigation service providers, scientific communities and different categories
of airspace users. The primary aim of SESAR is to transform European ATM into a
more modular and automated system that is safe and environmentally friendly.
Fig. 1.2 shows every stage of a flight and SESAR’s procedural requirements [6].
In particular automated hazard perception, accurate positioning and navigation, risk
identification and mitigation, surveillance, all aspects of air traffic management (with
potential from optimisation and control algorithms), flight dynamics and control can be
put forward as classical examples of vision of integrating each of these phases into a
holistic ATM system.
The ATM system is a combination of a number of CPSs and hence in reality a
Cyber-Physical System of systems of which the system supporting a pilot in approach
and landing particularly in bad weather conditions is an integral CPS of the ATM sys-
tem. Most airports use the ground-based augmentation of satellite navigation systems
(GBAS) to support pilots during approach and landing in bad weather conditions with
precise location information, thus maintaining its capacity needs while ensuring safety.
GBAS use four global navigation satellite system reference receivers and a very high
frequency broadcast transmitter system to calculate the differentially corrected posi-
tion and deviation from an aircraft’s selected approach path, thus facilitating the
aircraft to land automatically and safely in poor visibility conditions [7]. Another
example is the automated aircraft collision alerts, where based on the enhanced
airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) aircrafts will automatically change the

Figure 1.2 Integrated Air Traffic Management System enabled by SESAR [7].
6 Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems

elevation. After implementing the enhanced ACAS, the vertical rate at the approach of
the selected flight level will be automatically adjusted to reduce unnecessary flight
deck distraction.
The equivalent of SESAR is the Next Generation Air Transportation System
(NextGen) in the United States for modernising air traffic control, where its primary
aim is to reduce gridlock both in the sky and at airports through gradual replacement
of radar-based radio communication and manual processing of data with satellite-
based technologies and automation. A prominent example of a CPS within the Next-
Gen System is the Automatics Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) [8] for
replacing radar-based surveillance. ADS-B technology involves an aircraft automati-
cally and accurately determining its position through high-integrity GPS-based tech-
niques and periodically broadcasting this position to neighbouring aircraft and
ground-based air traffic control through a dedicated data link. This information helps
aircrafts to improve situational awareness and judge more accurately the safe self-
separation distance. ADS-B technology is seen to replace the task of the secondary
radar.
Sampigethaya and Poovendran [6] lay out the vision of the future of an integrated
aviation TCPS with self-monitoring and self-correcting aircrafts, a system that auton-
omously optimises and supports decision-making in all aspects from fuel efficiency,
interflight separation during landing, take-off or in-air to optimising operational rev-
enue and providing a personalised experience to passengers which will include their
desired relaxing/working environment while on board or at airports. Such a vision is
supported through advances in avionics software, which is making a paradigm shift
from distributed and isolated onboard system architecture to a more integrated
modular avionics-based architecture running on multicore and multiprocessing com-
puters. An integrated architecture allows for consistent and seamless interelement
connectivity, with modularity allowing for clean separation between individual
processes, which in turn allows for better management and isolation in case of errors
or attacks. Modularity is also supporting the inroad of off-the-shelf components, such
as sensors, actuators and radio frequency identification tags, which are getting
increasingly affordable, efficient and with lower carbon footprints. Advances in avi-
onics software are being supported through a shift in the onboard network to the
standardised aircraft data network based on commercial Ethernet. This integration
of software and communication is not limited to onboard systems, rather it integrates
the onboard systems to off-board systems on the ground, air and space through
several dedicated data links [6].
Given all these advances, a simple example of a future aviation TCPS is illus-
trated in Fig. 1.3 [6]. The altitude sensors, currently used for flight control, together
with other flight and individual conditions can be used to control the light transmis-
sion properties of the electrochromic aircraft windows. The automation of this
process can optimise crew operational performance that would otherwise have to
supervise central control or assist individual passengers. Such features though sim-
ple are envisaged to improve individual experience and performances of both crew
and passenger.
Transportation Cyber-Physical System and its importance for future mobility 7

Figure 1.3 Cyber-physical interaction for controlling aircraft windows.

Adapted from K. Sampigethaya, R. Poovendran, Aviation cyberephysical systems: foundations
for future aircraft and air transport, Proceedings of the IEEE 101 (8) (2013) 1834e1855.

Despite the obvious technological advancement in the field of aviation, there are
plenty of challenges and adversities yet to be conquered, and innovation to overcome
these adversities is driven by the huge potential for increased capacity, safety and
efficiency while being kind to the environment [9].

2.2 Rail Transportation Cyber-Physical System

Rail transport can be seen as the relatively more orthodox mode of transport with the
earliest known form of raillike transport being the wagon ways functioning from the
1500s in Europe primarily in the mines. These early ‘trains’ were either human or
horse pulled. This gave way to steam-powered engines, followed by the diesel and
electric engines that we are familiar with today. Recent times have seen advances in
the area of communication networks and information technology penetrating into
the operations of this orthodox means of transport transforming it into a more efficient,
reliable and safe mode of transport aspiring to provide a personalised seamless journey
experience to its customers.

2.2.1 Examples of Rail Transportation Cyber-Physical System

The components of the rail TCPS can be explained with that of the train control
system. For the European Train Control System (ETCS), Siemens has developed
a solution which is known as Trainguard. For level 1 application, Trainguard trans-
mits the variable track vacancy detection information to the onboard antenna. The
driver gets the permitted speed, the line profile ahead, speed restrictions and ETCS-
specific data through a display. The drivers get a warning once the train exceeds the
maximum permitted speed. The actuators become active to decelerate the train to
the permitted speed if he fails to respond. Fig. 1.4 shows the Trainguard component
of the Siemens solution for the ETCS, where Global System for Mobile communi-
cations e Railways, the digital communication system for railways within Europe,
facilitates driving by ‘electronic sight’ through reliable communication of accurate
train positions [10].
Similarly as another example, onboard GPS tracking devices accurately track
trains in real time as the train runs, thus providing real-time train time tables to
8 Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems

Figure 1.4 Trainguard component for European Train Control System.

Adapted from SIEMENS, European Train Control System, [Online]. Available: http://www.
mobility.siemens.com/mobility/global/en/interurban-mobility/rail-solutions/rail-automation/
train-control-system/european-train-protection-system/Pages/european-train-control-system.
aspx.

customers through station announcements, websites and mobile phone apps.

Such train-tracking technology not only helps train operators to better inform pas-
sengers but also envisaged to support operators in planning ahead and performing
strategic decision-making for real-time scheduling changes as in the case of delays
or emergencies. Live train-tracking technology together with advances in commu-
nication technology will also help trains and cars in the not-too-distant future
to automatically communicate to each other their position, particularly when
approaching a crossing [11].
Innovations in the cyberspace has not only benefitted the operational and customer
satisfaction aspects of railways but also ushered in CPS developments in efficient man-
agement and refurbishment of railways’ complex asset base, for example, automatic
condition monitoring of lineside buildings, masonry structures, drainage systems, sig-
nalling systems, tracks, etc. There has particularly been a substantial amount of devel-
opment around wireless sensor networks for automating the process of railway
infrastructure condition monitoring [12], such as those of railway sleepers [13], which
has until recently been performed manually which can be cumbersome, leading to
many faults not being detected in a timely manner. One of the many challenges to
be addressed within this area is the development of an integrated and holistic system
for real-time condition monitoring. This could include combining infrastructure health
monitoring sensor data with GPS and train route data to validate track conditions, such
as validating a track defect through vibrations data monitored by several trains at the
same GPS location [14].
Transportation Cyber-Physical System and its importance for future mobility 9

2.3 Road Transportation Cyber-Physical System

The road transport sector is under enormous pressure for being one of the leading con-
tributors for global injuries and deaths, as well as one of the highest contributors of
greenhouse gas emissions (17.5% of overall gas emission in Europe in the last decade)
[15], whilst facing an ever-increasing demand with the number of cars worldwide pre-
dicted to touch 1.6 billion by 2030. Road transport has a huge impact on society, the
environment and the economy and is hence one of the primary areas currently under-
going major CPS R&D investment aimed towards increasing safety, reducing conges-
tion and increasing road capacity while meeting strict environmental regulations. We
have already seen major advances in embedded intelligence (within vehicles, infra-
structure, goods and management), vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication tech-
nologies and applications and automated driver safety systems. Such developments are
seen in both public and private transport sector for both humans and goods.
The components of road TCPS can be explained with a perception-based traffic
incident management system. Road TCPS includes the three main processes [16]
for traffic situation assessment in the cyber-physical space. They are (1) senor-based
perception, (2) situation assessment and (3) actuation. As shown in Fig. 1.5, based

Figure 1.5 Components of road Transportation Cyber-Physical System.

Adapted from Y. Wang, G. Tan, Y. Wang, Y. Yi, Perceptual control architecture for
cyberephysical systems in traffic incident management, Journal of Systems Architecture 58 (10)
(2012) 398e411.
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 CHAPTER V
CHLORINE

Chlorine is of interest in chemical warfare, not only because it

was the first poison gas used by the Germans, but also because of
its extensive use in the preparation of other war gases. The fact that,
when Germany decided upon her gas program, her chemists
selected chlorine as the first substance to be used, was the direct
result of an analysis of the requirements of a poison gas.
To be of value for this purpose, a chemical must satisfy at least
the following conditions:
(1) It must be highly toxic.
(2) It must be readily manufactured in large
quantities.
(3) It must be readily compressible to a liquid
and yet be more or less easily volatilized
when the pressure is released.
(4) It should have a considerably higher
density than that of air.
(5) It should be stable against moisture and
other chemicals.
Considering the properties of chlorine in the light of these
requirements, we find:
(1a) Chlorine is fairly toxic, though its lethal
concentration (2.5 milligrams per liter of air) is very
high when compared with some of the later gases
developed. This figure is the concentration
necessary to kill a dog after an exposure of thirty
minutes. Its effects during the first gas attack
 showed that, with no protection, the gas was very
effective.
(2a) Chlorine is very readily manufactured by the
electrolysis of a salt (sodium chloride) solution. The
operation is described below. In 100-pound
cylinders, the commercial product sold before the
War for 5 cents a pound. Therefore on a large scale,
it can be manufactured at a very much smaller
figure.
(3a) Chlorine is easily liquefied at the ordinary
temperature by compression, a pressure of 16.5
atmospheres being required at 18° C. The liquid
which is formed boils at -33.6° C. at ordinary
atmospheric pressure, so that it readily vaporizes
upon opening the valve of the containing cylinder.
Such rapid evaporation inside would cause a
considerable cooling of the cylinder, but this is
overcome by running the outlet pipe to the bottom of
the tank, so that evaporation takes place at the end
of the outlet pipe.
(4a) Chlorine is 2.5 times as heavy as air, and
therefore the gas is capable of traveling over a
considerable distance before it dissipates into the
atmosphere.
(5a) The only point in which chlorine does not
seem to be an ideal gas, is in the fact that it is a
reactive substance. This is best seen in the success
of the primitive protection adopted by both the
British and the French during the days immediately
following the first gas attack.
At first, however, chlorine proved a very effective weapon. During
the first six months of its use, its value was maintained by devising
new methods of attack. When these were exhausted, phosgene was
added (see next chapter). With the decline in importance of cloud
gas attacks, and the development of more deadly gases, chlorine
was all but discarded as a true war gas, but remained as a highly
important ingredient in the manufacture of other toxic gases.

Manufacture in the United States

It was at first thought that the existing plants might be able to
supply the government’s need of chlorine. The pre-war production
averaged about 450 tons (900,000 pounds) per day. The greater
amount of this was used in the preparation of bleach, only about
60,000 pounds per day being liquefied. Only a few of the plants were
capable of even limited expansion. In an attempt to conserve the
supply, the paper mills agreed to use only half as much bleach
during the war, which arrangement added considerably to the supply
available for war purposes. It was soon recognized that even with
these accessions, large additions would have to be made to the
chlorine output of the country in order to meet the proposed toxic gas
requirements.
After a careful consideration of all the factors, the most important
of which was the question of electrical energy, it was decided to build
a chlorine plant at Edgewood Arsenal, with a capacity of 100 tons
(200,000 pounds) per day. The Nelson cell was selected for use in
the proposed plant. During the process of erection of the plant, the
Warner-Klipstein Chemical Company, which was operating the
Nelson cell in its plant in Charleston, West Virginia, agreed that men
might be sent to their plant to acquire the special knowledge required
for operating such a plant. Thus when the plant was ready for
operation, trained men were at once available.
Fig. 19.—Chlorine Plant, Edgewood Arsenal.
 Fig. 20.—Ground Plan of Chlorine Caustic Soda
Plant,
Edgewood Arsenal.

The following description of the plant is taken from an article by

S. M. Green in Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering for July 1,
1919:
“The chlorine plant building, a ground plan of which is shown in
Figure 20, consisted of a salt storage and treating building, two cell
buildings, a rotary converter building, etc. In connection with the
chlorine plant, there was also constructed a liquefying plant for
chlorine and a sulfur chloride manufacturing and distilling plant.
“The salt storage and treating building was located on ground
much below the cell buildings, which allowed the railroad to enter the
brine building on the top of the salt storage tanks. These tanks were
constructed of concrete. There were seven of these tanks, 34 feet
long, 28 feet wide and 20 feet deep having a capacity for storing
4,000 tons of salt. There would have been 200 tons of salt used per
day when the plant was running at full capacity.
“On the bottom of each tank distributing pipes for dissolving-
water supply were installed, and at the top of each, at the end next to
the building, there was an overflow trough and skimmer board
arranged so that the dissolving-water after flowing up through the
salt, overflowed into this trough and then into a piping system and
into either of two collecting tanks. The system was so arranged that,
if the brine was not fully saturated, it could be passed through
another storage tank containing a deep body of salt. The saturated
brine was pumped from the collecting tanks to any one of 24 treating
tanks, each of which had a capacity of 72,000 gallons.
“The eighth storage bin was used for the storage of soda ash,
used in treating the saturated brine. This was delivered from the bin
on the floor level of the salt building to the soda ash dissolving tanks.
From these tanks it was pumped to any one of the 24 treating tanks.
After the brine was treated and settled, the clear saturated brine was
drawn from the treating tanks through decanting pipes and delivered
by pumps to any one of the four neutralizing tanks. These were
located next to a platform on the level of the car body. This was to
provide easy handling of the hydrochloric acid, which was purchased
at first, though later prepared at the plant from chlorine and
hydrogen. The neutralized brine was delivered from the tanks by a
pump to a tank located at a height above the floor so that the brine
would flow by gravity to the cells in the cell building.
“There were to be two cell buildings, each 541 feet long by 82
feet wide, and separated by partitions into four sections, containing
six cell circuits of 74 cell units. Each section is a complete unit in
itself, provided with separate gas pump, drying and cooling
equipment, and has a guaranteed capacity of 12.5 tons of chlorine
gas per 24 hours.
“Each Nelson electrolytic cell unit consists of a complete
fabricated steel tank 13 by 32 by 80 inches, a perforated steel
diaphragm spot welded to supporting angle irons, plate glass dome,
fourteen Acheson graphite electrodes 2.5 inches in diameter, 12
inches long and fourteen pieces of graphite 4 by 4 by 17 inches, and
various accessories. (The cell is completely described in Chemical
and Metallurgical Engineering, August 1st, 1919.) Each cell is
operated by a current of 340 amperes and 3.8 volts and is
guaranteed to produce 60 pounds of chlorine gas and 65 pounds of
caustic soda using not more than 120 pounds of salt per 24 hours,
the gas to be at least 95 per cent pure.

Fig. 21.—Interior View of the Cell Building.

“The salt solution from the cell feed tank, located in the salt
treating building, flows by gravity through a piping system located in
a trench running the length of each cell building, and is delivered to
each cell unit through an automatic feeding device which maintains a
constant liquor level in the cathode compartment.
 “The remaining solution percolates from the cathode
compartment through the asbestos diaphragm into the anode
compartment and flows from the end of the cell, containing from 8 to
12 per cent caustic soda, admixed with 14 to 16 per cent salt, into an
open trough and into a pipe in the trench and through this pipe by
gravity to the weak caustic storage tanks located near the caustic
evaporator building.

Fig. 22.—Nelson Electrolytic Cell, showing the

Interior Arrangement of the Cell.

“The gas piping from the individual cell units to and including the
drying equipment is of chemical stoneware. The piping is so
designed that the gas can be drawn from the cells through the drying
equipment at as near atmospheric pressure as possible in order that
the gas can be kept nearly free of air. When operating, the suction at
the pump was kept at ¹/₂₀ inch or less. The quality of the gas was
maintained at a purity of 98.5 to 99 per cent. The coolers used were
very effective, the gas being cooled to within one degree of the
temperature of the cooling water, no refrigeration being necessary.
The drying apparatus consisted of a stoneware tower of special
design containing a large number of plates, and thus giving a very
large acid exposure. There was practically no loss of vacuum
through the drying tower and cooler. The gas pumping equipment
consisted of two hydroturbine pumps using sulfuric acid as the
compressing medium. The acid was cooled by circulation through a
double pipe cooler similar to those used in refrigerating work. The
gas was delivered under about five pounds pressure into large
receiving tanks located just outside the pump rooms, and from these
tanks into steel pipe mains which conducted the gas to the chemical
plant.”
The purity of the gas was such that it was not found necessary to
liquefy it for the preparation of phosgene.

Properties
Chlorine, at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperature, is a
greenish yellow gas (giving rise to its name), which has a very
irritating effect upon the membranes of the nose and throat. As
mentioned above, at a pressure of 16.5 atmospheres at 18° C.,
chlorine is condensed to a liquid. If the gas is first cooled to 0°, the
pressure required for condensation is decreased to 3.7
atmospheres. This yellow liquid has a boiling point of -33.6° C. at the
ordinary pressure. If very strongly cooled, chlorine will form a pale
yellow solid (at -102° C.). Chlorine is 2.5 times as heavy as air, one
liter weighing 3.22 grams. 215 volumes of chlorine gas will dissolve
in 100 volumes of water at 20°. It is very slightly soluble in hot water
or in a concentrated solution of salt.
Chlorine is a very reactive substance and is found in combination
in a large number of compounds. Among the many reactions which
have proved important from the standpoint of chemical warfare, the
following may be mentioned:
Chlorine reacts with “hypo” (sodium thiosulfate) with the
formation of sodium chloride. Hypo is able to transform a large
amount of chlorine, so that it proved a very satisfactory impregnating
agent for the early cloth masks.
Water reacts with chlorine under certain conditions to form
hypochlorous acid, HOCl. In the presence of ethylene, this forms
ethylene chlorhydrin, which was the basis for the first method of
preparing mustard gas. In the later method, in which sulfur chloride
was used, chlorine was used in the manufacture of the chloride.
Chlorine reacts with carbon monoxide, in the sunlight, or in the
presence of a catalyst, to form phosgene, which is one of the most
valuable of the toxic gases.
Chlorine and acetone react to form chloroacetone, one of the
early lachrymators. The reaction of chlorine with toluene forms
benzyl chloride, an intermediate in the preparation of
bromobenzylcyanide.
In a similar way, it is found that the greater number of toxic gases
use chlorine in one phase or another of their preparation. One author
has estimated that 95 per cent of all the gases used may be made
directly or indirectly by the use of chlorine.
Chlorine has been used in connection with ammonia and water
vapor for the production of smoke clouds. The ammonium chloride
cloud thus produced is one of the best for screening purposes. In
combination with silicon or titanium as the tetrachloride it has also
been used extensively for the same purpose.
On the other hand one may feel that, whatever bad reputation
chlorine may have incurred as a poison gas, it has made up for it
through the beneficial applications to which it has lent itself. Among
these we may mention the sterilization of water and of wounds.
In war, where stationary conditions prevail only in a small number
of cases, the use of liquid chlorine for sterilization of water is
impractical. To meet this condition, an ampoule filled with chlorine
water of medium concentration has been developed, which furnishes
a good portable form of chlorine as a sterilizing agent for relatively
small quantities of water.
 Chlorine has also been applied, in the form of hypochlorite, to the
sterilization of infected wounds. The preparation of the solution and
the technique of the operation were worked out by Dakin and Carrel.
This innovation in war surgery has decreased enormously the
percentage of deaths from infected wounds.
 CHAPTER VI
PHOSGENE

The first cloud attack, in which pure chlorine was used, was very
effective, but only because the troops attacked with it were entirely
unprotected. Later, in spite of the varied methods of attack, the
results were less and less promising, due to the increased protection
of the men and also to the gas discipline which was gradually being
developed. During this time the Allies had started their gas attacks
(Sept., 1915), and it soon became evident that, if Germany was to
keep her supremacy in gas warfare, new gases or new tactics would
have to be introduced.
The second poison gas was used in December, 1915, when
about 20-25 per cent of phosgene was mixed with the chlorine. Here
again the Germans made use of an industry already established.
Phosgene is used commercially in the preparation of certain
dyestuffs, especially methyl violet, and was manufactured before and
during the war by the Bayer Company and the Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik.
Phosgene can not be used alone in gas cylinders because of its
high boiling point (8° C.). While this is considerably below ordinary
temperatures, especially during the summer months, the rate of
evaporation is so slow that a cloud attack could never be made with
it alone. However, when a mixture of 25 per cent phosgene and 75
per cent chlorine, or 50 per cent phosgene and 50 per cent chlorine
is used in warm weather there is no difficulty in carrying out gas
attacks from cylinders. At the same time the percentage of phosgene
in the mixture is sufficiently high to secure the advantages which it
possesses. These advantages are at least three:
(a) Phosgene is more toxic than chlorine. It requires 2.5
milligrams per liter of chlorine to kill a dog on an exposure of 30
minutes, but 0.3 milligram of phosgene will have the same effect.
This of course means that a cloud of phosgene containing one-
eighth (by weight) of the concentration of a chlorine cloud will have
the same lethal properties.
(b) Phosgene is much less reactive than chlorine, so that the
matter of protection becomes more difficult. Fortunately, word was
received by the British of the intended first use of phosgene against
them and consequently they were able to add
hexamethylenetetramine to the impregnating solution used in the
cloth masks.
(c) The third, and a very important, factor in the use of phosgene
is the so-called delayed effect. In low concentrations, men may
breathe phosgene for some time with apparently no ill effects. Ten or
twelve hours later, or perhaps earlier if they attempt any work, the
men become casualties.
Pure phosgene has been used in projector attacks (described in
Chapter II). The substance has also been used in large quantities in
shell; the Germans also used shell containing mixtures with
superpalite (trichloromethyl chloroformate) or sneezing gas
(diphenylchloroarsine).

Manufacture
Phosgene was first prepared by John Davy in 1812, by exposing
a mixture of equal volumes of carbon monoxide and chlorine to
sunlight; Davy coined the name “phosgene” from the part played by
light in the reaction. While phosgene may be prepared in the
laboratory by a number of other reactions, it was quite apparent that
the first mentioned reaction is the most economical of these for large
scale production. The reaction is a delicate one, however, and its
application required extended investigation.
The United States was fortunate in that, for some months
previous to the war, the Oldbury Electrochemical Company had been
working on the utilization of their waste carbon monoxide in making
phosgene. The results of these investigations were given to the
government and aided considerably in the early work on phosgene
at the Edgewood plant.

Fig. 23.—Furnace for Generating Carbon Monoxide.

Of the raw materials necessary for the manufacture of phosgene,

the chlorine was provided, at first by purchase from private plants,
but later through the Edgewood chlorine plant. After a sufficient
supply of chlorine was assured the next question was how to obtain
an adequate supply of carbon monoxide. A method for this gas had
not been developed on a large scale because it had never been
necessary to make any considerable quantity of it. The French and
English passed oxygen up through a gas producer filled with coke;
the oxygen combines with the carbon, giving carbon monoxide. The
oxygen was obtained from liquid air, for which a Claude liquid air
machine may be used. The difficulty with this method of preparing
carbon monoxide was that the amount of heat generated was so
great that the life of the generators was short. Our engineers
conceived the idea of using a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
The union of carbon dioxide with carbon to form carbon monoxide is
a reaction in which heat is absorbed. Therefore by using the mixture
of the two gases, the heat of the one reaction was absorbed by the
second reaction. In this way a very definite temperature could be
maintained, and the production of carbon monoxide was greatly
increased.

Fig. 24.—Catalyzer Boxes Used in the Manufacture

of Phosgene.
 Carbon dioxide was prepared by the combustion of coke. The
gas was washed and then passed into a solution of potassium
carbonate. Upon heating, this evolved carbon dioxide.
Phosgene was then prepared by passing the mixture of carbon
monoxide and chlorine into catalyzer boxes (8 feet long, 2 feet 9
inches deep and 11 inches wide), which are made of iron, lined with
graphite and filled with a porous form of carbon. Two sets of these
boxes were used. In the first the reaction proceeds at room
temperature, and is about 80 per cent complete. The second set of
boxes were kept immersed in tanks filled with hot water, and there
the reaction is completed.
The resulting phosgene was dried with sulfuric acid and then
condensed by passing it through lead pipes surrounded by
refrigerated brine.
The Germans prepared their phosgene by means of a prepared
charcoal (wood or animal). Carbon monoxide was manufactured by
passing carbon dioxide over wood charcoal contained in gas-fired
muffles and was washed by passing through sodium hydroxide. This
was mixed with chlorine and the mixture passed downward through
a layer of about 20 cm. of prepared charcoal contained in a cast iron
vessel 80 cm. in diameter and 80 cm. deep. By regulating the
mixture so that there was a slight excess of carbon monoxide, the
phosgene was obtained with only one-quarter of one per cent free
chlorine. The charcoal (wood) was prepared by washing with
hydrochloric and other acids until free from soluble ash; it was then
washed with water and dried in vacuum. The size of the granules
was about one-quarter inch mesh. Their life averaged about six
months.

Properties
Phosgene is a colorless gas at room temperatures, but becomes
a liquid at 8°. The odor of phosgene is suggestive of green corn or
musty hay. One liter of phosgene vapor weighs 4.4 grams (chlorine
weights 3.22 grams). At 0° C., the liquid is heavier than water, having
a specific gravity of 1.432. At 25°, the vapor exerts a pressure of
about 25 pounds per square inch. Phosgene is absorbed by solid
materials, such as pumice stone and celite. Pumice stone absorbs
more than its own weight of phosgene. Thus 5.7 grams of pumice
absorbed 7.4 grams phosgene, which completely evaporated in 60
minutes. German shell have been found which contained such a
mixture (phosgene and pumice stone). While the apparent reason for
their use is to prevent the rapid evaporation of the phosgene, it is a
question whether such is the case, for a greater surface is really
present in the case of pumice stone than where the phosgene is
simply on the ground. Phosgene is slowly decomposed by cold
water, rapidly by hot water. This reaction is important because there
is always moisture in the air, which would tend to lower the
concentration of the gas.
Phosgene is absorbed and decomposed by
hexamethylenetetramine (urotropine). This reaction furnished the
basis of the first protection used by the British. Later the catalytic
decomposition of phosgene into carbon dioxide and hydrochloric
acid by the charcoal in the mask furnished protection.
For most purposes a trace of chlorine in phosgene is not a
disadvantage; for example, when it is used in cylinders or projectors.
Under certain conditions, as when used as a solvent for sneezing
gas, the presence of chlorine must be avoided, since it reacts with
the substance in solution, usually producing a harmless material.
Chlorine may be removed from phosgene by passing the mixture
through cotton seed oil.

Protection
It was mentioned above that hexamethylenetetramine
(urotropine) was used in the early pads (black veil and similar
masks) and flannel helmets. This was found to be satisfactory
against chlorine and phosgene, in the concentrations usually found
during a cylinder attack. The mixture used consisted of urotropine,
sodium thiosulfate (“hypo”), sodium carbonate and glycerine. The
glycerine tended to keep the pads moist, while the other chemicals
acted as protective agents against the mixture of phosgene and
chlorine.
The introduction of the Standard Box Respirator with its charcoal-
soda lime filling increased very materially the protection against
phosgene. In this filling, the charcoal both absorbs the phosgene and
catalyzes the reaction with the moisture of the air with which the
phosgene is mixed, to form hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide.
Soda-lime absorbs phosgene but does not catalyze its
decomposition. This shows the advantage of the mixture, since the
hydrochloric acid, which is formed through the action of the charcoal,
is absorbed by the soda-lime. Experiments seem to indicate that it
does not matter which material is placed in the bottom of the
canister, but that an intimate mixture is the best arrangement. Using
a concentration of 5,000 parts per million (20.2 mg. per liter) a type H
canister (see page 217) will give complete protection for about 40
minutes; when the air-gas mixture passes at the rate of 16 liters per
minute the efficiency or life of a canister increases with a decrease in
temperature, as is seen in the following table (the concentration was
5,000 parts per million, the rate of flow 16 liters per minute)
Temperature Efficiency
° C. (Time in minutes)
-10 223
0 172
10 146
20 130
30 125
40 99
From these figures it is seen that at -10° C. the life is about 50
per cent greater than at summer temperature. As would be expected
the life of a canister is shortened by increasing the concentration of
phosgene in the phosgene air mixture. This is illustrated by the
following figures:
 Concentration Life
p.p.m. (Time in minutes)
5,000 177
10,000 112
15,000 72
20,000 58
25,000 25
(25,000 p.p.m. is equal to 101.1 mg. per liter.)
There is rather a definite relation between the concentration of
the gas and the life of a canister at any given rate of flow. Many of
these relations have been expressed by formulas of which the
following is typical. At 32 liters per minute flow, C⁰ ˙ ⁹ × T =
101,840, in which C is the concentration and T the time.

Shell Filling
The empty shell, after inspection, are loaded on trucks, together
with the appropriate number of “boosters,” which screw into the top
of the shell and thereby close them. The trucks are run by an electric
storage battery locomotive to the filling unit. The shell are transferred
by hand to a conveyor, which carries the shell slowly through a cold
room. During this passage of about 30 minutes, the shell are cooled
to about 0° F. The cooled shell are transferred to shell trucks, each
truck carrying 6 shell. These trucks are drawn through the filling
tunnel by means of a chain haul operated by an air motor to the
filling machine. Here the liquid phosgene is run into the shell by
automatic machines, so arranged that the 6 shell are at the same
time automatically filled to a constant void. The truck then carries the
filled shell forward a few feet to a small window, at which point the
boosters are inserted into the nose of the shell by hand. The final
closing of the shell is then effected by motors operated by
compressed air. The filling and closing machines are all operated by
workmen on the outside of the filling tunnel.

Fig. 25.—Filling Livens’ Drums with Phosgene.

The filled shell are conveyed to the shell dump, where they are
stored for 24 hours, nose down on skids, in order to test for leaks.

Tactical Use
Phosgene was first used in cloud attacks in December, 1915.
These attacks continued for about nine months and were then
gradually replaced, to a large extent, by gas shell attacks. Phosgene
was first found in German projectiles in November, 1916. These shell
were known as the d-shell. Besides pure phosgene, mixtures of