ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2024 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PAPER 1 (1PS0/01) SYLLABUS
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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

depression in young American participants.

1. Psychological Problems How Depression Affects Individuals and Society

Depression may lead to higher suicide rates as individuals

1.1. Depression experiencing feelings of worthlessness and sadness seek
an escape.
Unipolar Depression is characterized by a consistent and
Workplace productivity is significantly affected, with the
severe lowering of mood, pulling the emotional state in one
Health and Safety Executive estimating 9.9 million
direction, thereby impacting daily functioning.
workdays lost in 2014-15 due to stress, depression, or
Main symptoms from International Classification of Diseases
anxiety related to work.
version 10 (ICD-10)
The increasing rates of depression escalate the cost of
Persistent sadness or low mood treatment, including expensive antidepressant
Loss of interest or motivation prescriptions and the need for trained therapists for
Fatigue or low-energy therapies like counselling.
Other symptoms In 2007, depression cost the National Health Service
Disturbed sleep (NHS) an estimated £1.7 billion, potentially straining NHS
Poor concentration or indecisiveness resources and services.
Low self-confidence
Poor or increased appetite 1.2. Genetic Explanation for Depression
Suicidal thoughts or acts
Guilt or self-blame Genetic Influence on Depression:
Agitation or slowing of movements Depression is hereditary, carried in our DNA, and
At least 1 of the main symptoms- present most of the time more likely to occur in families. Craig Hyde et al.
- on most days for 2 WEEKS (2016) identified 17 gene variations linked to
depression development.
Episode Symptoms Features Genetic Predisposition:
The patient might find Refers to the tendency to become depressed due to
their symptoms one's genes.
Four symptoms upsetting, but they will Diathesis-stress Model:
Mild
displayed probably be able to carry Suggests that individuals possess a gene predisposing
on with most day-to-day them to depression, which is triggered by a stressful
activities. event.
Patients might have Genetic predisposition + environmental factors =
Five or six symptoms depression
Moderate serious problems doing
were displayed
day-to-day activities
Seven or more The patient may have
symptoms (plus a suicidal thoughts or
Severe
general feeling of engage in self-harm to
worthlessness) cope with their feelings

Incidence of Depression Overtime

Martin Seligman (1988) documented a tenfold surge in

depression diagnoses compared to the 1940s.
King’s Fund (2008) anticipates a growth in diagnosed
depression cases from 1.24 million in 2007 to 1.45 million
by 2026 in England.
Brandon Hidaka (2012) attributes the heightened Twin Studies:
prevalence of depression to the stress associated with Peter McGuffin et al. (1996) found that if one
"modern living," encompassing factors like sleep genetically identical (monozygotic) twin became
deprivation, poor diet, and increased social isolation. depressed, there was a 46% chance the other would
Jean Twenge et al. (2010) observed a greater likelihood of too. In contrast, if a dizygotic twin became depressed,
depression diagnosis in young adults in 2007 compared to there was only a 20% chance their twin would follow
1938. suit. This supports both genetic predisposition and the
Liu Yi Lin et al. (2016) establish a connection between diathesis-stress model.
increased social media usage and a heightened risk of

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Strengths Weaknesses 1.4. Treatments for Depression

Deterministic shows that if
Lots of Research Evidence you have certain genes, you Drug Therapy:
are bound to be depressed.
Antidepressants increase neurotransmitter levels.
Decreases the stigma around Reductionists; doesn’t
SSRIs block serotonin reuptake (commonly used).
it as it is inherited consider other factors
SNRIs block both serotonin and noradrenaline
Free will; choice to succumb reuptake.
to depression MAOIs prevent the breakdown of serotonin and
noradrenaline.
1.3. Cognitive Explanation for TCAs block neurotransmitter reuptake (used since the
1950s).
Depression
Strengths: Weaknesses:
Cognitive theory examines the processing of information in Prevents lack of motivation Ignores the cause of
the brain.
for CBT. depression.

Aaron Beck's Cognitive Triad: Placebo pills are less Relapse is more likely than
effective. with CBT.
Comprises three negative thought patterns known as
cognitive biases. Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT):
Originates from negative experiences in an individual's
Description:
past.
A systematic approach to address and modify
This results in a negative self-schema, where the entire
negative thought patterns and behaviours associated
belief system is saturated with negativity, causing
with depression.
individuals to perceive every situation as more adverse
A collaborative effort between the patient and
than it is.
therapist to identify, challenge, and reframe distorted
thinking.
Procedure:
Patients discuss symptoms, emotions, and triggers
with the therapist.
Identification of irrational thoughts and beliefs related
to events.
The therapist assists in challenging and replacing
irrational thoughts with rational and positive
alternatives.
Patients maintain a diary to track thoughts and
engage in discussions with the therapist.

Albert Ellis’s ABC model – three stages that can cause us to Strengths Weaknesses
develop negative thought processes/ depression
- A lack of patient motivation
- Significant and lasting
and engagement may hinder
improvement in symptoms.
effectiveness.
- Empowers individuals, - Potential for therapist
reducing feelings of influence and power to be
helplessness. misused.

Strengths Weaknesses
Difficult to determine whether 1.5. Caspi et al (2003)
Takes into account what the
irrational thoughts are a
individual experiences and life
cause or a symptom of Background:
events
depression
Depression linked to stressful life experiences.
thought processes are
Diathesis–stress theories propose genetic vulnerability as
The Cognitive Theory is difficult to point out as the
a factor.
utilized in CBT main determinant of
depression Investigation focused on serotonin-targeting
antidepressants (SSRIs).
Role of 5-HTT gene in serotonin efficiency explored.

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

Aim: 1.6. Addiction

Examine why some experience depression after stressful Addiction: characterised by the compelling need for a
events.
specific substance or engagement in a particular activity
Investigate the contribution of the 5-HTT gene to
to maintain one's daily routine. Examples include
depression.
substance dependencies like drugs or alcohol, as well as
behavioural addictions like gambling or shopping.
Procedure: Withdrawal: unpleasant physical or psychological
symptoms experienced when attempting to quit or being
Longitudinal study from age 3 to 26 (96% follow-up).
unable to satisfy an addiction.
Participants from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health
and Development Study.
Prevalence of Addiction
Divided into three groups based on 5-HTTLPR genotype.
Stressful life events recorded (employment, financial,
In 2015/16, 8,621 individuals were admitted to the
housing, health, relationships). hospital with drug-related issues.
Depression assessed at age 26 using Diagnostic Interview
There were 15,074 hospital admissions for overdoses.
Schedule.
There were 2,479 registered deaths related to drug
Informants questioned about participants' depressive misuse, marking a 10% increase from 2014.
symptoms. About 8.4% of adults admitted to taking illicit drugs.
6% of 11-year-olds acknowledged trying drugs at least
Results: once, compared to 24% of 15-year-olds.

Measure 1 – Stressful Life Events:

Addiction manifests in two primary forms:
No differences in experienced stressful life events across
groups. 1. Dependence disorder: reliance on substances such as
alcohol and cocaine.
Measure 2 – Depression: 2. Behavioural addiction: dependence on activities like
gambling.
17% experienced DSM-IV depressive episode in the past
year. Symptoms of Dependence Disorder
3% reported a past-year suicide attempt.
Compelling urge to consume a substance
Results Gradual increase in tolerance for the substance
Difficulty in stopping or reducing substance use
1. (s) allele carriers showed a stronger interaction Experience of physical withdrawal symptoms (e.g.,
between life events and depression. shaking, sweating) during periods without substance use
2. (s) allele carriers had increased depressive symptoms Substitution of regular activities with substance use or
from 21 to 26 years old. recovery from it
3. Life events after age 21 predicted new depression Disregard for evidence indicating harm from substance
cases at 26 for (s) allele carriers. use
4. Stressful life events predicted major depression
among (s) allele carriers. Symptoms of Behavioural Addiction
5. Stressful life events predicted informant reports of
depression among (s) allele carriers. Compelling need to engage in the activity regularly
6. Stressful life events predicted suicide ideation among Difficulty in stopping or reducing the frequency of the
(s) allele carriers. activity
7. 5-HTT gene moderated the impact of stressful life Requirement to increase the frequency or engage in
events, reducing their effects. riskier variations for the same level of satisfaction
Substitution of regular activities with the favoured activity
Conclusions: Disregard for arguments highlighting the harmful nature
of the activity
5-HTT gene interacts with life events to predict depressive
symptoms and related outcomes.
(l) allele carriers less likely to develop depression or
1.7. Genetic Explanation for Addiction
suicidality.
1. Dorit Carmelli et al. (1992):
(l) allele moderates effects of childhood maltreatment on
Higher chances of both identical twins being
depression.
smokers if one engages in smoking, compared to
non-identical twins.

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

2. Donald Goodwin et al. (1973): Learning behavior by observing and modeling others,
Adopted children with at least one biological especially role models.
parent with alcohol addiction highly likely to show Imitation of admired figures, potentially leading to
alcohol addiction signs. addiction, e.g., mimicking a parent's smoking.
3. Diana Marinez et al. (2004):
Heavy cocaine users more likely to possess a Strengths:
specific dopamine receptor gene version.
4. Remi Cadoret et al. (1987): Assumption of behaviors being unlearned offers potential
Adopted children with a biological link to alcohol for addiction treatments.
problems more prone to alcohol-related issues. Operant Conditioning acknowledges the interaction of
biological and external factors in addiction.
Strengths: Classical Conditioning explains relapses, as situations
associated with addiction trigger urges.
Scientific evidence underpins the genetic explanation for
addiction. Weaknesses:
Controlled environments in twin and adoption studies help
isolate factors influencing addiction. Generally neglects the role of biological factors in
Suggests shared genetic factors within families contribute addiction theories.
to the heritability of addictions. Fails to explain why only a small percentage becomes
addicted despite exposure to similar conditions.
Weaknesses: Social Learning Theory suggests discontinuation of
addiction if role models avoid addiction.
Individuals display varying susceptibilities to addiction,
which means that genetics may not be the main Treatments for Addiction:
determinant of addiction.
Reductionist approach overlooks social factors influencing Drug Therapy:
addiction dynamics.
Lack of identification of a singular gene responsible for Medication aids detoxification effects and reduces
addiction. withdrawal symptoms.
The association of the DDR2 A1 gene with both addiction Drugs combat cravings, such as methadone for opiates,
and autism raises questions about the gene's specific role nicotine patches or gums for smokers, and naloxone for
in addiction. alcoholics.
Antidepressants address underlying issues like
depression.
1.8. Learning Theory of Addiction
Classical Conditioning:

Learning through associations, where two or more

occurrences become linked.
Automatic triggering of one thing when the other is
experienced.
Positive associations with a substance or activity lead to
the formation of addictive behaviors.

Operant Conditioning:

Repetition of behaviors due to positive consequences

(rewards).
Positively reinforced behavior increases the likelihood of
Strengths:
repetition.
Negative reinforcement or consequences may discourage Supported by research evidence.
certain behaviors.
Addresses short-term problems effectively.
Addiction behavior reinforced by positive feelings
increases the likelihood of repetition. Weaknesses:
Social Learning Theory: Placebo similarities in effectiveness for some
medications.
Risk of dependency on certain drugs.

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Young et al. identified CBT as effective, with sustained
effects observed over six months.
Two stages: Functional Analysis and Skills Training. Online CBT emerged as a viable and lasting treatment for
Functional Analysis uncovers addiction sources, and Skills internet addiction.
Training equips patients to avoid triggers by teaching Significant improvements in participants' control over
them skills to cope with Addiction) internet use were revealed through the questionnaires.
Patient maintains a diary to discuss feelings in CBT
sessions. Conclusion:

Strengths: The study advocates for CBT's use in tackling internet

addiction.
Empowers patients to control their behavior. Emphasizes the effectiveness and longevity of online CBT
Backed by research evidence. for this contemporary issue.
CBT suggests that individuals can regain and maintain
Weaknesses: control over internet use.

Requires patient commitment to treatment. Strengths: Weaknesses

Skill retention and application may vary among patients. Highlights the effectiveness of
online CBT, offering a discreet Response Bias:
1.9. Young et al. (2007) option for those hesitant Questionnaires
about in-person therapy.
Aims: The use of the internet as a
Standardised procedures,
medium for treating internet
including designated times for
1. Investigate the efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral addiction may impact internal
questionnaire completion.
Therapy (CBT) in addressing internet addiction. validity.
2. Evaluate the sustainability of CBT effects on internet
addiction over time.
1.10. Issues & Debate: Nature vs.
Background: Nurture
Growing concern about internet addiction in the Caspi et al. (2003) identified a specific version of the 5-
contemporary digital era. HTT gene influencing the likelihood of depression after a
CBT has demonstrated effectiveness in treating various stressful life event.
addictive behaviours. Nativist theories suggest genetic inheritance contributes
Assess the long-term effectiveness of CBT in diminishing to psychological problems, making behavior change
internet addiction. challenging.
Patients with the short 5-HTT gene version may face a
Sample: higher risk of depression relapse even after
treatment.
114 participants were selected from the Centre for Online
The nature vs. nurture debate involves considering
Addiction
genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental
Participants actively seeking treatment for internet
influences (nurture) in shaping psychological traits and
addiction were recruited.
behaviors.
The sample was longitudinally followed to examine the
Cognitive explanation of depression and learning theory
sustained effects of CBT.
of addiction propose learned behaviors that can be
replaced through treatment, supporting the effectiveness
Procedure:
of CBT.
The assumption that CBT works for both addiction and
Participants completed questionnaires gauging their
depression implies nurture as the cause, not nature.
internet addiction control throughout and post-CBT
treatment. Explanations considering an interaction between nature
and nurture posit that a combination of the short 5-HTT
Standardised CBT procedures were employed for internet
gene and a stressful event increases depression risk.
addiction treatment.
Genes may predispose individuals to problems, and
Questionnaire data were analyzed to assess CBT's
efficacy and its enduring impact on internet addiction. environmental factors trigger symptoms.

Results:

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

2. The Brain and

Neuropsychology
2.1. Parts of the Brain
Frontal lobe: Functions in decision-making and
concentration.
Temporal lobe: Engaged in hearing, comprehending
sounds, and processing speech.
Parietal lobe: Responsible for understanding the
surrounding world (perception) and recognizing faces.
Occipital lobe: Manages the ability to see and process
visual information. 2.3. Role of the Nervous System
Cerebellum: Governs movement, coordination, and
balance. CNS (Central Nervous System):
Brainstem: Links the spinal cord to the upper brain. Includes the brain and spinal cord.
Relays messages from the brain to the rest of the
2.2. Lateralisation of Function body, providing instructions.
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System):
Each hemisphere performs distinct functions. Comprises nerves connecting the CNS, especially the
Corpus callosum: A dense bundle of nerve fibers linking spinal cord, to the body's skin, muscles, and organs.
the two hemispheres. Neurotransmitters:
Broca’s Area: Located in the left hemisphere, accountable Chemicals are present in the nervous system.
for speech production. Transmit messages from one neuron to another.
Left hemisphere: Connected with speech, logical
reasoning, mathematical abilities, the right hand, and the The Neuron
right visual field.
The basic unit of the nervous system.
Right hemisphere: Linked to spatial awareness, creativity,
musical talents, the left hand, and the left visual field.
Males often excel in spatial awareness, potentially leading
to hemispheric dominance.
Females typically demonstrate superior language skills
and possess a thicker corpus callosum.

The Synapse

Junction between two neurons.

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

a non-murderer group, providing an explanation for

the increased propensity for violent behavior in
certain individuals.

2.5. Damasio et al. (1994) The Return of

Phineas Gage
Aims

Investigate the impact of brain damage, specifically to the

ventromedial regions of the frontal lobe, on decision-
making and emotional control.
Determine the role of ventromedial regions in rational
decision-making and emotional regulation.

Background

Inspired by the case of Phineas Gage, who underwent

Synaptic Transmission personality changes after ventromedial frontal lobe
damage.
1. Electrical impulse starts within the neuron's cell body. Crucial for psychology and neuroscience to comprehend
2. Small impulse travels along the axon (a long structure how distinct brain regions influence decision-making and
connecting the neuron's cell body to the terminal emotional control.
button at the end).
3. Reaches terminal buttons filled with vesicles Sample:
containing neurotransmitters.
4. Vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic No traditional sample; focused on the historical figure
gap. Phineas Gage.
5. Neurotransmitters are received by receptors on the Analyzed Gage's brain damage effects through a detailed
next nerve cell. examination.
6. This process continues to transmit the message.
Procedure:
Imbalance
Neurotransmitter Function
Consequences Aimed to construct a 3D model of Gage's skull to trace the
Insufficient levels iron rod's path causing brain damage.
Role in attention and
Dopamine make concentrating Data was collected on damage to Gage's ventromedial
learning
on tasks difficult. frontal lobe.
Insufficient levels can Examined the impact of the damage on decision-making
Serotonin Affects mood lead to feelings of and emotional regulation using historical records and
depression. medical observations.

Inadequate levels
Results
GABA Role in calming result in heightened
stress levels. Damasio's findings supported the crucial role of
ventromedial frontal lobe regions in rational decision-
2.4. Neurological Damage making and emotional control.
White matter damage disrupted signal transmission to
Visual agnosia: A state where a person possesses the prefrontal cortex, impairing Gage's ability to make
flawless vision but struggles to comprehend visual stimuli, sensible decisions and manage emotions.
often stemming from parietal lobe damage.
Prosopagnosia: The incapacity to identify faces despite Conclusion
having regular vision, usually arising from damage to the
Fusiform Face Area. Provides evidence for the significance of ventromedial
Prefrontal cortex: A cerebral area responsible for frontal lobe regions in decision-making and emotional
regulating anger, emotions, and impulses. regulation.
Adriane Raine et al. (1997) discovered lower activity in Establishes a connection between specific brain regions
and cognitive/emotional functioning.
the pre-frontal cortex among murderers compared to

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

Broader implications for understanding brain injuries and Deepened understanding of cognitive abilities in split-
their effects on behaviour and cognitive processes. brain patients and their information processing
mechanisms.
Strengths Weaknesses Significant implications for neuropsychology and cognitive
Scientific methods: 3D scans science emerged from Sperry's work.
of the brain were used to Lacks reliability; information
identify areas of exit and dated 150 years back Strengths Weakness
entry Practical Application: detailed
Lacks Generalisability; a small
Practical Application: frontal Low Generalisability: Brain information about split-brain
sample was used
lobe damage damage is unique patients
Standardised Procedure: Lacks Ecological Validity;
increasing reliability and unrepresentative of everyday
2.6. Sperry (1968) Hemisphere replicability of the study activities.
Deconnection
2.7. Issues and Debates: How Has
Aims:
Psychology Changed Over Time
Investigate the independent and cooperative functioning
of the two hemispheres in split-brain patients. Researchers aimed to explore how specific areas in the
Determine the roles of the left and right hemispheres in brain influence human behaviour.
processing different types of information and assess their Case studies of patients with neurological damage across
independent capabilities. different periods provided insights into the evolving
knowledge of the brain.
Background
Timeline of Key Developments:
Built upon previous research suggesting distinct functions
1. 1848: Phineas Gage
for the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
Gage's case study in 1848 contributed significantly
Aims to gain insights into brain lateralization and
to our contemporary understanding of the brain.
functional specialization by studying split-brain patients.
Brain study during this period was limited to post-
Sample mortem examinations.
2. 1875: Wilhelm Windt
Included 11 participants who had undergone corpus Psychology emerged as a field with the opening of
callosum surgical cutting, crucial for investigating split- the first laboratory by Wilhelm Windt.
brain functioning. The ability to measure the physical brain and
human behaviour became possible.
Procedure 3. 1924: Hans Berger
Development of the EEG (Electroencephalogram)
Utilised various tests and tasks to evaluate participants' by Hans Berger.
abilities, such as presenting images or words to specific EEG allows the measurement of brain activity in
visual fields and assessing responses. living individuals.
For example, words presented to the right visual field 4. 1947: Bodamer's Prosopagnosia Cases
allowed participants to speak about what they saw, as the Bodamer's paper in 1947 explored three cases of
left hemisphere controls speech. prosopagnosia, shedding light on the brain's role
in facial recognition.
Results Illustration of how case studies contribute to
understanding brain functions.
Sperry's findings demonstrated the independent and 5. 1950s: Modern Brain Scans
distinct abilities of the two brain hemispheres. The introduction of advanced brain scans like PET
The right hemisphere excelled in spatial awareness and (positron emission tomography) and MRI
creativity, while the left was responsible for language and (magnetic resonance imaging) provided detailed
logical thinking. images of the brain's structure.
6. 1968: Sperry's Lateralised Function
Conclusion Sperry's ideas in the 1960s on lateralized brain
function were furthered by subsequent research
Confirmed the concept of brain lateralization, highlighting on sex differences.
specialized functions of the left and right hemispheres. McGlone (1980) found greater brain asymmetry in
right-handed males, indicating sex-related

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distinctions. While some personality factors play a role, bystander

Voyer et al. (1995) observed reduced sex intervention is predominantly influenced by situational
differences in brain lateralization over time. factors.
Bourne et al. (2010) identified strong links between
sex, gender, and lateralization patterns. 3.3. Piliavin et. al. (1969) Good
Samaritanism
3. Social Influence
Aims
3.1. Bystander Effect 1. Investigate real-world bystander intervention in
subway settings.
Bystander Effect: Hesitation to assist someone in need,
2. Examine factors impacting bystanders' likelihood to
assuming others will provide help.
offer help.
Bystander Apathy: Lack of empathy or shared emotions
with a person requiring assistance.
Background
Bystander Intervention: Decision to assist someone
depends on situational and personal factors. Extend research on the bystander effect.
Explore real-world factors' impact on intervention.
3.2. Factors Affecting Bystander Effect This was prompted by the Kitty Genovese case
(murder involving people who just watched as Kitty,
Factors Affecting Helping Behavior: the victim, was being stabbed several times),
highlighting actual behaviour.
Situational Factors:
Participants
1. Diffusion of Responsibility:
Feeling less personally responsible with more A field experiment in New York Subway
people around. Approximately 4,500 passengers were observed between
Less likelihood to help in a larger crowd, assuming 11 am and 3 pm
others will assist. Four groups of four students (two males, two females)
2. Noticing the Event: using covert observation
Reduced awareness of events in large crowds. Victim scenario: Male student falling after the first stop
Latané and Darley's (1969) experiment showed Victim conditions: Sober with a cane, drunk with a bottle;
delayed response in group settings. white or black
3. Pluralistic Ignorance: Model actions: Providing help after 70 or 150 seconds or
Socially interpreting situations based on others' remaining still
actions. Observers recorded:
If no one helps, perceiving the event as non- Number of people in critical and adjacent areas
emergent; following others if they assist. Race and sex of passengers
4. Cost of Helping: Individuals who offered help
Higher costs (time, effort, danger) decrease Comments made by passengers
likelihood of helping. Time taken to provide assistance
Helping may occur when victim's costs outweigh
personal costs, often to avoid guilt. Procedure

Personal Factors: Covert observation for discreet data collection.

Staged incidents with confederates posing as drunk or ill
1. Competence: individuals.
Feeling capable influences the type of assistance Record responses of unaware passengers.
provided.
Trained individuals more likely to offer direct help,
like CPR.
2. Mood:
Greater likelihood of helping when in a positive
mood.
3. Similarity:
Increased likelihood to help victims perceived as
similar to oneself

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Informational Social Influence: Conforming when unsure,

relying on others for behavioural cues.

Types of Conformity

1. Identification
2. Compliance
3. Internalisation

3.5. Factors Affecting Conformity

Results Locus of Control:

Internal locus of control: belief in personal control over
62 out of 65 times victims had a cane – passengers behaviour
helped before the model External locus of control: belief in external factors
19 out of 38 times, the victim appeared drunk – controlling behaviour (e.g., fate/religion)
passengers helped before the model Age:
In 81 out of 103 trials, the victim was helped before the Adolescents are more prone to conformity than older
model planned to help individuals (Steinberg and Monahan, 2007)
In 60% of trials, more than one person helped Personality Factors:
90% of the first helpers were male Larger groups increase the likelihood of conformity
64% of the first helpers were white Unanimity among the majority enhances conformity
68% of helpers who aided white victims were also white by reducing social support for non-conformity
50% of white passengers assisted black victim More challenging tasks lead to higher conformity as
The tendency for same-race helping if the victim appears individuals seek guidance from others for the correct
drunk answer
No diffusion of responsibility was found
Greater speed in helping more people than with fewer 3.6. Obedience
Conclusion Obedience: Following orders from a higher authority
Blind Obedience: Unquestioningly following orders of an
Revealed factors influencing bystander intervention. authority figure
Contributed to understanding real-world bystander Milgram's Obedience Experiment (1963):
behaviour. 1. A study on obedience was conducted at Yale
Emphasized the importance of considering the context in University.
analyzing helping behaviour. 2. Revealed the alarming extent to which individuals
obeyed authority figures, administering perceived
Strengths Weaknesses
electric shocks despite the harm it implied.
Unethical; no Informed
Ecological Validity: a natural
consent and protection from
experiment
harm
3.7. Factors Affecting Obedience
No demand characteristics; Factors Influencing Obedience in Milgram's Experiment:
participants unaware of 1. Proximity of the Victim:
observation Mr Wallace's situated elsewhere led to easier
continuity.
3.4. Conformity Same-room scenarios or forcing hands
decreased obedience (40% and 30%,
Definition: Adjusting behaviour or beliefs to align with respectively).
others, either to fit in or due to uncertainty in unfamiliar 2. Proximity of the Authority Figure:
situations. Mr. William's present in the room resulted in
Compliance: Agreeing with the majority despite personal 65% obedience.
disagreement. Instructions via telephone reduced obedience
Normative Social Influence: Compliance driven by the to 20%.
desire to belong to a group. 3. Authority Figure Characteristics:
Internalisation: Adopting group beliefs due to uncertainty Mr. William's lab coat and legitimacy
about proper behaviour. correlated with 65% obedience.

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

Replacement by an ordinary person decreased 1. Investigate the psychological impact of perceived

obedience by 20%. power and authority within a simulated prison setting.
4. Legitimacy of Context: 2. Understand how individuals conform to assigned roles
Conducted in Yale: 65% obedience. in a controlled environment, specifically as prisoners
Replicated in a run-down office: 47.5% or guards.
obedience. 3. Examine the dynamics of interactions between
5. Personal Responsibility: prisoners and guards and their influence on
Participants asking another to administer behaviour.
shocks increased obedience to over 90%.
6. Support of Others: Background:
Confederates refusing shocks at 150 and 210
volts provided social support. Influenced by the Stanford prison experiment, aiming to
Only 10% continued to 450 volts. explore the psychological consequences of power and
Preventing Blind Obedience: authority in a prison context.
1. Social Support: Seeks to replicate and extend findings from the Stanford
Presence of supportive individuals. prison experiment to deepen understanding of
2. Familiarity with the Situation: psychological dynamics in such situations.
Creating a known and comfortable
environment. Sample:
3. Distance:
Physical or psychological distance from the Volunteer college students are randomly assigned roles
authority figure. as prisoners or guards.
4. Education: Procedure:
Providing knowledge on the consequences and
ethical implications. Conducted in a simulated prison environment with cells
and appropriate uniforms.
3.8. Crowd Behaviour "Guards" were given authority, including batons;
"prisoners" were arrested by actual police officers.
Crowd Behavior: Collective behaviour of a large group of Guards exhibited aggressive and authoritarian
individuals (mob mentality). behaviours, leading to prisoner rebellion.
Personal Responsibility Reduction: Decrease in the Initially planned for two weeks, it was terminated after six
individual sense of responsibility. days due to extreme psychological distress.
Deindividuation: Anonymity within the crowd, leading to
reduced individual identity. Results:

Types of Crowds: Participants quickly adapted to assigned roles, with

guards becoming increasingly authoritarian and prisoners
1. Active Crowds: experiencing significant distress and rebellion.
Participation in protests or demonstrations. Demonstrated people's capacity to conform to assigned
2. Passive Crowds: roles, even in a simulated environment.
Engagement in activities like listening at a religious Unexpected and extreme behaviours led to early
service. termination.

Behaviour Classifications: Conclusion:

1. Anti-Social Behavior: Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo's study underscores the

Unhelpful, destructive, and aggressive actions. substantial impact of perceived power and authority on
2. Pro-Social Behavior: human behaviour in a simulated prison.
Acts perceived as kind, helpful, cooperative, and Emphasises individuals' tendency to conform to assigned
peaceful. roles and the importance of ethical considerations in
psychological research.
Contributes to a better understanding of the psychological
3.9. Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973) A
dynamics of power and authority in controlled settings.
Study of Prisoners and Guards in a
Strengths Weaknesses
Simulated Prison
Controls variables & Inter-
Lacks Generalisability; small
rater reliability; the
Aims: and all-male sample
observation was recorded

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EDEXCEL IGCSE PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses Milgram's Obedience Experiment: Demonstrates how

Practical Application: gives an individuals may follow authority figures, contributing
No protection from harm/ to understanding the obedience seen in Nazi
understanding of prisoners’
distress Germany.
behaviour and obedience
Deindividuation: Explains how a large group may lead
Ethical Considerations: had
to the loss of personal identity, fostering an
rules to prevent abuse
environment where individuals may commit harmful
acts with reduced accountability.
3.10. Issues and Debates: Individualistic Black Friday (Consumer Behaviour):
Crowd Psychology: Describes the chaotic and
vs Collectivistic Cultures aggressive behaviour during Black Friday sales,
emphasizing the reduction in personal responsibility
Society: Refers to a community of people.
and deindividuation within a crowd.
Social Issue: Denotes a problem or conflict that impacts a
Normative Social Influence: Highlights how consumers
community.
may conform to aggressive shopping behaviours
Culture: Encompasses a collection of traditions, beliefs,
influenced by the social norm during sales events.
and values a group shares.
Rioting Behaviour:
Individualistic Culture: Highlights independence,
Social Identity Theory: Analyzes rioting through the
autonomy, and individuality, leading to less obedience.
lens of social identity theory, where strong
Collectivist Culture: Stresses group membership,
identification with a group leads to increased
interdependence, and cooperation, resulting in more
intergroup conflicts.
obedience.
Collective Behavior: Views rioting as a form of
collective behaviour, where individuals act collectively
Examples
beyond normal behaviour due to shared emotions and
goals.
Nazi Germany:

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EDEXCEL IGCSE
Psychology

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