Introducing Translation Studies Chapter 3

Roman jakobson and the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalence
Jakobson follows the theory of language proposed by the famous Swiss linguist Saussure
(1857–1913). Saussure distinguished between the linguistic system (langue) and specific
individual utterances (parole). Central to his theory of langue, he differentiated between the
signifier and the signified (the concept), which together create the linguistic sign.
Signifier ---------- the spoken and written signal ------ ‫ﻫﻤﺎن واژه ﻫﺎی اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﺪه در زﺑﺎن‬
Signified --------- the concept -‐-------- ‫ﻫﻤﺎن ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ذﻫﻨﯽ‬
‫ اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ اﯾﻦ واژه ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ﻧﻮﻋﯽ ﻏﺬای ﺑﻪ دﺳﺖ آﻣﺪه از ﺷﯿﺮ ﺑﺮﯾﺪه ﺷﺪه و ﻓﺸﺮده ﺷﺪه‬signifier ‫ﺑﺮای ﻣﺜﺎل واژه ی ﭘﻨﯿﺮ ﯾﮏ‬
. ‫ )ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻪ( را ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﯿﺪﻫﻨﺪ‬sign ‫ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع اﯾﻦ دو‬.‫ اﺳﺖ‬signified ‫ ﮐﻪ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ﺗﺪاﻋﯽ ﺷﺪه در واﻗﻊ‬.‫را ﺗﺪاﻋﯽ ﻣﯿﮑﻨﺪ‬
The sign is arbitrary and unmotivated.
‫ ﻫﻤﯿﻨﻄﻮر‬.‫ ﺑﻮدن آﻧﻬﺎ ﭘﯽ ﺑﺮد‬arbitrary ‫ ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﻣﯿﺘﻮان ﺑﻪ‬، ‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﮐﻪ ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎ در زﺑﺎن ﻫﺎی ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
.‫وﺟﻮد ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎی اﻧﺘﺰاﻋﯽ در زﺑﺎن ﻫﺎی ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻫﻢ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع را ﺗﺼﺪﯾﻖ ﻣﯿﮑﻨﺪ‬
linguistic universalism : considers that although languages may differ in the way they convey
meaning and in the surface realizations of that meaning, there is a (more or less) shared way of
thinking and experiencing the world.
linguistic relativity or determinism : in its strongest form claims that differences in languages
shape different conceptualizations of the world.
‫ زﺑﺎنﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﮑﻠﯽ واﺣﺪ‬.‫ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر زﺑﺎن ﻣﺎ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪود زﯾﺎدی ﺑﺮ ﻧﻮع درک ﻣﺎ از ﺟﻬﺎن ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻣﯽﮔﺬارد‬Sypir-Whorf ‫ﻃﺒﻖ ﻓﺮﺿﯿﻪ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﯾﮏ ﻣﺘﻦ ﻣﺸﮑﻼت ﻋﻤﺪهای ﺑﺮای ﻣﻌﺎدل ﯾﺎﺑﯽ واژهﻫﺎ ﭘﯿﺶ‬ ٔ ‫ﺑﺮای ارﺟﺎع ﺑﻪ ﺟﻬﺎن ﺧﺎرج ﺑﻪ ﮐﺎر ﻧﻤﯽروﻧﺪ و ﺑﻪ ﻫﻨﮕﺎم‬
"،"‫ در اﯾﺮان ﻣﻦ" ﭘﺴﺮ ﺧﺎﻟﻪ‬.‫ در اﻧﮕﻠﺴﺘﺎن" ﮐﻼه" را ﻣﯽﭘﻮﺷﻨﺪ و در اﯾﺮان آن را ﺑﺮ ﺳﺮ ﻣﯽﮔﺬارﻧﺪ‬.‫روی ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻗﺮار ﻣﯽﮔﯿﺮد‬
.‫ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬Cousin ‫ دارم در ﺣﺎﻟﯿﮑﻪ در زﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﯽ ﻫﻤﻪ اﯾﻨﻬﺎ‬.… ‫" ﭘﺴﺮ ﻋﻤﻮ" و‬،"‫دﺧﺘﺮﺧﺎﻟﻪ‬
Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey. This
differences occure at :
• The level of gender : house is feminine in Romance languages, neuter in German and English.
• The level of aspect : in Russian, the verb morphology varies according to whether the action
has been completed or not.
• The level of semantic fields, such as kinship terms.
Nida and ‘the science of translating
Nida's major works : Toward a Science of Translating and the co-authored The Theory and
Practice of Translation
80 ‫ و‬70 ‫ ﯾﮑﯽ از ﭘﺮﻃﺮﻓﺪارﺗﺮﯾﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ در دﻫﻪ ﻫﺎي‬، ‫ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮥ ﻧﺎﯾﺪا ﮐﻪ ﺑﺮاﺳﺎس زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﯽ ﮔﺸﺘﺎري اﺳﺘﻮار اﺳﺖ‬
‫ او ﺑﺨﺶ‬.‫( ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺖ‬Bible) ‫ ﻧﺎﯾﺪا ﺳﺎﻟﻬﺎ در ﻣﻘﺎم ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ و ﺳﺮﭘﺮﺳﺖ اﻧﺠﻤﻦ در ﺟﺮﯾﺎن ﻣﺸﮑﻼت ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﮐﺘﺎب ﻣﻘﺪس‬. ‫اﺳﺖ‬
‫ ﮐﻪ ﭼﺎﻣﺴﮑﯽ اراﺋﻪ ﮐﺮده ﺑﻮد ﻗﺮض‬generative–transformational grammar ‫ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﻪ ﺧﻮد را از ﻧﻈﺮﯾﻪ‬syntactic
.‫ﮔﺮﻓﺖ‬
The key features of Chomsky's generative transformation model can be summarized as follows:
• Phrase-structure of rules generate an underlying or deep structure
• transformational of rules transform one underlying structure to another (e.g. active to
passive), to produce
• a final surface structure, which itself is subject to phonological and morphemic rules.
. ‫ ﯾﮏ اﻟﮕﻮی ﻫﻤﮕﺎﻧﯽ ﺑﺮای زﺑﺎﻧﻬﺎی اﻧﺴﺎﻧﯽ اﺳﺖ‬structural relations ، ‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﭼﺎﻣﺴﮑﯽ‬
Nida incorporates key features of Chomsky’s model into his ‘science’ of translations. He
sees that it provides the translator with a technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for
encoding the TT .The surface structure of the ST is analysed into the basic elements of the deep
structure ; these are ‘transferred’ in the translation process and then ‘restructured’ semantically
and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.
Kernels :
• Kernel sentences are sumple , active , declarative sentence that requirethe minimum of
transformation.
• kernels ‘are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate surface
structures.
• Kernels are to be obtained from the ST surface structure by a reductive process of back
transformation.
• languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures.
• Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before
being transformed into the surface structure in a process of: 1) literal transfer ; 2) minimal
transfer ; and 3) literary transfer .
For types of functional class :

• events: often but not always performed by verbs
• objects: often but not always performed by nouns
• abstracts: quantities and qualities, including adjectives and adverbs
• relationals: including affixes, prepositions, conjunctions and copulas
The nature of meaning : advances in semantics (the study of meaning in language) and
pragmatics (studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning).
Meaning is broken down into the following:

• Linguistic meaning : ‫ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻪ واژﮔﺎن از ﻫﻢ ﻧﺸﯿﻨﯽ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﯽ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‬
• Referential meaning : ‫ﻣﻌﻨﺎی ﻓﺎرغ از ﺑﺎﻓﺘﯽ ﮐﻪ در دﯾﮑﺸﻨﺮی ﻫﺎ ﺑﯿﺎن ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‬
• Emotive or connotative meaning : ‫ﻣﻌﻨﺎی ﺗﺠﺮﺑﯽ وﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻪ واژه ﺑﻌﺪ از ﮔﺬﺷﺖ ﻣﺪﺗﯽ ﺑﺎ آن ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮ ارﺗﺒﺎط‬
‫ﺑﺮﻗﺮار ﻣﯿﮑﻨﺪ‬
: ‫ از ﺗﮑﻨﯿﮏ ﻫﺎی زﯾﺮ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ‬، ‫ﺑﺮای اﯾﻨﮑﻪ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺑﺘﻮاﻧﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﺎی واژه ﻫﺎی ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ زﺑﺎﻧﯽ را ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﮐﻨﺪ‬
• hierarchical structuring : Technique of analysing the structure of words and differentiating
similar words in related lexical fields and differentiates series of words according to their
level
• Componential analysis : Technique of identify and discriminate specific features of a range of
related words.
• Semantic structure analysis : Techniques of semantic structure analysis are proposed as
a means of clarifying ambiguities, elucidating obscure passages and identifying cultural
differences
two basic orientations or types of equivalence :
• Formal equivalence : ‫ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ ﻧﺰدﯾﮏ ﺑﻮدن ﺳﺎﺧﺖ و ﺻﻮرت زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ و ﺻﻮرت زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا‬
• Dynamic equivalence : ‫ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﺑﺮ اﯾﻨﮑﻪ زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺮای ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﻣﺘﻌﺎرف ﺗﺮ و آﺷﻨﺎﺗﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
Dynamic, later ‘functional’, equivalence is based on what Nida calls ‘the principle of equivalent
effect. the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent effect or
response.
four basic requirements of a translation :
(1) making sense;
(2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original;
(3) having a natural and easy form of expression;
(4) producing a similar response.
Newmark and 'semantic communicative translation'

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to
that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely
as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual
meaning of the original.
‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ای ﮔﻤﺮاه ﮐﻨﻨﺪه اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺎ‬، ‫ ﮐﺴﺐ ﻣﻮﻓﻘﯿﺖ ﮐﺮده‬equivalence effect ‫ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرک ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﺳﺖ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ای ﮐﻪ ﺑﺎ‬
. ‫وﻓﺎداری و ﺻﺪاﻗﺖ ﻣﻐﺎﯾﺮت دارد‬
‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ای اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ آن روی ﻣﺘﻦ ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻫﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻦ اﺻﻠﯽ روی‬communicative translation ‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرک‬
‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ای اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ در آن ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﯽ و ﻧﺤﻮی اوﻟﻮﯾﺖ ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮی دارد‬semantic translation ‫ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﻣﺘﻦ ﻣﺒﺪا ﺑﺎﺷﺪ و‬
. ‫و ﻣﺘﻦ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺷﺪه ﺑﻪ ﻧﺤﻮ و ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﺘﻦ اﺻﻠﯽ وﻓﺎدار ﺗﺮ اﺳﺖ‬
Communicative translation has similarities to dynamic translation
Semantic translation has similarities to formal equivalence
Koller and equivalence relations

Correspondence : contrastive linguistics which compares two language systems and describes
differences and similarities contrastively. Its parameters are those of Saussure's langue .
Equivalence : The parameter is that of Saussure’s parole.
‫ ﻧﺸﺎن دﻫﻨﺪه ﺗﻮاﻧﺶ در آن زﺑﺎن ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ اﺳﺖ وﻟﯽ اﯾﻦ داﻧﺶ و ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﯾﯽ‬correspondence ‫ داﻧﺶ ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﻪ‬koller ‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ‬
. ‫ اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺎﻧﮕﺮ ﺗﻮاﻧﺶ در ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬equivalence ‫در اﯾﺠﺎد‬
five types of equivalence relations that is known double linkage :
• Denotative equivalence : extralinguistic content of a text. ‫ﺗﻌﺎدل ﻓﺮا زﺑﺎﻧﯽ و ﺻﺮﯾﺢ‬
• Connotative equivalence : related to lexical choices, especially between near-synonyms and
depend on stylistic equivalence ‫ﮔﺰﯾﻨﺶ واژﮔﺎﻧﯽ ﺑﯿﻦ واژﮔﺎن ﻫﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ‬
• Text-normative equivalence : related yo text type
• Pragmatic equivalence, or communicative equivalence : This is Nida’s dynamic equivalence
• Formal equivalence : related to the form and aesthetics of the text ‫ﺻﻮرت زﯾﺒﺎ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﯽ و ﺧﻮش ﺳﺒﮏ‬
‫ﺑﻮدن ﻣﺘﻦ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬
Pym defines two types of equivalence :
• natural equivalence : where the focus is on identifying naturally-occurring terms or stretches
of language in the SL and TL.
• directional equivalence : where the focus is on analysing and rendering the ST meaning in an
equivalent form in the TT.
tertium comparationis (‘the third comparator’) :
‫ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬. ‫ وﻗﺘﯽ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣﺘﻦ را در زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﻣﯿﺨﻮاﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ﯾﮏ ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ذﻫﻨﯽ ﻣﯿﺮﺳﺪ‬.‫در واﻗﻊ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺳﻮم اﺳﺖ‬
‫اﮔﺮ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ﻫﺎی‬، ‫ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ی ﻣﺘﻦ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺷﺪه زﺑﺎن ﻫﻢ ﺑﻪ ﯾﮏ ﻣﻔﻬﻮم ذﻫﻨﯽ ﻣﯿﺮﺳﺪ‬، ‫وﻗﺘﯽ ﻣﺘﻦ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ را ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﮐﺮد‬
.‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ی ﻣﻮﻓﻘﯽ ﺳﺖ‬، ‫ﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ در ذﻫﻦ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﯾﮑﺴﺎن ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺮﯾﻢ روﺣﺒﺨﺶ‬
‫رﺷﺘﻪ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻤﯽ زﺑﺎن داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﭘﯿﺎم ﻧﻮر‬
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Roman jakobson and the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalence

For types of functional class :

Meaning is broken down into the following:

Newmark and 'semantic communicative translation'

Koller and equivalence relations

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