Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC NUMBER: The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom of a particular element is known as
atomic number (Z).
MASS NUMBER: The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called as the mass
number (A).
ISOTOPES: Atoms of an element with same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called
isotopes.
e.g. : 1H1 (Protium), 1H2 (Deuterium) and 1H3 (Tritium) are the isotopes of Hydrogen.
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT: Huygen proposed the wave nature of light to explain the properties of interference and
diffraction. Later in 1856, Maxwell proposed that light and other forms of radiant energy like rays, X-rays, U.V.
rays, visible rays I.R. rays travel as waves through space. They are called electro-magnetic radiation or waves,
because they have both electric and magnetic fields associated with it.
A wave is a periodic disturbance in space and a wave motion represents the propagation of this
disturbance, which carries energy.
Crest λ Crest
Amplitude
Direction of propagation
Point of disturbance
Trough Trough
(i) Wave length (λ): It is the distance between two consecutive crests or two consecutive troughs in a wave.
It is generally measured in Angstrom (A0) or nanometers (nm).
Atomic Structure rbdr 9
0 -10 -9
1A = 10 m. 1 nm = 10 m.
(ii) Frequency (υ): It is the number of waves passing through a given point in one second. It is expressed in
cycles per second (cps), sec-1 or Hertz (Hz).
1 Hertz = 1 cycle per second = sec-1
c=υλ
(iv) Amplitude (a): It is the height of the crest or the depth of the trough of a wave. The intensity or
brightness of radiation is determined by amplitude.
(v) Wave number ( υ ): It is the number of wave lengths in a unit length. It is expressed in cm-1 or m-1.
Wavelength of a wave is the reciprocal of its wavelength.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: It is the arrangement of different types of electro magnetic radiations in the
order of increasing frequency or decreasing wavelength.
Wavelength decreases →
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY: Max Planck proposed the quantum theory of radiation. The important postulates
are:
1. Electro magnetic radiations are emitted propagated or absorbed discontinuously in the form small packets
of energy known as ‘quanta’ or ‘photons’.
2. Each quantum of radiation is associated with a definite amount of energy depending upon the frequency of
radiation. The energy ‘E’ of a quantum is given by,
E=hυ
where ‘υ’ is the frequency of the emitted radiation and ‘h’ is Planck’s constant of
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numerical value 6.626 x 10 J s.
3. A body can emit or absorb energy only in integral multiples of quantum. Thus radiant energy can only be
Atomic Structure 10
emitted as hυ, 2hυ and so on.
SPECTRUM: A spectrum is an array of waves, which is spread out according to the increasing or decreasing order
of wavelength or frequency.
ATOMIC SPECTRUM: It is the spectrum produced when an atom of an element absorbs energy . When an atom of
an element is supplied with energy it absorbs this energy and gets excited. The excited atom emits radiation which
when passed through a prism, is resolved into its individual components. This pattern of different components of the
radiation is called atomic spectrum. It consists of a large number of closely spaced lines, with dark space between
them. Hence it is called line spectrum.
Slit
Prism
Line spectrum
of Hydrogen
Discharge tube containing Screen
Hydrogen
The atoms in the excited state i.e., atoms after absorbing the energy are unstable. Therefore the
electros jump back to different lower energy levels in one or several steps by giving out energy in the form of
radiation. The line spectrum corresponding to this is known emission spectrum.
The spectral lines are grouped into five, namely (1) Lyman series (uv region), (2) Balmer series (visible region),
(3) Paschen series, (4) Brackett series and (5) Pfund series. Series (3), (4) and (5) in the infrared region.
The wavelength of any spectral line in any series is calculated using the formula.
υ = 1 = R 1 - 1
λ n12n22
where, υ = Wave number λ = Wavelength of the radiation, R = Rydberg’s constant = 10967758 m -1,n1 and n2
are integers, and n2>n1.
Values of n1 and n2 for various series are:
ΔE = E2 - E1 = h υ
5
Energy level Pfund series
4
Brackett series
3
Paschen series
2
Balmer series
1
Lyman series
Emission spectrum of Hydrogen
The various series present in the spectrum of hydrogen can be explained as given below:
1. Lyman series: Lyman series is obtained when the excited electron returns from any higher energy level to
the first energy level i.e., n1 = 1.Thus for spectral lines present in the Lyman series n1 =1 and n2 = 2,3,4, . . They
appear in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum. The wave number of the emitted radiation can be calculated
using the expression:
υ = 1 = R 1 - 1
λ 12 n22
2. Balmer series: Balmer series is obtained when the excited electron returns from any higher energy level to
the second energy level i.e., n1 = 2. Thus for spectral lines present in the Balmer series n1 =2and n2 = 3,4,5, . .
Atomic Structure 12
They appear in the visible region of the spectrum. The wave number of the emitted radiation can be
calculated using the expression:
υ = 1 = R 1 - 1
λ 22 n22
3. Paschen series: Paschen series is obtained when the excited electron returns from any higher energy level
to the third energy level i.e., n1 = 3. Thus for spectral lines present in the Paschen series n 1 =3 and n2 = 4,5,6, .
They appear in the infrared region of the spectrum. The wave number of the emitted radiation can be calculated
using the expression:
υ = 1 = R 1 - 1
λ 32 n22
4. Brackett series: Brackett series is obtained when the excited electron returns from any higher energy level
to the fourth energy level i.e., n1 = 4. Thus for spectral lines present in the Brackett series n 1 = 4 and n2 = 5,6,7,.
They appear in the infrared region of the spectrum. The wave number of the emitted radiation can be calculated
using the expression:
υ = 1 = R 1 - 1
λ 42 n22
where Δx is the uncertainty regarding position and Δp is the uncertainty regarding momentum.
QUANTUM NUMBERS:
They are numbers, which fully describe the position and energy of an electron in an atom. They are four
types namely, 1) Principal quantum number, 2) Azimuthal quantum number, 3) Magnetic quantum number and
4) Spin quantum number
1. Principal quantum number (n): It gives the main energy level or shell in which the electron is present, thus
giving the energy of an electron. It (n) can take integral values like 1,2,3 . . .etc. for which the corresponding
shells are called K, L, M . . .. respectively. The maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by 2n2, where
n is the principal quantum number.
2. Azimuthal quantum number (l) : It gives the sub-shell in which the electron is present or the angular
momentum of electron around the nucleus. It (l) takes value from 0, 1, 2, 3, . .up to (n-1).
eg. If n = 1, l = 0 ( ‘s’ sub-shell.
If n = 2, l = 0,1. ( ‘s’ and ‘p’ sub- shell respectively.
If n = 3 l = 0, 1, 2. ( ‘s’, ‘p’ and ‘d’ sub-shell respectively.
If n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, ( ‘s’, ‘p’, ‘d’ and ‘f’ sub-shell respectively.
3. Magnetic quantum number (m) : It gives the orientation of orbitals in space. Its value ranges from
- l, . . .0 . . .+ l.
eg. If l = 0, m = 0 One orientation for ‘s’ orbital.
If l = 1, m = -1, 0, +1 Three orientations for ‘p’ orbitals, px, py and pz
Atomic Structure 14
If l = 2, m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 Five orientations for ‘d’ orbitals, dx-y, dy-z, dx-z, dx2-y2, dz2
4. Spin quantum number (s) : It gives the spin of the electron along its own axis. The electron can rotate in
clockwise direction (↑) or anti-clock wise (↓) direction which are represented by +½ and -½ respectively. Thus
spin quantum can have two values only.
SHAPES OF ORBITALS:
Orbital: It is the space around the nucleus of an atom where there is maximum probability of finding an electron.
The spatial distribution of electron cloud decides the shape of the orbital. The electron cloud may not be
uniform density everywhere in the orbital. In an orbital there may be regions of higher probability where electron
cloud is dense and there may also be regions of low probability where electron cloud is not dense. At certain points
or planes in an orbital may also have zero probability of finding electron. Such points or planes are called nodal
points or nodal planes respectively.
Y
Y Y
X X X
Z
px py
‘s’ orbital (spherical) ‘p’ orbitals (dumb- bell)
X Y Z
Y X Y
Z py dx-y dy-z
Z Y Z
X X X
ORBIT ORBITAL
1. It is a definite circular path around the 1. It is a three dimensional region around the
nucleus of an atom in which the electron nucleus of an atom where the probability of
revolves. finding an electron is maximum.
2. It indicates the exact position of an 2. It does not specify the exact position of an
electron in an atom. electron, as an electron is treated as a
wave.
3. It represents the two dimensional (planar) 3. It represents the three dimensional motion
motion of an electron. of an electron.
4. It can accommodate a maximum of 2n2 4. It can accommodate a maximum of 2
electrons. electrons.
5. Orbits are circular in shape. 5. Orbitals have different shapes i.e.,
spherical, dumb-bell, double dumb-bell.
PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE: “ No two electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum numbers same”.
e.g. 2He = 1s2
Quantum numbers for the first electron of He: n = 1, l= 0, m = 0, s = +½.
Quantum numbers for the second electron of He: n = 1, l= 0, m = 0, s = -½.
AUFBAU’S PRINCIPLE: “Electrons get added in different orbitals in the order of increasing orbital energy ”.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f
Rule (1): Between two orbitals, the orbital with lower value of (n + l), is of lower energy.
For 4p orbital (n + l) = 4 + 1 = 5.
For 3s orbital (n + l) = 3 + 0 = 4.
Since the (n + l) value of 3s orbital is lesser than that of 4p orbital, the 3p orbital has lower
energy than 4s orbital.
Rule (2): If the values of (n + l) are same, the orbital having a higher value of ‘n’ has more energy.
For 3p orbital (n + l) = 3 + 1 = 4.
For 4s orbital (n + l) = 4 + 0 = 4.
In the above case the value of (n + l) is same for both the orbitals but the ‘n’ value of 4s
orbital is more than the ‘n’ value of 3s and hence, the4s orbital has more energy than 3p
orbital.
HUND’S RULE OFMAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY: It states that, “Pairing of electrons takes place only after each orbital
of a particular sub shell has one electron each”.
In oxygen atom the first two electrons enter 1s orbital and the next two electrons enter the 2s
orbital. Among the remaining four electrons, each of the 2p orbitals, Px, Py and Pz, get one electron and finally
the remaining one electron then enters the Px orbital.