CHAPTER 18

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Ohm’s Law
Electrical Conductivity
18.1 (a) Compute the electrical conductivity of a cylindrical silicon specimen 7.0 mm (0.28 in.) diameter
and 57 mm (2.25 in.) in length in which a current of 0.25 A passes in an axial direction. A voltage of 24 V is
measured across two probes that are separated by 45 mm (1.75 in.).
(b) Compute the resistance over the entire 57 mm (2.25 in.) of the specimen.

Solution

This problem calls for us to compute the electrical conductivity and resistance of a silicon specimen.
(a) We use Equations 18.4 and 18.3 for the conductivity, as follows:

Since the cross-sectional area of a cylinder having a diameter d is

Now, incorporation of values for the several parameters provided in the problem statement, leads to the following:
 (b) The resistance, R, over the entire specimen length may be computed by combining and rearranging
Equations 18.2 and 18.4 as follows:

The value of R may be computed upon entering values given in the problem statement into the preceding expression:
 18.2 An aluminum wire 10 m long must experience a voltage drop of less than 1.0 V when a current of 5 A
passes through it. Using the data in Table 18.1, compute the minimum diameter of the wire.

Solution

For this problem, given that an aluminum wire 10 m long must experience a voltage drop of less than 1.0 V
when a current of 5 A passes through it, we are to compute the minimum diameter of the wire. Combining
Equations 18.3 and 18.4 and solving for the cross-sectional area A leads to

From Table 18.1, for aluminum, the conductivity, σ = 3.8 × 107 (Ω-m)-1. Furthermore, inasmuch as

for a cylindrical wire, then we may rewrite the previous equation as follows:

And, solving for the diameter d yields the following expression:

When values for the several parameters given in the problem statement are incorporated into this expression, we
obtain the following value for d:
 18.3 A plain carbon steel wire 3 mm in diameter is to offer a resistance of no more than 20 Ω. Using the
data in Table 18.1, compute the maximum wire length.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute, for a plain carbon steel wire of 3 mm diameter, the maximum length
such that the resistance will not exceed 20 Ω. From Table 18.1 for a plain carbon steel σ = 0.6 × 107 (Ω-m)-1. If d
is the wire diameter then, combining Equations 18.2 and 18.4 and then solving for the length l leads to the
following:

Upon inserting values for R and d given in the problem statement and the value of σ taken from Table 18.1 yields
the following value for the wire length:
 18.4 Demonstrate that the two Ohm’s law expressions, Equations 18.1 and 18.5, are equivalent.

Solution

Let us demonstrate, by appropriate substitution and algebraic manipulation, that Equation 18.5 may be
made to take the form of Equation 18.1. Now, Equation 18.5 is just

J = σE

(In this equation we represent the electric field with an “E”.) But, by definition, J is just the current density, the
current per unit cross-sectional area, or . Also, the electric field is defined by (Equation 18.6).

Substitution of these expressions for J and E into Equation 18.5 leads to the following:

(S18.4a)

Also, when we combine Equations 18.2 and 18.4, then

Then substitution of this expression for σ into Equation S18.4a yields the following:

Solving for V from this expression gives V = IR, which is just Equation 18.1.
 18.5 (a) Using the data in Table 18.1, compute the resistance of an aluminum wire 5 mm (0.20 in.) in
diameter and 5 m (200 in.) in length.
(b) What would be the current flow if the potential drop across the ends of the wire is 0.04 V?
(c) What is the current density?
(d) What is the magnitude of the electric field across the ends of the wire?

Solution

(a) In order to compute the resistance of this aluminum wire it is necessary to combine Equations 18.2 and
18.4, and then solve for the resistance in terms of the conductivity; this is done as follows:

From Table 18.1, the conductivity of aluminum is 3.8 × 107 (Ω-m)-1. Therefore, we solve for the resistance as
follows:

(b) If V = 0.04 V then, from Equation 18.1, the current, I, is computed as follows:

(c) The current density is equal to the current divided by the specimen cross-sectional area as
(d) The electric field is computed using Equation 18.6 as follows:
Electronic and Ionic Conduction

18.6 What is the distinction between electronic and ionic conduction?

Answer

When a current arises from a flow of electrons, the conduction is termed electronic; for ionic conduction,
the current results from the net motion of charged ions.
Energy Band Structures in Solids

18.7 How does the electron structure of an isolated atom differ from that of a solid material?

Answer

For an isolated atom, there exist discrete electron energy states (arranged into shells and subshells); each
state may be occupied by, at most, two electrons, which must have opposite spins. On the other hand, an electron
band structure is found for solid materials; within each band exist closely spaced yet discrete electron states, each of
which may be occupied by, at most, two electrons, having opposite spins. The number of electron states in each
band will equal the total number of corresponding states contributed by all of the atoms in the solid.
Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models

18.8 In terms of electron energy band structure, discuss reasons for the difference in electrical
conductivity among metals, semiconductors, and insulators.

Answer

For metallic materials, there are vacant electron energy states adjacent to the highest filled state; thus, very
little energy is required to excite large numbers of electrons into conducting states. These electrons are those that
participate in the conduction process, and, because there are so many of them, metals are good electrical conductors.
There are no empty electron states adjacent to and above filled states for semiconductors and insulators, but
rather, an energy band gap across which electrons must be excited in order to participate in the conduction process.
Thermal excitation of electrons occurs, and the number of electrons excited will be less than for metals, and will
depend on the band gap energy. For semiconductors, the band gap is narrower than for insulators; consequently, at a
specific temperature more electrons will be excited for semiconductors, giving rise to higher conductivities.
Electron Mobility

18.9 Briefly state what is meant by the drift velocity and mobility of a free electron.

Answer

The drift velocity of a free electron is the average electron velocity in the direction of the force imposed by
an electric field.
The mobility is the proportionality constant between the drift velocity and the electric field. It is also a
measure of the frequency of scattering events (and is inversely proportional to the frequency of scattering).
 18.10 (a) Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in silicon at room temperature and when the magnitude
of the electric field is 500 V/m.
(b) Under these circumstances, how long does it take an electron to traverse a 25-mm (1-in.) length of
crystal?

Solution

(a) The drift velocity of electrons in Si may be determined using Equation 18.7. Since the room
temperature mobility of electrons is 0.145 m2/V-s (Table 18.3), and the electric field is 500 V/m (as stipulated in the
problem statement), the drift velocity is equal to

(b) The time, t, required to traverse a given length, l (= 25 mm), is just the length divided by the drift
velocity, as follows:
 18.11 At room temperature the electrical conductivity and the electron mobility for aluminum are 3.8 ×

107 (Ω.m)–1 and 0.0012 m2/V.s, respectively.

(a) Compute the number of free electrons per cubic meter for aluminum at room temperature.
(b) What is the number of free electrons per aluminum atom? Assume a density of 2.7 g/cm3.

Solution

(a) The number of free electrons per cubic meter for aluminum at room temperature may be computed
using rearranged form of Equation 18.8 as follows:

(b) In order to calculate the number of free electrons per aluminum atom, we must first determine the
number of copper atoms per cubic meter, NAl. From Equation 4.2 (and using the atomic weight for Al found inside
the front cover—viz. 26.98 g/mol) then the values of NAl is determined as follows:

(Note: in the above expression, density is represented by ρ' in order to avoid confusion with resistivity which is
designated by ρ.) And, finally, the number of free electrons per aluminum atom (n/NAl) is equal to the following:
 18.12 (a) Calculate the number of free electrons per cubic meter for silver, assuming that there are 1.3

free electrons per silver atom. The electrical conductivity and density for Ag are 6.8 × 107 (Ω.m)–1 and 10.5 g/cm3,
respectively.
(b) Now compute the electron mobility for Ag.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we calculate, for silver, the number of free electrons per cubic
meter (n) given that there are 1.3 free electrons per silver atom, that the electrical conductivity is 6.8 × 107 (Ω-m)-1,
and that the density is 10.5 g/cm3. (Note: in this discussion, the density of silver is represented by in

order to avoid confusion with resistivity, which is designated by ρ.) Since n = 1.3NAg, and NAg is defined in

Equation 4.2 (and using the atomic weight of Ag found inside the front cover—viz., 107.87 g/mol), we compute the
value of n as follows:

(b) Now we are asked to compute the electron mobility, µe. Using Equation 18.8, and incorporating this

value of n and the value of σ given in the problem statement, the electron mobility is determined as follows:
Electrical Resistivity of Metals

18.13 From Figure 18.39, estimate the value of A in Equation 18.11 for zinc as an impurity in copper–zinc
alloys.

Solution

We want to solve for the parameter A in Equation 18.11 using the data in Figure 18.37. First of all, we
rearrange Equation 18.11 as follows:

However, the data plotted in Figure 18.37 is the total resistivity, ρtotal, and includes both impurity (ρi) and thermal
(ρt) contributions (Equation 18.9). The value of ρt is taken as the resistivity at ci = 0 in Figure 18.39, which has a
value of 1.7 × 10-8 (Ω-m); this value must be subtracted from ρtotal. Below are tabulated values of A determined at
ci = 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30, including other data that were used in the computations. (Note: the ci values were taken

from the upper horizontal axis of Figure 18.39, since it is graduated in atom percent zinc.)

ci 1 – ci ρtotal (Ω-m) ρi (Ω-m) A (Ω-m)

0.10 0.90 4.0 × 10-8 2.3 × 10-8 2.56 × 10-7

0.20 0.80 5.4 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 2.31 × 10-7
0.30 0.70 6.15 × 10-8 4.45 × 10-8 2.12 × 10-7

So, there is a slight decrease of A with increasing ci.

 18.14 (a) Using the data in Figure 18.8, determine the values of ρ0 and a from Equation 18.10 for pure
copper. Take the temperature T to be in degrees Celsius.
(b) Determine the value of A in Equation 18.11 for nickel as an impurity in copper, using the data in Figure
18.8.
(c) Using the results of parts (a) and (b), estimate the electrical resistivity of copper containing 2.50 at% Ni
at 120°C.

Solution

(a) One way to determine the values of ρ0 and a in Equation 18.10 for pure copper in Figure 18.8, is to set
up two simultaneous equations using two resistivity values (labeled ρt1 and ρt2) taken at two corresponding
temperatures (T1 and T2). These two equations are as follows:

And solving these equations simultaneously leads to the following expressions for a and ρ0:

(S18.14a)

(S18.14b)

From Figure 18.8, let us take T1 = –150°C and T2 = –50°C, which gives the corresponding values of resistivity:
ρt1 = 0.6 × 10-8 (Ω-m)
ρt2 = 1.25 × 10-8 (Ω-m)
We determine the value of a using Equation S18.14a, as follows:
The value of ρ0 is now determined using Equation S18.14b:

(b) For this part of the problem, we want to calculate A from Equation 18.11:

That is

In Figure 18.8, curves are plotted for three ci values (0.0112, 0.0216, and 0.0332). Let us find A for each of these
ci's by taking a ρtotal from each curve at some temperature (say 0°C) and then subtracting out ρi for pure copper at
this same temperature (which is 1.7 × 10-8 Ω-m). Below are tabulated values of A determined from these three ci

values, and other data that were used in the computations.

ci 1 – ci ρtotal (Ω-m) ρi (Ω-m) A (Ω-m)

0.0112 0.989 3.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.17 × 10-6

0.0216 0.978 4.2 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8 1.18 × 10-6

0.0332 0.967 5.5 × 10-8 3.8 × 10-8 1.18 × 10-6

The average of these three A values is 1.18 × 10-6 (Ω-m).

(c) We use the results of parts (a) and (b) to estimate the electrical resistivity of copper containing 2.50 at%
Ni (ci = 0.025) at 120°C. The total resistivity is just
Or incorporating the expressions for ρt and ρi from Equations 18.10 and 18.11, and the values of ρ0, a, and A

determined above, leads to

 18.15 Determine the electrical conductivity of a Cu–Ni alloy that has a tensile strength of 275 MPa
(40,000 psi). See Figure 7.16.

Solution

We are asked to determine the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy that has a tensile strength of 275
MPa. From Figure 7.16a, the composition of an alloy having this tensile strength is about 8 wt% Ni. For this
composition, the resistivity is about 14 × 10-8 Ω-m (Figure 18.9). And since the conductivity is the reciprocal of the
resistivity, Equation 18.4, we determine the conductivity as follows:
 18.16 Tin bronze has a composition of 89 wt% Cu and 11 wt% Sn and consists of two phases at room
temperature: an α phase, which is copper containing a very small amount of tin in solid solution, and an ε phase,
which consists of approximately 37 wt% Sn. Compute the room-temperature conductivity of this alloy given the
following data:

Phase Electrical Resistivity (Ω.m) Density (g/cm3)

α 1.88 × 10–8 8.94
ε 5.32 × 10–7 8.25

Solution

This problem asks for us to compute the room-temperature conductivity of a two-phase Cu-Sn alloy which
composition is 89 wt% Cu-11 wt% Sn. It is first necessary for us to determine the volume fractions of the α and ε
phases, after which the resistivity (and subsequently, the conductivity) may be calculated using Equation 18.12.
Weight fractions of the two phases are first calculated using the phase diagram information provided in the problem.
We may represent a portion of the phase diagram near room temperature as follows:

Applying the lever rule, we calculate the weight-fraction of the α phase, Wα, as follows:

Likewise for the ε phase—its weight fraction is determined as follows:

We must now convert these mass fractions into volume fractions using the phase densities given in the problem
statement. (Note: in the following expressions, density is represented by ρ' in order to avoid confusion with
resistivity, which is designated by ρ.) Utilization of Equations 9.6a and 9.6b leads to

= 0.686

= 0.314

Now, using Equation 18.12—viz.,

and realizing the following:

leads to computation of the resistivity of this alloy, as follows:

 = 1.80 × 10−7 Ω-m

Finally, we calculate the conductivity using Equation 18.4, as follows:

 18.17 A cylindrical metal wire 3 mm (0.12 in.) in diameter is required to carry a current of 12 A with a
minimum of 0.01 V drop per foot (300 mm) of wire. Which of the metals and alloys listed in Table 18.1 are possible
candidates?

Solution

We are asked to select which of several metals may be used for a 3 mm diameter wire to carry 12 A, and
have a voltage drop less than 0.01 V per foot (300 mm). Using Equations 18.3 and 18.4, let us determine the
minimum conductivity required, and then select from Table 18.1, those metals that have conductivities greater than
this value. Combining Equations 18.3 and 18.4, the minimum conductivity is just

Thus, from Table 18.1, only copper, and silver have conductivity values greater than and,
therefore, are candidates.
Intrinsic Semiconduction

18.18 (a) Using the data presented in Figure 18.16, determine the number of free electrons per atom for
intrinsic germanium and silicon at room temperature (298 K). The densities for Ge and Si are 5.32 and 2.33 g/cm3,
respectively.
(b) Now explain the difference in these free-electron-per-atom values.

Solution

(a) For this part of the problem, we first read, from Figure 18.16, the number of free electrons (i.e., the
intrinsic carrier concentration) at room temperature (298 K). These values are as follows:
ni(Ge) ≅ 4 × 1019 m-3
ni(Si) ≅ 1 × 1017 m-3
Now, the number of atoms per cubic meter for Ge and Si (NGe and NSi, respectively) may be determined
using Equation 4.2, which involves the densities ( and ) and atomic weights (AGe and ASi). (Note: here we

use ρ' to represent density in order to avoid confusion with resistivity, which is designated by ρ. Also, the atomic
weights for Ge and Si, 72.64 and 28.09 g/mol, respectively, are found inside the front cover.) Therefore, the number
of Ge atoms per cubic meter is computed using Equation 4.2, as follows:

Similarly, for Si, the number of atoms per cubic meter is

Finally, the ratio of the number of free electrons per atom is calculated by dividing ni by N. For Ge, this

ratio is as follows:
Similarly, for Si this ratio is determined as follows:

(b) The difference is due to the magnitudes of the band gap energies (Table 18.3). The band gap energy at
room temperature for Si (1.11 eV) is larger than for Ge (0.67 eV), and, consequently, the probability of excitation
across the band gap for a valence electron is much smaller for Si.
 18.19 For intrinsic semiconductors, the intrinsic carrier concentration ni depends on temperature as
follows:

(18.35a)

or, taking natural logarithms,

(18.35b)

Thus, a plot of ln ni versus 1/T (K)–1 should be linear and yield a slope of –Eg/2k. Using this information and the
data presented in Figure 18.16, determine the band gap energies for silicon and germanium and compare these
values with those given in Table 18.3.

Solution

This problem asks that we make plots of ln ni versus reciprocal temperature for both Si and Ge, using the

data presented in Figure 18.16, and then determine the band gap energy for each material realizing that the slope of
the resulting line is equal to – Eg/2k.

Below is shown such a plot for Si.

The slope of the line is equal to

Let us take 1/T1 = 0.001 and 1/T2 = 0.007; their corresponding ln η values are ln η1 = 54.80 and ln η2 = 16.00.

Incorporating these values into the above expression leads to a slope of

This slope yields an Eg value of

Eg = – 2k (Slope)

The value cited in Table 18.3 is 1.11 eV; thus the agreement is very good.

Now for Ge, an analogous plot is shown below.

We calculate the slope and band gap energy values in the manner outlined above. Let us take 1/T1 = 0.001 and 1/T2
= 0.011; their corresponding ln η values are ln η1 = 55.8 and ln η2 = 14.8. Incorporating these values into the above

expression leads to a slope of

This slope leads to an Eg value of

Eg = – 2k (Slope)

= 0.71 eV

This value is in reasonable agreement with the 0.67 eV cited in Table 18.3.
 18.20 Briefly explain the presence of the factor 2 in the denominator of Equation 18.35a.

Answer

The factor 2 in Equation 18.35a takes into account the creation of two charge carriers (an electron and a
hole) for each valence-band-to-conduction-band intrinsic excitation; both charge carriers participate in the
conduction process.
 18.21 At room temperature the electrical conductivity of PbS is 25 (Ω.m)–1, whereas the electron and hole

mobilities are 0.06 and 0.02 m2/V.s, respectively. Compute the intrinsic carrier concentration for PbS at room
temperature.

Solution

In this problem we are asked to compute the intrinsic carrier concentration for PbS at room temperature.
Since the conductivity and both electron and hole mobilities are provided in the problem statement, all we need do is
solve for n or p (i.e., ni) using Equation 18.15. Making the appropriate rearrangement of Equation 18.15 such that ni

is the dependent variable leads to the following:

 18.22 Is it possible for compound semiconductors to exhibit intrinsic behavior? Explain your answer.

Answer

Yes, compound semiconductors can exhibit intrinsic behavior. They will be intrinsic even though they are
composed of two different elements as long as the electrical behavior is not influenced by the presence of other
elements.
 18.23 For each of the following pairs of semiconductors, decide which has the smaller band gap energy,
Eg, and then cite the reason for your choice.
(a) C (diamond) and Ge
(b) AlP and InAs
(c) GaAs and ZnSe
(d) ZnSe and CdTe
(e) CdS and NaCl

Solution

This problem calls for us to decide for each of several pairs of semiconductors, which will have the smaller
band gap energy and then cite a reason for the choice.
(a) Germanium will have a smaller band gap energy than C (diamond) since Ge is lower in row IVA of the
periodic table (Figure 2.8) than is C. In moving from top to bottom of the periodic table, Eg decreases.

(b) Indium arsenide will have a smaller band gap energy than aluminum phosphide. Both of these
semiconductors are III-V compounds, and the positions of both In and As are lower vertically in the periodic table
(Figure 2.8) than Al and P.
(c) Gallium arsenide will have a smaller band gap energy than zinc selenide. All four of these elements are
in the same row of the periodic table, but Zn and Se are more widely separated horizontally than Ga and As; as the
distance of separation increases, so does the band gap.
(d) Cadmium telluride will have a smaller band gap energy than zinc selenide. Both are II-VI compounds,
and Cd and Te are both lower vertically in the periodic table than Zn and Se.
(e) Cadmium sulfide will have a smaller band gap energy than sodium chloride since Na and Cl are much
more widely separated horizontally in the periodic table than are Cd and S.
Extrinsic Semiconduction

18.24 Define the following terms as they pertain to semiconducting materials: intrinsic, extrinsic,
compound, elemental. Provide an example of each.

Answer

An intrinsic semiconductor is one in which the electrical characteristics are characteristic of the "pure"
material. Examples include high-purity (undoped) Si, GaAs, CdS.
An extrinsic semiconductor is one in which the electrical characteristics are determined by the presence of
impurities. Examples include P-doped Ge, B-doped Si, S-doped GaP.
A compound semiconductor is one that is one that is composed of elements in Groups IIIA and VA and
Groups IIB and VIA of the periodic table. Examples include GaAs, InP, CdS.
An elemental semiconductor is one composed of a single element. Examples are Si and Ge.
 18.25 An n-type semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 5 × 1017 m–3. If the electron
drift velocity is 350 m/s in an electric field of 1000 V/m, calculate the conductivity of this material.

Solution

For this problem we are to determine the electrical conductivity of and n-type semiconductor, given that n
= 5 × 1017 m-3 and the electron drift velocity is 350 m/s in an electric field of 1000 V/m. The conductivity of this
material may be computed using Equation 18.16. But before this is possible, it is necessary to calculate the value of
µe using Equation 18.7, as follows:

It is now possible to compute the conductivity using Equation 18.16,

= 0.028 (Ω-m)−1
 18.26 (a) In your own words, explain how donor impurities in semiconductors give rise to free electrons in
numbers in excess of those generated by valence band–conduction band excitations.
(b) Also explain how acceptor impurities give rise to holes in numbers in excess of those generated by
valence band–conduction band excitations.

The explanations called for are found in Section 18.11.

 18.27 (a) Explain why no hole is generated by the electron excitation involving a donor impurity atom.
(b) Explain why no free electron is generated by the electron excitation involving an acceptor impurity
atom.

Answer

(a) No hole is generated by an electron excitation involving a donor impurity atom because the excitation
comes from a level within the band gap, and thus, no missing electron is created within the normally filled valence
band.
(b) No free electron is generated by an electron excitation involving an acceptor impurity atom because the
electron is excited from the valence band into the impurity level within the band gap; no free electron is introduced
into the conduction band.
 18.28 Predict whether each of the following elements will act as a donor or an acceptor when added to the
indicated semiconducting material. Assume that the impurity elements are substitutional.

Impurity Semiconductor
N Si
B Ge
S InSb
In CdS
As ZnTe

Solution

Nitrogen will act as a donor in Si. Since it (N) is from group VA of the periodic table (Figure 2.8), and an
N atom has one more valence electron than an Si atom.
Boron will act as an acceptor in Ge. Since it (B) is from group IIIA of the periodic table, a B atom has one
less valence electron than a Ge atom.
Sulfur will act as a donor in InSb. Since S is from group VIA of the periodic table, it will substitute for Sb;
an S atom has one more valence electron than an Sb atom.
Indium will act as a donor in CdS. Since In is from group IIIA of the periodic table, it will substitute for
Cd; an In atom has one more valence electron than a Cd atom.
Arsenic will act as an acceptor in ZnTe. Since As is from group VA of the periodic table, it will substitute
for Te; furthermore, an As atom has one less valence electron than a Te atom.
 18.29 (a) The room-temperature electrical conductivity of a silicon specimen is 500 (Ω.m)–1. The hole

concentration is known to be 2.0 × 1022 m–3. Using the electron and hole mobilities for silicon in Table 18.3,
compute the electron concentration.
(b) On the basis of the result in part (a), is the specimen intrinsic, n-type extrinsic, or p-type extrinsic?
Why?

Solution

(a) In this problem, for a Si specimen, we are given values for p (2.0 × 1022 m-3) and σ [500 (Ω-m)-1],
while values for µh and µe (0.05 and 0.145 m2/V-s, respectively) are found in Table 18.3. In order to solve for n we

must use Equation 18.13, which, after rearrangement, leads to the following expression:

Incorporation of values of parameters on the right-hand side of this equation leads to the following value for n:

(b) This material is p-type extrinsic (although only slightly) since p (2.0 × 1022 m-3) is slightly greater than
n (1.46 × 1022 m-3).
 18.30 Germanium to which 1024 m–3 As atoms have been added is an extrinsic semiconductor at room
temperature, and virtually all the As atoms may be thought of as being ionized (i.e., one charge carrier exists for
each As atom).
(a) Is this material n-type or p-type?
(b) Calculate the electrical conductivity of this material, assuming electron and hole mobilities of 0.1 and
0.05 m2/V-s, respectively.

Solution

(a) This germanium material to which has been added 1024 m-3 As atoms is n-type since As is a donor in
Ge. (Arsenic is from group VA of the periodic table--Ge is from group IVA.)
(b) Since this material is n-type extrinsic, Equation 18.16 is valid. Furthermore, each As atom will donate
a single electron, or the electron concentration is equal to the As concentration since all of the As atoms are ionized
at room temperature; that is n = 1024 m-3, and, as given in the problem statement, µe = 0.1 m2/V-s. Thus, the

conductivity is equal to
 18.31 The following electrical characteristics have been determined for both intrinsic and p-type extrinsic
gallium antimonide (GaSb) at room temperature:

σ (Ω.m)–1 n (m–3) p (m–3)

Intrinsic 8.9 × 104 8.7 × 1023 8.7 × 1023
Extrinsic (p-type) 2.3 × 105 7.6 × 1022 1.0 × 1025

Calculate electron and hole mobilities.

Solution

In order to solve for the electron and hole mobilities for GaSb, we must write conductivity expressions for
the two materials, of the form of Equation 18.13—i.e.,

For the intrinsic material, incorporation of values of the relevant constants in the problem statement into Equation
18.13 gives the following:

which reduces to
(S18.31)

Whereas, for the extrinsic GaSb, we use Equation 18.17

which simplifies to the following:

Thus, we determine the value for µe by substitution of this value for µh into Equation S18.31 as follows:
The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration

18.32 Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 80°C.

Solution

In order to estimate the electrical conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 80°C, we must employ Equation 18.15.
However, before this is possible, it is necessary to determine values for ni, µe, and µh. From Figure 18.16, at 80°C

(353 K), ni = 1.5 × 1018 m-3, whereas from the "<1020 m-3" curves of Figures 18.19a and 18.19b, at 80ºC (353 K),

µe = 0.10 m2/V-s and µh = 0.035 m2/V-s (realizing that the mobility axes of these two plot are scaled
logarithmically). Thus, using Equation 18.15 we compute the conductivity at 80°C as follows:
 18.33 At temperatures near room temperature, the temperature dependence of the conductivity for
intrinsic germanium is found to be given by

(18.36)

where C is a temperature-independent constant and T is in Kelvins. Using Equation 18.36, calculate the intrinsic
electrical conductivity of germanium at 175°C.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is first necessary to solve for C in Equation 18.36 using the room-
temperature (298 K) conductivity for Ge [2.2 (Ω-m)-1] (Table 18.3). This is accomplished by taking natural
logarithms of both sides of Equation 18.36 as

(18.36a)

and after rearranging this expression and substitution of values for Eg (0.67 eV, Table 18.3), and the room-

temperature conductivity [2.2 (Ω-m)-1], we get the following value for ln C:

= 22.38

Now, using Equation 18.36a, we are able to compute the conductivity at 448 K (175°C) as follows:

= 4.548

which leads to
 18.34 Using Equation 18.36 and the results of Problem 18.33, determine the temperature at which the

electrical conductivity of intrinsic germanium is 40 (Ω.m)–1.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the temperature at which the electrical conductivity of intrinsic Ge is
40 (Ω-m)-1, using Equation 18.36 and the results of Problem 18.33. First of all, taking logarithms of Equation 18.36
leads to the following expression:

(18.36a)

From Problem 18.33 the value of ln C was determined to be 22.38. Using this results and that σ = 40 (Ω-m)-1, the
above equation becomes

Using an equation solver (root solver) the value of T is determined as T = 400, which value is the temperature in K;
this corresponds to T(ºC) = 400 – 273 = 127°C.
 18.35 Estimate the temperature at which GaAs has an electrical conductivity of 1.6 × 10–3 (Ω.m)–1,
assuming the temperature dependence for σ of Equation 18.36. The data shown in Table 18.3 may prove helpful.

Solution

This problem asks that we estimate the temperature at which GaAs has an electrical conductivity of 1.6 ×
10-3 (Ω-m)-1 assuming that the conductivity has a temperature dependence as shown in Equation 18.36. From the
room temperature (298 K) conductivity [3 × 10-7 (Ω-m)-1] and band gap energy (1.42 eV) of Table 18.3 we
determine the value of ln C (Equation 18.36) by taking natural logarithms of both sides of the equation, and after
rearrangement the following results:

= 21.17

Again, taking logarithms of both sides of Equation 18.36 leads to

(18.36a)

Now we substitute this value of C as well as the value of the band gap energy (1.42 eV) into Equation 18.36a in
order to determine the value of T for which σ = 1.6 × 10-3 (Ω-m)-1; thus

Using an equation solver (root solver) the value of T is determined as T = 446, which value is the temperature in K;
this corresponds to T(ºC) = 446 – 273 = 173°C.
 18.36 Compare the temperature dependence of the conductivity for metals and intrinsic semiconductors.
Briefly explain the difference in behavior.

Answer

This question asks that we compare and then explain the difference in temperature dependence of the
electrical conductivity for metals and intrinsic semiconductors.
For metals, the temperature dependence is described by Equation 18.10 (and converting from resistivity to
conductivity using Equation 18.4), as

That is, the electrical conductivity decreases with increasing temperature.

Alternatively, from Equation 18.8, the conductivity of metals is equal to

As the temperature rises, n will remain virtually constant, whereas the mobility (µe) will decrease, because the

thermal scattering of free electrons will become more efficient. Since |e| is independent of temperature, the net
result will be diminishment in the magnitude of σ.

For intrinsic semiconductors, the temperature-dependence of conductivity is just the opposite of that for
metals—i.e., conductivity increases with rising temperature. One explanation is as follows: Equation 18.15
expresses the dependence of conductivity on electron/hole concentrations and electron/hole mobilities—that is,

Both n and p increase dramatically with rising temperature (Figure 18.16), because more thermal energy becomes
available for valence band-conduction band electron excitations. The magnitudes of µe and µh will diminish

somewhat with increasing temperature (per the upper curves of Figures 18.19a and 18.19b), as a consequence of the
thermal scattering of electrons and holes. However, this reduction of µe and µh will be overwhelmed by the increase

in n and p, with the net result is that σ increases with temperature.

An alternative explanation is as follows: for an intrinsic semiconductor the temperature dependence is
represented by an equation of the form of Equation 18.36. This expression contains two terms that involve
temperature—a preexponential one (in this case T −3/2) and the other in the exponential. With rising temperature the
preexponential term decreases, while the exp (–Eg/2kT) parameter increases. With regard to relative magnitudes, the

exponential term increases much more rapidly than the preexponential one, such that the electrical conductivity of
an intrinsic semiconductor increases with rising temperature.
Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility

18.37 Calculate the room-temperature electrical conductivity of silicon that has been doped with 1023 m–3
of arsenic atoms.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the room-temperature electrical conductivity of silicon that has been
doped with 1023 m-3 of arsenic atoms. Inasmuch as As is a group VA element in the periodic table (Figure 2.8) it
acts as a donor in silicon. Thus, this material is n-type extrinsic, and it is necessary to use Equation 18.16, with n =
1023 m-3 since at room temperature all of the As donor impurities are ionized. The electron mobility, from Figure
18.18 at an impurity concentration of 1023 m-3, is 0.065 m2/V-s. Therefore, the conductivity is equal to
 18.38 Calculate the room-temperature electrical conductivity of silicon that has been doped with 2 × 1024
m–3 of boron atoms.

Solution

Here we are asked to calculate the room-temperature electrical conductivity of silicon that has been doped
with 2 × 1024 m-3 of boron atoms. Inasmuch as B is a group IIIA element in the periodic table (Figure 2.8) it acts as
an acceptor in silicon. Thus, this material is p-type extrinsic, and it is necessary to use Equation 18.17, with p = 2 ×
1024 m-3 since at room temperature all of the B acceptor impurities are ionized. The hole mobility, from Figure
18.18 at an impurity concentration of 2 × 1024 m-3, is 0.0070 m2/V-s. Therefore, the conductivity is equal to
 18.39 Estimate the electrical conductivity at 75°C of silicon that has been doped with 1022 m–3 of
phosphorus atoms.

Solution

In this problem we are to estimate the electrical conductivity, at 75°C, of silicon that has been doped with
1022 m-3 of phosphorous atoms. Inasmuch as P is a group VA element in the periodic table (Figure 2.8) it acts as a
donor in silicon. Thus, this material is n-type extrinsic, and it is necessary to use Equation 18.16; n in this
expression is 1022 m-3 since at 75°C all of the P donor impurities are ionized. The electron mobility is determined
using Figure 18.19a. From the 1022 m-3 impurity concentration curve and at 75°C (348 K), µe = 0.080 m2/V-s.

Therefore, the conductivity is calculated using Equation 18.16 as follows:

 18.40 Estimate the electrical conductivity at 135°C of silicon that has been doped with 1024 m–3 of
aluminum atoms.

Solution

In this problem we are to estimate the electrical conductivity, at 135°C, of silicon that has been doped with
1024 m-3 of aluminum atoms. Inasmuch as Al is a group IIIA element in the periodic table (Figure 2.8) it acts as an
acceptor in silicon. Thus, this material is p-type extrinsic, and it is necessary to use Equation 18.17; p in this
expression is 1024 m-3 since at 135°C all of the Al acceptor impurities are ionized. The hole mobility is determined
using Figure 18.19b. From the 1024 m-3 impurity concentration curve and at 135°C (408 K,) µh = 0.007 m2/V-s.

Therefore, we compute the conductivity of this material using Equation 18.17 as follows:
The Hall Effect

18.41 A hypothetical metal is known to have an electrical resistivity of 3.3 × 10–8 (Ω.m). A current of 25 is
passed through a specimen of this metal 15 mm thick. When a magnetic field of 0.95 tesla is simultaneously imposed
in a direction perpendicular to that of the current, a Hall voltage of –2.4 × 10–7 V is measured. Compute the
following:
(a) the electron mobility for this metal
(b) the number of free electrons per cubic meter.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem calls for us to determine the electron mobility for some hypothetical metal
using the Hall effect. This metal has an electrical resistivity of 3.3 × 10–8 (Ω-m), while the specimen thickness is 15
mm, Ix = 25 A and Bz = 0.95 tesla; under these circumstances a Hall voltage of –2.4 × 10-7 V is measured. It is first

necessary to convert resistivity to conductivity using Equation 18.4 as follows:

The electron mobility may be determined using Equation 18.20b—that is

Now incorporation into this expression the rearranged form of Equation 18.18 wherein RH is the dependent

variable—i.e.,

leads to the following expression

And incorporation of values for the variables on the right-hand side of this equation yields a value for the electron
mobility as follows:
 (b) Now we are to calculate the number of free electrons per cubic meter (n). From a rearranged form of
Equation 18.8 we solve for n as follows:
 18.42 A metal alloy is known to have electrical conductivity and electron mobility values of 1.2 × 107

(Ω.m)–1 and 0.0050 m2/V.s, respectively. A current of 40 A is passed through a specimen of this alloy that is 35 mm

thick. What magnetic field would need to be imposed to yield a Hall voltage of –3.5 × 10–7 V?

Solution

In this problem we are asked to determine the magnetic field required to produce a Hall voltage of −3.5 ×
10-7 V, given that σ = 1.2 × 107 (Ω-m)-1, µe = 0.0050 m2/V-s, Ix = 40 A, and d = 35 mm. We now take a rearranged

form of Equation 18.20b

and incorporate into it Equation 18.18 as follows:

We now rearrange this expression such that Bz is the dependent variable, and after inserting values for the remaining
parameters that were given in the problem statement, the value of Bz is determined as follows:

= 0.735 tesla
Semiconducting Devices

18.43 Briefly describe electron and hole motions in a p–n junction for forward and reverse biases; then
explain how these lead to rectification.

The explanations called for are found in Section 18.15.

18.44 How is the energy in the reaction described by Equation 18.21 dissipated?

Answer

The energy generated by the electron-hole annihilation reaction, Equation 18.21, is dissipated as heat.
 18.45 What are the two functions that a transistor may perform in an electronic circuit?

Answer

In an electronic circuit, a transistor may be used to (1) amplify an electrical signal, and (2) act as a
switching device in computers.
 18.46 State the differences in operation and application for junction transistors and MOSFETs.

The differences in operation and application for junction transistors and MOSFETs are described in Section
18.15.
Conduction in Ionic Materials

18.47 We noted in Section 12.5 (Figure 12.20) that in FeO (wüstite), the iron ions can exist in both Fe2+
and Fe3+ states. The number of each of these ion types depends on temperature and the ambient oxygen pressure.
Furthermore, we also noted that in order to retain electroneutrality, one Fe2+ vacancy will be created for every two
Fe3+ ions that are formed; consequently, in order to reflect the existence of these vacancies the formula for wüstite
is often represented as Fe(1 – x)O, where x is some small fraction less than unity.
In this nonstoichiometric Fe(1 – x)O material, conduction is electronic, and, in fact, it behaves as a p-type

semiconductor—that is, the Fe3+ ions act as electron acceptors, and it is relatively easy to excite an electron from
the valence band into an Fe3+ acceptor state, with the formation of a hole. Determine the electrical conductivity of a

specimen of wüstite that has a hole mobility of 1.0 × 10–5 m2/V.s and for which the value of x is 0.040. Assume that

the acceptor states are saturated (i.e., one hole exists for every Fe3+ ion). Wüstite has the sodium chloride crystal
structure with a unit cell edge length of 0.437 nm.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to determine the electrical conductivity for the nonstoichiometric Fe(1 - x)O,

given x = 0.040 and that the hole mobility is 1.0 × 10-5 m2/V-s. It is first necessary to compute the number of
vacancies per cubic meter for this material. For this determination let us use as our basis 10 unit cells. For the
sodium chloride crystal structure there are four cations and four anions per unit cell. Thus, in ten unit cells of FeO
there will normally be forty O2- and forty Fe2+ ions. However, when x = 0.04, (0.04)(40) = 1.6 of the Fe2+ sites will
be vacant. (Furthermore, there will be 3.2 Fe3+ ions in these ten unit cells inasmuch as two Fe3+ ions are created for
every vacancy). Therefore, each unit cell will, on the average contain 0.16 vacancies. Now, the number of
vacancies per cubic meter is just the number of vacancies per unit cell divided by the unit cell volume; this volume
is just the unit cell edge length (0.437 nm) cubed. Thus

Inasmuch as it is assumed that the vacancies are saturated, the number of holes (p) is also 1.92 × 1027 m-3. It is now
possible, using Equation 18.17, to compute the electrical conductivity of this material as
 18.48 At temperatures between 540°C (813 K) and 727°C (1000 K), the activation energy and
preexponential for the diffusion coefficient of Na+ in NaCl are 173,000 J/mol and 4.0 × 10–4 m2/s, respectively.
Compute the mobility for an Na+ ion at 600°C (873 K).

Solution

For this problem, we are given, for NaCl, the activation energy (173,000 J/mol) and preexponential (4.0 ×
10-4 m2/s) for the diffusion coefficient of Na+ and are asked to compute the mobility for a Na+ ion at 873 K. The
mobility, , may be computed using Equation 18.23; however, this expression also includes the diffusion
coefficient , which is determined using Equation 5.8 as follows:

Now solving for using Equation 18.23 (assuming that = 1, since the valence of the Na+ ion is +1) yields

the following:
Capacitance

18.49 A parallel-plate capacitor using a dielectric material having an εr of 2.2 has a plate spacing of 2

mm (0.08 in.). If another material having a dielectric constant of 3.7 is used and the capacitance is to be unchanged,
what must be the new spacing between the plates?

Solution

We want to compute the plate spacing of a parallel-plate capacitor as the dielectric constant is increased
form 2.2 to 3.7, while maintaining the capacitance constant. Combining Equations 18.26 and 18.27 yields the
following expression:

Now, let us use the subscripts 1 and 2 to denote the initial and final states, respectively. Since C1 = C2, then we can

write the following:

And, solving for l2 leads to the following:

 18.50 A parallel-plate capacitor with dimensions of 38 mm by 65 mm (1 in. by 2 in.) and a plate

separation of 1.3 mm (0.05 in.) must have a minimum capacitance of 70 pF (7 × 10–11 F) when an ac potential of
1000 V is applied at a frequency of 1 MHz. Which of the materials listed in Table 18.5 are possible candidates?
Why?

Solution

This problem asks for us to ascertain which of the materials listed in Table 18.5 are candidates for a
parallel-plate capacitor that has dimensions of 38 mm by 65 mm, a plate separation of 1.3 mm so as to have a
minimum capacitance of 7 × 10-11 F, when an ac potential of 1000 V is applied at 1 MHz. We first of all combine
Equations 18.26 and 18.27 as follows:

and solving for the dielectric constant εr we get

And upon substitution of values given in the problem statement for the parameters on the right-hand side of this
equation the following results:

= 4.16

Thus, the minimum value of εr to achieve the desired capacitance is 4.16 at 1 MHz. Of those materials listed in

Table 18.5, titanate ceramics, mica, steatite, soda-lime glass, porcelain, and phenol-formaldehyde are candidates.
 18.51 Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area of 3225 mm2 (5 in.2), a plate separation of 1 mm
(0.04 in.), and a material having a dielectric constant of 3.5 positioned between the plates.
(a) What is the capacitance of this capacitor?
(b) Compute the electric field that must be applied for 2 × 10–8 C to be stored on each plate.

Solution

(a) We are first asked to compute the capacitance. Combining Equations 18.26 and 18.27 leads to the
following expression:

Incorporation of values given in the problem statement for parameters on the right-hand side of this expression, and
solving for C yields

(b) Now we are asked to compute the electric field that must be applied in order for 2 × 10-8 C to be stored
on each plate. First we need to solve for V in Equation 18.24 as

The electric field E may now be determined using Equation 18.6, as follows:
 18.52 In your own words, explain the mechanism by which charge-storing capacity is increased by the
insertion of a dielectric material within the plates of a capacitor.

This explanation is found in Section 18.19.

Field Vectors and Polarization
Types of Polarization
18.53 For CaO, the ionic radii for Ca2+ and O2– ions are 0.100 and 0.140 nm, respectively. If an
externally applied electric field produces a 5% expansion of the lattice, compute the dipole moment for each Ca2+–
O2– pair. Assume that this material is completely unpolarized in the absence of an electric field.

Solution

Shown below are the relative positions of Ca2+ and O2- ions, without and with an electric field present.

Now, the distance d, the distance between the centers of the ions in the absence of an electric field is computed in
terms of the radii of Ca2+ and O2- ions as follows:

The amount of expansion between the ions when the field is applied, ∆d is equal to

From Equation 18.28, the dipole moment created, p, is just

The "2" is included in this expression because the charge on each Ca2+ ion is 2+, and on each O2- ion is 2−;
therefore
 18.54 The polarization P of a dielectric material positioned within a parallel-plate capacitor is to be 4.0 ×
10–6 C/m2.
(a) What must be the dielectric constant if an electric field of 105 V/m is applied?
(b) What will be the dielectric displacement D?

Solution

(a) We solve this portion of the problem by computing the value of εr using Equation 18.32. Rearranging
this equation such that εr is the dependent parameter gives the following:

When values of the parameters on the right-hand side of this equation are inserted the value of εr equal to

= 5.52

(b) The dielectric displacement D may be determined using Equation 18.31, as follows:
 18.55 A charge of 2.0 × 10–10 C is to be stored on each plate of a parallel-plate capacitor having an area
of 650 mm2 (1.0 in.2) and a plate separation of 4.0 mm (0.16 in.).
(a) What voltage is required if a material having a dielectric constant of 3.5 is positioned within the plates?
(b) What voltage would be required if a vacuum were used?
(c) What are the capacitances for parts (a) and (b)?
(d) Compute the dielectric displacement for part (a).
(e) Compute the polarization for part (a).

Solution

(a) For this part of the problem we want to solve for the voltage when Q = 2.0 × 10-10 C, A = 650 mm2, l =
4.0 mm, and εr = 3.5. Combining Equations 18.24, 18.26, and 18.27 yields

Or

Now, solving for V, and incorporating values provided in the problem statement, leads to the following:

= 39.7 V

(b) For this same capacitor, if a vacuum is used, then the value of εr in the preceding equation is equal to

unity (i.e., 1); now, solving for V leads to the following:

 = 139 V

(c) The capacitance for part (a) is computed using Equation 18.24 as follows:

While for part (b) the capacitance is

(d) The dielectric displacement may be computed by combining Equations 18.31, 18.32 and 18.6, as
follows:

And incorporating values for εr and l provided in the problem statement, as well as the value of V computed in part

(a) results in the following value for D:

(e) The polarization is determined using Equations 18.32 and 18.6 as follows:
 18.56 (a) For each of the three types of polarization, briefly describe the mechanism by which dipoles are
induced and/or oriented by the action of an applied electric field.
(b) For gaseous argon, solid LiF, liquid H2O, and solid Si, what kind(s) of polarization is (are) possible?

Why?

Solution

(a) For electronic polarization, the electric field causes a net displacement of the center of the negatively
charged electron cloud relative to the positive nucleus. With ionic polarization, the cations and anions are displaced
in opposite directions as a result of the application of an electric field. Orientation polarization is found in
substances that possess permanent dipole moments; these dipole moments become aligned in the direction of the
electric field.

(b) Only electronic polarization is to be found in gaseous argon; being an inert gas, its atoms will not be
ionized nor possess permanent dipole moments.
Both electronic and ionic polarizations will be found in solid LiF, since it is strongly ionic. In all
probability, no permanent dipole moments will be found in this material.
Both electronic and orientation polarizations are found in liquid H2O. The H2O molecules have permanent

dipole moments that are easily oriented in the liquid state.

Only electronic polarization is to be found in solid Si; this material does not have molecules with
permanent dipole moments, nor is it an ionic material.
 18.57 (a) Compute the magnitude of the dipole moment associated with each unit cell of BaTiO3, as
illustrated in Figure 18.35.
(b) Compute the maximum polarization that is possible for this material.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we compute the magnitude of the dipole moment associated with
each unit cell of BaTiO3, which is illustrated in Figure 18.35. The dipole moment p is defined by Equation 18.28 as

p = qd in which q is the magnitude of each dipole charge, and d is the distance of separation between the charges.
Each Ti4+ ion has four units of charge associated with it, and thus q = (4)(1.602 × 10-19 C) = 6.41 × 10-19 C.
Furthermore, d is the distance the Ti4+ ion has been displaced from the center of the unit cell, which is just 0.006 nm
+ 0.006 nm = 0.012 nm (Figure 18.35b). Hence

(b) Now it becomes necessary to compute the maximum polarization that is possible for this material. The
maximum polarization will exist when the dipole moments of all unit cells are aligned in the same direction.
Furthermore, it is computed by dividing the above value of p by the volume of each unit cell, which is equal to the
product of three unit cell edge lengths, as shown in Figure 18.35. Thus

= 0.120 C/m2
Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant

18.58 The dielectric constant for a soda–lime glass measured at very high frequencies (on the order of
1015 Hz) is approximately 2.3. What fraction of the dielectric constant at relatively low frequencies (1 MHz) is
attributed to ionic polarization? Neglect any orientation polarization contributions.

Solution

For this soda-lime glass, in order to compute the fraction of the dielectric constant at low frequencies that is
attributed to ionic polarization, we must determine the εr within this low-frequency regime; such is tabulated in

Table 18.5, and at 1 MHz its value is 6.9. Thus, this fraction is just
Ferroelectricity

18.59 Briefly explain why the ferroelectric behavior of BaTiO3 ceases above its ferroelectric Curie
temperature.

Answer

The ferroelectric behavior of BaTiO3 ceases above its ferroelectric Curie temperature because, above the

ferroelectric Curie temperature the unit cell transforms from tetragonal geometry to cubic; thus, the Ti4+ is situated
at the center of the cubic unit cell, there is no charge separation, and no net dipole moment.
DESIGN PROBLEMS
Electrical Resistivity of Metals

18.D1 A 90 wt% Cu–10 wt% Ni alloy is known to have an electrical resistivity of 1.90 × 10–7 Ω-m at room
temperature (25°C). Calculate the composition of a copper–nickel alloy that gives a room-temperature resistivity of

2.5 × 10–7 Ω.m. The room-temperature resistivity of pure copper may be determined from the data in Table 18.1;
assume that copper and nickel form a solid solution.

Solution

This problem asks that we calculate the composition of a copper-nickel alloy that has a room temperature
resistivity of 2.5 × 10-7 Ω-m. The first thing to do is, using the 90 Cu-10 Ni resistivity value (1.90 × 10–7 Ω-m),
determine the impurity contribution, and, from this result, calculate the constant A in Equation 18.11. From
Equation 18.9 we write the following expression:

(Note: we have elected to use and to denote the total and impurity contribution conductivities for the
90 wt% Cu-10 wt% Ni alloy.) From Table 18.1, the conductivity for pure copper ( ) is 6.0 × 107 (Ω-m)-1. Using
this value we compute the electrical resistivity (which is ρt) using Equation 18.4 as follows:

Thus, for the 90 Cu-10 Ni alloy, the impurity contribution to the total conductivity is computed as follows:

In the problem statement, the impurity (i.e., nickel) concentration is expressed in weight percent. However,
Equation 18.11 calls for concentration in atom fraction (i.e., atom percent divided by 100). Consequently,
conversion from weight percent to atom fraction is necessary. (Note: we now choose to denote the atom fraction of
nickel as , and the weight percents of Ni and Cu by CNi and CCu, respectively.) Using these notations, the

conversion of 90 wt% Cu-10 wt% Ni may be accomplished by using a modified form of Equation 4.6a as follows:
Here ANi and ACu denote the atomic weights of nickel and copper (which values are 58.69 and 63.55 g/mol,
respectively). (Also, we have chosen to denote this value of as so as not confuse it with the unknown
). Therefore we compute the value of as follows:

= 0.107

We now want to solve for the value of A in Equation 18.11. Rearrangement of this expression such that A is the
dependent variable leads to

and upon incorporation of values of ρi and determined above, leads to the computation of the value of A as

follows:

Now it is possible to compute the [which we designate ] to give a room temperature resistivity of 2.5 ×
10-7 Ω-m and represented by . The impurity resistivity contribution for this unknown composition

may be determined using a rearranged form of Equation 18.9 as follows:

We may represent Equation 18.11 in its expanded form as follows:

Or, rearranging this equation, we have

Since this is a quadratic equation, we solve for using the quadratic equation solution—that is
which, for this problem, takes the form

Again, incorporating the following values

A = 1.81 × 10-6 (Ω-m)
= 2.33 × 10-7 (Ω-m)

leads to

The two roots for this solution are as follows:

= 0.848
= 0.152

And, taking the negative root, 0.152, is the concentration of Ni (in at%/100), while the positive root (0.848) is the
concentration of Cu. Or, in terms of atom percent,

To convert these compositions to weight percent requires that we use Equation 4.7a as follows:

= 14.2 wt%
 18.D2 Using information contained in Figures 18.8 and 18.39, determine the electrical conductivity of an
85 wt% Cu–15 wt% Zn alloy at –100° C (–150°F).

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the electrical conductivity of an 85 wt% Cu-15 wt% Zn alloy at –100°C
using information contained in Figures 18.8 and 18.39. In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ
Equation 18.9, which is of the form

since it is assumed that the alloy is undeformed (i.e., that ). Let us first determine the value of ρi at room

temperature (25°C) which value will be independent of temperature. From Figure 18.8, at 25°C and for pure Cu,
ρt(25) = 1.75 × 10-8 Ω-m. Now, since the curve in Figure 18.39 was generated also at room temperature, we may
take ρ as ρtotal(25) at 85 wt% Cu-15 wt% Zn which has a value of 4.7 × 10-8 Ω-m. Thus, rearranging Equation 18.9

(as presented above)

Finally, we may determine the resistivity at –100°C, ρtotal(–100), by taking the resistivity of pure Cu at –100°C from
Figure 18.8, which gives us ρt(–100) = 0.90 × 10-8 Ω-m. Therefore

And, using Equation 18.4 the conductivity is calculated as follows:

 18.D3 Is it possible to alloy copper with nickel to achieve a minimum yield strength of 130 MPa (19,000

psi) and yet maintain an electrical conductivity of 4.0 × 106 (Ω.m)–1? If not, why? If so, what concentration of
nickel is required? See Figure 7.16b.

Solution

To solve this problem, we want to consult Figures 7.16b and 18.9 in order to determine the Ni
concentration ranges over which the yield strength is greater than 130 MPa (19,000 psi) and the conductivity
exceeds 4.0 × 106 (Ω-m)-1.
From Figure 7.16b, a Ni concentration greater than about 23 wt% is necessary for a yield strength in excess
of 130 MPa. In Figure 18.9 is plotted the resistivity versus the Ni content. Since conductivity is the reciprocal of
resistivity (Equation 18.4), the resistivity must be less than

From Figure 18.9, a Cu-Ni alloy having a concentration less than 17 wt% is necessary to achieve a resistivity of less
than 25 × 10-8 (Ω-m).
Hence, it is not possible to prepare an alloy meeting the criteria; for the stipulated yield strength the
required Ni content must be greater than 23 wt%, whereas for the required conductivity, less than 17 wt% Ni is
necessary.
Extrinsic Semiconduction
Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility

18.D4 Specify a donor impurity type and concentration (in weight percent) that will produce an n-type

silicon material having a room-temperature electrical conductivity of 200 (Ω.m)–1.

Solution

First of all, those elements which, when added to silicon render it n-type, lie one group to the right of
silicon in the periodic table; these include the group VA elements (Figure 2.8)—i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic,
and antimony.
Since this material is extrinsic and n-type, n >> p, and the electrical conductivity is a function of the hole
concentration according to Equation 18.16—that is

Also, the number of free electrons is about equal to the number of donor impurities, Nd. That is

n ~ Nd

Furthermore, the room-temperature electron mobility is dependent on impurity concentration as represented in

Figure 18.18. One way to solve this problem is to use an iterative approach—i.e., assume some donor impurity
concentration (which will also equal the value of n), and then determine a "calculated" electron mobility from a
rearranged form of Equation 18.16—i.e.,

Finally, compare this mobility with the "measured" value from Figure 18.18, taken at the assumed n (i.e., Nd) value.

Let us begin by assuming that Nd = 1022 m-3. Thus, the "calculated" mobility value is

From Figure 18.18, at an impurity concentration of 1022 m-3 the "measured" electron mobility is 0.10 m2/V-s, which
is slightly lower than the "calculated" value.
 For our second choice for n, let us assume a higher impurity concentration, say 1023 m-3. At this higher
concentration there will be a reduction of both "calculated" and "measured" electron mobilities. The "calculated"
mobility is just

Whereas, Figure 18.18 yields a "measured" µe of about 0.06 m2/V-s, which is higher than the "calculated" value.

Therefore, the correct impurity concentration will lie somewhere between 1022 and 1023 m-3 probably closer to the
lower of these two values. At 1.3 × 1022 m-3, both "measured" and "calculated" µe values are about equal (0.095

m2/V-s).
It next becomes necessary to calculate the concentration of donor impurities in atom percent. This
computation first requires the determination of the number of silicon atoms per cubic meter, NSi, using Equation 4.2,

which is as follows (using values of 2.33 g/cm3 and 28.09 g/mol, respectively, for the density and atomic weight of
Si):

(Note: in the above discussion, the density of silicon is represented by in order to avoid confusion with

resistivity, which is designated by ρ.)

The concentration of donor impurities in atom percent is just the ratio of Nd and (Nd + NSi) multiplied

by 100 as follows:

Now, conversion from atom percent to weight percent (Cd) is possible using Equation 4.7a as follows:
Here Ad and ASi are the atomic weights of the donor and silicon, respectively. Thus, the concentration in weight

percent will depend on the particular donor type. For example, for nitrogen

Similar calculations may be carried out for the other possible donor impurities, which yield the following:
 18.D5 One integrated circuit design calls for diffusing boron into very high-purity silicon at an elevated
temperature. It is necessary that at a distance 0.2 μm from the surface of the silicon wafer, the room-temperature

electrical conductivity be 1000 (Ω.m)–1. The concentration of B at the surface of the Si is maintained at a constant

level of 1.0 × 1025 m–3; furthermore, it is assumed that the concentration of B in the original Si material is
negligible, and that at room temperature the boron atoms are saturated. Specify the temperature at which this
diffusion heat treatment is to take place if the treatment time is to be 1 h. The diffusion coefficient for the diffusion of
B in Si is a function of temperature as

Solution

This problem asks for us to determine the temperature at which boron is to be diffused into high-purity
silicon in order to achieve a room-temperature electrical conductivity of 1000 (Ω-m)-1 at a distance 0.2 µm from the
surface if the B concentration at the surface is maintained at 1.0 × 1025 m-3. It is first necessary for us to compute
the hole concentration (since B is an acceptor in Si) at this 0.2 µm location.
From Equation 18.17, the conductivity is a function of both the hole concentration (p) and the hole mobility
(µh). Furthermore, the room-temperature hole mobility is dependent on impurity concentration (Figure 18.18). One
way to solve this problem is to use an iterative approach—i.e., assume some boron concentration, NB (which will

also equal the value of p), then determine a "calculated" hole mobility from a rearranged form of Equation 18.17—
i.e.,

and then compare this mobility with the "measured" value from Figure 18.18, taken at the assumed p (i.e., NB).
Let us begin by assuming that NB = 1024 m-3. Thus, the "calculated" mobility value is

From Figure 18.18, at an impurity concentration of 1024 m-3 the "measured" hole mobility is 0.01 m2/V-s, which is
higher than the "calculated" value.
For our next choice, let us assume a lower boron concentration, say 1023 m-3. At this lower concentration
there will be an increase of both "calculated" and "measured" hole mobilities. The "calculated" value is just
Whereas, Figure 18.18 yields a "measured" µh of 0.024 m2/V-s at a concentration of 1023 m-3, which is lower than

the "calculated" value. Therefore, the correct impurity concentration will lie somewhere between 1023 and 1024 m-3.
At 4.0 × 1023 m-3, "measured" and "calculated" values are about equal (0.015 m2/V-s).

With regard to diffusion, the problem is one involving the nonsteady-state diffusion of B into the Si,
wherein we have to solve for temperature. Temperature is incorporated into the diffusion coefficient expression
given in the problem statement. But we must first employ the solution to Fick's second law for constant surface
composition boundary conditions, Equation 5.5; in this expression C0 is taken to be zero inasmuch as the problem

stipulates that the initial boron concentration may be neglected. Thus, incorporation of the appropriate values into
Equation 5.5 yields the following:

which reduces to

In order to solve this expression for a value of it is necessary to interpolate using data in Table 5.1 and using

a procedure detailed in Example Problem 5.2. Thus

z erf(z)
1.4 0.9523
z 0.9600
1.5 0.9661

From which, z = 1.4558; which is to say that

Inasmuch as there are 3600 s/h (= t) and x = 0.2 µm (= 2 × 10-7 m) the above equation becomes

which, when solving for the value of D, leads to the following

Now, equating this value to the expression for D given in the problem statement gives the following:

To solve for T, let us take the natural logarithms of both sides of the above equation; this leads to the following
expression:

which reduces to

and yields a value for T of 1271 K (998°C).

Semiconductor Devices

18.D6 One of the procedures in the production of integrated circuits is the formation of a thin insulating
layer of SiO2 on the surface of chips (see Figure 18.26). This is accomplished by oxidizing the surface of the silicon
by subjecting it to an oxidizing atmosphere (i.e., gaseous oxygen or water vapor) at an elevated temperature. The
rate of growth of the oxide film is parabolic—that is, the thickness of the oxide layer (x) is a function of time (t)
according to the following equation:
x2 = Bt (18.37)

Here the parameter B is dependent on both temperature and the oxidizing atmosphere.
(a) For an atmosphere of O2 at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature dependence of B (in units of μm2/h) is
as follows:

(18.38a)

where k is Boltzmann’s constant (8.62 × 10–5 eV/atom) and T is in K. Calculate the time required to grow an oxide
layer (in an atmosphere of O2) that is 100 nm thick at both 700°C and 1000°C.

(b) In an atmosphere of H2O (1 atm pressure), the expression for B (again in units of μm2/h) is

(18.38b)

Calculate the time required to grow an oxide layer that is 100 nm thick (in an atmosphere of H2O) at both 700°C
and 1000°C, and compare these times with those computed in part (a).

Solution

(a) In this portion of the problem we are asked to determine the time required to grow a layer of SiO2 that is
100 nm (i.e., 0.100 µm) thick on the surface of a silicon chip at 1000°C, in an atmosphere of O2 (oxygen pressure =

1 atm). Thus, using Equation 18.37, it is necessary to solve for the time t. However, before this is possible, we must
calculate the value of B from Equation 18.38a as follows:

= 0.00990 µm2/h
Now, solving for t from Equation 18.37 using the above value for B and realizing that x = 0.100 µm, we have

= 1.01 h

Repeating the computation for B at 700°C leads to the following:

= 3.04 × 10-4 µm2/h

And solving for the oxidation time as above

(b) This part of the problem asks for us to compute the heating times to form an oxide layer 100 nm thick at
the same two temperatures (1000°C and 700°C) when the atmosphere is water vapor (1 atm pressure). At 1000°C,
the value of B is determined using Equation 18.38b, as follows:

= 0.365 µm2/h

And computation of the time t from the rearranged form of Equation 18.37, leads to
 = 0.0274 h = 98.6 s

And at 700°C, the value of B is computed as follows:

Whereas the time required to grow the 100 nm oxide layer is

= 0.196 h = 706 s

From the above computations, it is very apparent (1) that the 100 nm oxide layer forms more rapidly at
1000°C (than at 700°C) in both O2 and H2O gaseous atmospheres, and (2) that the oxide layer formation is more

rapid in water vapor than in oxygen.

 18.D7 The base semiconducting material used in virtually all modern integrated circuits is silicon.
However, silicon has some limitations and restrictions. Write an essay comparing the properties and applications
(and/or potential applications) of silicon and gallium arsenide.

Answer

We are asked to compare silicon and gallium arsenide semiconductors relative to properties and
applications.
The following are the characteristics and applications for Si: (1) being an elemental semiconductor, it is
cheaper to grow in single-crystalline form; (2) because of its electron band structure, it is best used in transistors;
(3) electronic processes are relatively slow due to the low mobilities for electrons and holes (Table 18.3).
For GaAs: (1) it is much more expensive to produce inasmuch as it is a compound semiconductor; (2)
because of its electron band structure it is best used in light-emitting diodes and semiconducting lasers; (3) its band
gap may be altered by alloying; (4) electronic processes are more rapid than in Si due to the greater mobilities for
electrons and holes; (5) absorption of electromagnetic radiation is greater in GaAs, and therefore, thinner layers are
required for solar cells.
Conduction in Ionic Materials

18.D8 Problem 18.47 noted that FeO (wüstite) may behave as a semiconductor by virtue of the
transformation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ and the creation of Fe2+ vacancies; the maintenance of electroneutrality requires
that for every two Fe3+ ions, one vacancy is formed. The existence of these vacancies is reflected in the chemical
formula of this nonstoichiometric wüstite as Fe(1 – x)O, where x is a small number having a value less than unity.
The degree of nonstoichiometry (i.e., the value of x) may be varied by changing temperature and oxygen partial
pressure. Compute the value of x that is required to produce an Fe(1 – x)O material having a p-type electrical

conductivity of 1200 (Ω.m)–1; assume that the hole mobility is 1.0 × 10–5 m2/V.s, the crystal structure for FeO is
sodium chloride (with a unit cell edge length of 0.437 nm), and the acceptor states are saturated.

Solution

This problem asks, for the nonstoichiometric Fe(1 - x)O, given the electrical conductivity [1200 (Ω-m)-1]

and hole mobility (1.0 × 10-5 m2/V-s) that we determine the value of x. It is first necessary to compute the number
of holes per unit volume (p) using a rearranged form of Equation 18.17. Thus

Inasmuch as it is assumed that the acceptor states are saturated, the number of vacancies is also 7.49 × 1026 m-3.
Next, it is possible to compute the number of vacancies per unit cell by taking the product of the number of
vacancies per cubic meter times the volume of a unit cell. This volume is just the unit cell edge length (0.437 nm)
cubed:

A unit cell for the sodium chloride structure contains the equivalence of four cations and four anions. Thus, if we
take as a basis for this problem 10 unit cells, there will be 0.625 vacancies, 40 O2- ions, and 39.375 iron ions (since
0.625 of the iron sites is vacant). (It should also be noted that since two Fe3+ ions are created for each vacancy, that
of the 39.375 iron ions, 38.125 of them are Fe2+ and 1.25 of them are Fe3+). In order to find the value of (1 – x) in
the chemical formula, we just take the ratio of the number of total Fe ions (39.375) and the number of total Fe ion
sites (40). Thus
Or the formula for this nonstoichiometric material is Fe0.984O.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

18.1FE For a metal that has an electrical conductivity of 6.1 × 107 (Ω⋅m)−1, what is the resistance of a
wire that is 4.3 mm in diameter and 8.1 m long?
(A) 3.93 × 10−5 Ω
(B) 2.29 × 10−3 Ω
(C) 9.14 × 10−3 Ω
(D) 1.46 × 1011 Ω

Solution

The electrical resistivity (ρ) and resistance (R) are related according to Equation 18.2 as follows:

Furthermore, the conductivity and resistivity are related to one another by Equation 18.4—that is

Combining these equations, and incorporating the expression for the cross-sectional area, A, of a cylindrical
specimen—i.e.,

leads to the following equation for electrical conductivity:

And, solving this expression for the resistance, R, leads to the following:

Which for this problem gives a value of

 = 9.14 × 10-3 Ω

which is answer C.
 18.2FE What is the typical electrical conductivity value/range for semiconducting materials?
(A) 107 (Ω⋅m )−1
(B) 10−20 to 107 (Ω⋅m)−1
(C) 10−6 to 104 (Ω⋅m)−1
(D) 10−20 to 10−10 (Ω⋅m)−1

Answer

The correct answer is C. Semiconducting materials typically have electrical conductivities in the range of
10-6 to 104 (Ω-m)-1.
 18.3FE A two-phase metal alloy is known to be composed of α and β phases that have mass fractions of
0.64 and 0.36, respectively. Using the following room-temperature electrical resistivity and density data, calculate
the electrical resistivity of this alloy at room temperature.

Phase Resistivity (Ω⋅m) Density (g/cm3)

α 1.9 × 10−8 8.26

β 5.6 × 10−7 8.60

(A) 2.09 × 10−7 Ω⋅m

(B) 2.14 × 10−7 Ω⋅m
(C) 3.70 × 10−7 Ω⋅m
(D) 5.90 × 10−7 Ω⋅m

Solution

For a two-phase alloy composed of α and β phases, Equation 18.12 may be used to approximate the
electrical resistivity (ρi) of the alloy—i.e.,

Here Vα and Vβ denote volume fractions of the two phases, and ρα and ρβ their respective resistivities. It is first
necessary to convert the mass fractions into phase volume fractions. The mass fraction of phase α (Wα) may be
converted into volume fraction (Vα) using Equations 10.6a:

(Note: In this equation we use and to represent phase densities so as not to cause confusion with

resistivity, which is designated using ρ). Thus, for the α phase we write
Similarly, for the β phase

Substitution into Equation 18.12 these volume fractions and the phase resistivities given in the problem statement
leads to an alloy resistivity value of

which is answer A.
 18.4FE For an n-type semiconductor, where is the Fermi level located?
(A) In the valence band
(B) In the band gap just above the top of valence band
(C) In the middle of the band gap
(D) In the band gap just below the bottom of the conduction band

Answer

The correct answer is D. For an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy is located just below the
conduction band in the band gap.
 18.5FE The room-temperature electrical conductivity of a semiconductor specimen is 2.8 × 104 (Ω⋅m)−1. If
the electron concentration is 2.9 × 1022 m−3 and electron and hole mobilities are 0.14 and 0.023 m2/V⋅s,
respectively, calculate the hole concentration.
(A) 1.24 × 1024 m−3
(B) 7.42 × 1024 m−3
(C) 7.60 × 1024 m−3
(D) 7.78 × 1024 m−3

Solution

For a semiconducting material, the conductivity is given by Equation 18.13 as follows:

where e is the charge on an electron: 1.602 × 10-19 C. Solving this equation for the number of holes p results in the
following expression:

And, incorporating into this equation, values of the parameters provided in the problem statement yields the
following value for p:

= 7.42 × 1024 m-3

which is answer B.