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16. Abstract
High-Mast Tower (HMT) foundations have been traditionally designed and constructed using cast-in-place foundation with anchor
bolts that are used to secure the tower to the foundation. This type of design requires a base plate that is welded to the tower shaft.
The Nebraska Department of Transportation (NDOT) has recently experienced issues with stresses that this type of design presents
at the anchor bolt/foundation or base plate/tower shaft interface. This issue in worst cases may lead to a premature failure due to
high-cycle fatigue as one of the towers at Milford, Nebraska that fell down during a winter snow storm event in 2018. This research
project objective was to develop an alternative design for HMT foundations with direct embedment of HMT which can eliminate
fatigue-prone details associated with the pole-to-base plate connection which is the primary location of failure. First, the literature
that includes research from academia and industry, current and proposed state of practice from industry, examples of design
specifications and guidelines, and corrosion for buried structures were reviewed. Secondly, structural loads for the typical 120- and
140-ft HMTs constructed in Nebraska and the soil resistance for them were calculated. The structural loads were computed using
the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, with a spreadsheet
based on the fundamental principles of structural analysis. The geotechnical foundation resistance calculations were made to check
the vertical and horizontal soil capacity for the typical HMTs used in Nebraska. In addition, further parametric study was conducted
using two numerical software: LPILE and COMSOL for varying soil conditions and foundation systems with different embedment
length and backfill diameter for the service level base moment and shear. Required embedment length and backfill diameter are
provided as a matrix using the LPILE analysis results. Finally, based on the site considerations and constructability, a draft design
and construction specification for soil parameters that can be used for Nebraska soil conditions are provided.
i
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts
and the accuracy of the information presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the
official views or policies neither of the Nebraska Department of Transportations nor the University
of Nebraska-Lincoln. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. Trade
or manufacturers’ names, which may appear in this report, are cited only because they are
The United States (U.S.) government and the State of Nebraska do not endorse products or
manufacturers. This material is based upon work supported by the Federal Highway
recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(NDOT). Their support is gratefully acknowledged. The technical support and valuable
discussions provided by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of this project is appreciated.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Research Objective .................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Research Scope .......................................................................................................... 3
iv
2.5.2 Qualitative evaluation of underground corrosion ........................................ 25
2.5.3 Quantitative evaluation of underground corrosion ...................................... 29
2.6 Summary .................................................................................................................. 35
v
5.2.7 Backfill ......................................................................................................... 75
5.3 Locality of Soil Conditions in Nebraska .................................................................. 75
5.5 Site Considerations and Steps for Corrosion Protection Strategies ......................... 78
5.6 Cost Comparisons .................................................................................................... 79
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 85
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 88
Qualifications and Submittals ........................................................................................ 88
Personnel Qualifications ....................................................................................... 88
Submittals ............................................................................................................. 88
Execution ....................................................................................................................... 89
Drilling Operations ............................................................................................... 89
Aggregate Placement ............................................................................................ 90
Concrete Placement .............................................................................................. 90
Direct Embedment Installation Record .......................................................................... 92
APPENDIX B.............................................................................................................................. 93
SPT Blow Counts ........................................................................................................... 93
Correction Factors of SPT Blow Count (N60) ................................................................ 93
Additional Correction Factors for Cohesionless Soils ................................................... 96
Combined Correction Factor for this Research ............................................................. 96
Internal Friction Angle ................................................................................................... 97
Cohesion ........................................................................................................................ 98
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table 2.1: Design Information of a 120-ft Direct Embed Steel Cellular Pole .............................. 15
Table 2.2: Design Information of a 140-ft Direct Embed Steel Cellular Pole .............................. 16
Table 2.3: Summary of State DOT Design Requirements for Light Pole Foundations ............... 23
Table 2.4: Underground Corrosion Likelihood Score Sheet (retrieved from DIPRA, 2018) ....... 27
Table 2.5: Underground Pipe Corrosion Consequence Score Sheet (retrieved from DIPRA, 2018
and Arriba-Rodriguez et al., 2018) ............................................................................................... 28
Table 2.6: DIPRA Design Decision Model (retrieved from DIPRA, 2018)................................. 29
Table 2.7: Chemical and Physical Properties of the NBS Test Sites that represent Nebraska Soil
Groups (retrieved from Romanoff, 1957) ..................................................................................... 32
Table 2.8: Loss in weight and maximum penetration of wrought black ferrous metal (retrieved
from Romanoff, 1957) .................................................................................................................. 33
Table 2.9: Loss in weight and maximum penetration of 6-in. cast-iron pipe (retrieved from
Romanoff, 1957) ........................................................................................................................... 34
Table 2.10: Tentative NDOT Applications for Direct Embedment Foundations ......................... 35
Table 3.1: Calculated Base Reactions for a typical Nebraska 140-ft HMT.................................. 43
Table 3.2: Calculated Base Reactions for a typical Nebraska 120-ft and 140-ft HMT ................ 44
Table 4.1: Input Material Properties for LPILE Analysis............................................................. 51
Table 4.2: Parametric Study for Various Foundation Systems (140-ft Tower) ............................ 57
Table 4.3: Parametric Study for Various Foundation Systems (120-ft Tower) ............................ 58
Table 4.4: Geometric Properties for COMSOL model ................................................................. 60
Table 4.5: COMSOL Material Properties ..................................................................................... 62
Table 4.6: Selection Matrix for Various Direct Embedment Foundations ................................... 71
Table 5.1: Cost Comparisons between Conventional vs. Direct Embedment (USD) .................. 80
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 1.1: High Mast Lighting Tower in Milford, Nebraska (photo provided by NDOT) ........... 1
Figure 2.1: Rule-of-Thumb Design of Direct Embedment Foundation for Transmission Towers
(retrieved from the EPRI EL-6309 Report, 1989) .......................................................................... 6
Figure 2.2 Direct Embedment Foundation Model developed from the EPRI research (figure 3
directly retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991) ....................................................................... 9
Figure 2.3: Applied Ground-Line Moment vs. Deflection at Ground-Line from the Full-Scale
Testing and Analysis (figure 7 directly retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991) ..................... 9
Figure 2.4: Predicted vs. Applied Ground-Line Moment for Ground-Line Deflections of 0.5, 1.0,
and 2.0 inches (figure 8 directly retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991) .............................. 10
Figure 2.5: Example Drawing of an Embedded Base Section for Galvanized Steel Poles (CAD
drawing provided by the Omaha Public Power District) .............................................................. 21
Figure 2.6: Rate of Corrosion of Metals buried under Soil (retrieved from de Arriba-Rodriguez et
al., 2018) ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.7: Soil Groups of US and Dots indicating the NBS Test Sites (retrieved from Romanoff,
1957) ............................................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 3.1: Typical Moment Diagram from Analysis .................................................................. 42
Figure 4.1: Screen Capture of Figure 3.19 from LPILE Manual (Tab Sheet for Shaft Dimensions
of Drilled Shaft with Casing and Core to represent the Direct Embedment Foundation) ............ 50
Figure 4.2: Deflection of the embedded steel pole based on LPILE analysis .............................. 52
Figure 4.3: Shear Force and Bending Moment Profile for the embedded pole ............................ 53
Figure 4.4: Deflection of the embedded steel pole based on LPILE analysis .............................. 53
Figure 4.5: Shear Force and Bending Moment Profile for the embedded pole ............................ 54
Figure 4.6: Domain Geometry ...................................................................................................... 59
viii
Figure 4.7: Close Up of Tube, Fill, and Soil Domains ................................................................. 61
Figure 4.8: Bottom of Domain ...................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.9: Elevation ..................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.10: Pole Von Mises Stresses (Clay) ............................................................................... 63
Figure 4.11: Translation in the direction of load .......................................................................... 64
Figure 4.12: Translation along the fill edge (Clay)....................................................................... 65
Figure 4.13: Normal Stresses in the direction of loading (Lfactor = 1, Clay) .............................. 65
Figure 4.14: Load-translation plot (Clay) ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.15: Boolean plot where plastic strains exist (red = yes, blue = no) ................................ 66
Figure 4.16: Effective Plastic Strain ............................................................................................ 67
Figure 4.17: Parametric Study Esoil (Lfactor = 1, Clay) .............................................................. 68
Figure 4.18: Parametric Variation Shaft Depth = 28-ft distance from bottom (Lfactor = 1, Clay)
....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.19: Pole Bottom vs Effective Plastic Strain (Shaft Depth = 24 ft – Pole Bottom, Clay) 69
Figure 4.20: Load vs Max Translation (sandy soil) ...................................................................... 69
Figure 4.21: Translation in sandy soil........................................................................................... 70
Figure 4.22: Translation along fill for sandy soil ......................................................................... 70
Figure 5.1: Geologic Bed Rock Map of Nebraska (retrieved from Pabian, 1970) ....................... 76
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
High-Mast Tower (HMT) foundations have been traditionally designed and constructed
using cast-in-place foundation with anchor bolts that are used to secure the tower to the
foundation. This type of design requires a base plate that is welded to the tower shaft as shown
in Figure 1.1(a).
with stresses that this type of design presents at the anchor bolt/foundation or base plate/tower
shaft interface. This issue in worst cases may lead to a premature failure due to high-cycle
fatigue as shown in one of the towers at Milford, Nebraska that fell down during a winter snow
(a) High Mast Tower Base Plate, Anchor, (b) High Mast Tower Failure (Milford,
Non-shrink Grout, and Cast-in-Place Nebraska, January, 2018)
Foundation
Figure 1.1: High Mast Lighting Tower in Milford, Nebraska (photo provided by NDOT)
There have been several research efforts in the past decade to evaluate the fatigue
behavior of these HMTs (Thompson 2011, Connor et al. 2012) to propose retrofit strategies that
1
could reduce wind-induced vibrations observed in these structures (Ahearn and Puckett, 2010).
Goode and van de Lindt (2007) developed a reliability-based design procedure for High Mast
Lighting Towers while Connor and Hodgson (2006) conducted field instrumentation and
While most of these previous studies have focused on the 100-120 ft tall structures, there
are limited or no research conducted for the substructure related to these towers. All research
whether related to load effects, mitigation of vibrations, and/or resistance of the pole-to-baseplate
connection always include the connection to a plate that is bolts for the foundation.
NCHRP Report 176 (2011) is one of the several studied that has examined the fatigue
connection geometry, relative tube-wall thickness to baseplate thickness, and specific of whether
the pole is attached via fillet welds or full penetration welds. Although weld details have been
significantly improved with research and associated specification updates, the joint remains a
This research suggests that this connection may be completely eliminated thereby
obviating the need for the design of fatigue prone weldments. The joint is removed by directly
embedding the pole into the foundation. This approach is novel for the transportation industry
and could become an exceptional strategy for NDOT as well as other owners confronting failures
2
1.2 Research Objective
This research project aims to develop an alternative design for HMT foundations which
can eliminate fatigue-prone details associated with the pole-to-base plate connection which is the
primary location of failure. To address critical issues, the objectives are to:
1. Evaluate the various types of foundations used in other structures that are similar
in height and shape to the HMTs. This includes evaluating drilled shafts and
2. Evaluate the corrosive environment with steel pole structure being embedded
either in soil or concrete and propose mitigation measures for any corrosion
3. Provide design and construction provisions that may integrate into NDOT
1. Review the literature review on foundations for structures that are similar in size and
shape with the high-mast towers used in Nebraska. One good example is the high-
tension power transmission line structures that use various types of foundations.
Literature review addressed single steel-shaft poles with direct embedment or drilled-
reviewed. NDOT was surveyed with respect to any problems associated with their
present drilled shafts. The shafts appear to be performing well. Note the shafts
involved with the new configuration experiences the same loads as any new
3
configuration. Although the latter might consider concrete or aggregate backfill with
resistivity, pH, chloride, sulfate, and oxygen content of the soils and water at potential
sites or in the concrete as indicated in the Caltrans (2018) report. Some NDOT
districts have corrosive soil, and because the foundations for these HMTs are close to
the surface where oxygen content may be higher, protective measures may be
required. The web soil survey system provided by the USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS, 2018) has soil maps and data available online for
Nebraska counties and can be used as a source for soil survey information. The most
typical protection for steel poles embedded in soil in a corrosive environment may be
3. The final task includes use of the outcomes from the first two tasks and integrate
them into design and construction recommendations. All poles are assumed to be
NDOT Inspection Guide for Installation of High-Mast Lighting and Sign Structures
(2008) manual and the NDOT Standard Specifications for Highway Construction
4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a literature review focusing on steel poles with direct embedment
foundations or drilled shafts: 1) Academic and industry research results, 2) Drawings from the
industry practice, and 3) Design specifications, guidelines, or research reports published from
This report delivers research results of numerical analysis and field load testing
conducted by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Empire State Electric Energy
Research Corporation (ESEERCO). The motivation of this study starts from introducing the “10
percent plus 2 feet” rule-of-thumb design (illustrated in Figure 2.1) for direct embedment
foundations of transmission towers. The report states that this rule-of-thumb works well for
wood poles but for steel and concrete poles with various backfill conditions, there is a need for a
better model representation and design criteria to resist the possible load conditions.
The study presents analytical models developed for direct embedment foundations and
field test results to predict the ultimate capacity and load-displacement behavior of direct
embedment foundations under full-scale load tests. Twelve full-scale direct embedment
foundations were loaded at seven different test sites. The pole height of the full-scale test
specimens varied between 65 to 115 ft with a maximum outer diameter varying from 28 to 38 in.
The embedment depth varied from 7.7 to 11.5 ft and the average hole diameter for the backfill
ranged from 41 to 57 in. Various backfills were used for the test specimens: 1) lightly
compacted silty clay, 2) loose crushed stone, 3) well-compacted silted clay, and 4) well-
5
compacted crushed stone. From each load tests, the subsurface investigation, foundation design,
pole installation and instrumentation, load testing, and data analysis were reported. The full-
scale foundation load test demonstrated that when loose or poorly compacted backfill was used,
the backfill dominated the load-deflection behavior with excessive ground-line deflection and
rotation at a small percentage of the ultimate capacity of the foundation. The test results also
indicated that the load-deflection response of foundations embedded into rock is significantly
different than soil-supported foundations. The direct embedment foundations with rock backfill
The analytical models used in this study provided reasonable predictions compared to the
test results regarding the load-deflection response and the ultimate capacity of the direct
6
embedment foundations only when the foundations were soil-supported with well-compacted
backfill. This study also stated that analytical models used for drilled shaft foundations can also
be used for the direct embedment foundations when the backfill of direct embedment
foundations have similar or higher shear strength and stiffness characteristics than the native soil.
However, for the case where the backfill has lower shear strength and stiffness than the
surrounding soil, models used for drilled shafts do not work well for direct embedment
foundations because they do not consider variations in strength and stiffness in the radial
direction from the perimeter of the foundation. The study also indicated that the analytical
models used for drilled shafts typically only consider horizontal soil layering but a vertical layer
surrounding the pole must be modeled if a direct embedment foundation is used by assigning the
shear strength and stiffness parameters of either the backfill or the native soil.
For future research, this report asks the following questions to be answered: 1) What
backfill materials are most suitable for use in construction the direct embedment foundations? 2)
performance? 3)What types of compaction equipment are most suitable for compacting the
backfill in the relatively thin annulus surrounding a direct embedment foundation? and 4) Can
flowable backfill materials not requiring compaction such as cement-fly ash mixtures be
This IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery article was prepared by two engineers from
GAI Consultants and one engineer from EPRI who were involved in the 1989 EPRI EL-6309
report and test program. The paper summarizes the results of the ten full-scale load tests and
analysis results using the direct embedment foundation model introduced in the EPRI EL-6309
7
report (see Figure 2.2). Test sites No. 3, 7, and 10 which had steel poles that are 115 ft high with
embedment lengths between 10.5 ft and 11.5 ft with an auger hole diameter of 52 and 54 in. with
well-compacted crushed stone or well-compacted sand with gravel as backfill material were
selected tests that were of interest due to the fact that Nebraska typically uses either a 120 ft or
140 ft high steel poles. However, HMT loads are typically lower than transmission structures.
Test site No. 3 with well-compacted crushed stone had some stiff clayey silt near the ground-line
and some sand below 3 ft to the bottom of the pole. Test site No. 7 had well-compacted crushed
stone mix for backfill material surrounded by very loose to loose gravelly silty sand from the
ground-line to 3 ft depth and medium dense sand and some gravel below 3 ft. Test site No. 10
had well-compacted crushed stone as backfill material surrounded by silty sand and dolomite
fragments in the upper 4 ft soil and Dolostone below 4 ft to the bottom of the pole. Two figures
from the original paper. Figure 2.3 shows how well the analytical model matches with the full-
scale test results. Figure 2.4 is the result of the analytical prediction versus the applied moment
measured at the test site with 0.5 in., 1 in., and 2 in. deflection at the ground-line. Figure 2.4 also
demonstrates that the prediction based on the analytical model matches well with the measured
applied moment at the full-scale test sites. Based on the model and the test results, at test site
No. 3, 0.5-in. ground-line deflection is observed at approximately 400 ft-kip moment while 1 in.
deflection is observed at approximately 600 ft-kip moment. At test site No. 7 and 10, ½ in.
ground-line deflection is observed at approximately 200 ft-kip moment, 1 in. deflection at 300 ft-
kip, and 2 in. deflection at 400 ft-kip moment. These test and analysis results can be served as a
reference for the High Mast Towers typically used in Nebraska (120 ft or 140 ft) which is
8
Figure 2.2 Direct Embedment Foundation Model developed from the EPRI research
(retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991)
Figure 2.3: Applied Ground-Line Moment vs. Deflection at Ground-Line from the Full-
Scale Testing and Analysis (retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991)
9
Figure 2.4: Predicted vs. Applied Ground-Line Moment for Ground-Line Deflections of
0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 inches (retrieved from Rojas-Gonzalez et al. 1991)
This study was presented in the conference proceedings of the ASCE Electrical
Transmission and Substation Structures Conference and provided interesting results using
spectral analysis of surface waves to conduct the stability design of direct embedment pole
structures. The study highlights that the widely used Brom’s method for lateral stability would
only be valid for either cohesive or cohesionless soils. For that reason, when dealing with
natural soil which is mixed cohesive/cohesionless soil, empirical adjustments have to be made
and there is inconsistency with these theoretical geotechnical analyses. The study also stressed
out that the analytical models (MFAD by EPRI) require classical soil parameters as the friction
10
angle or cohesive strength and to obtain these properties, an intensive soil sampling should be
conducted at isolated points near the project site which is not easy and time consuming.
Therefore, this study offers an alternative method in obtaining the elastic material constants of
different soil layers by using mechanically induced stress waves and high-resolution transducers.
This research identifies that the geophysical technique introduced in this paper is low-cost and
the design approach using this geophysical method will provide reliable prediction of ground-
line deflection for directly embedded poles. This analytical method can determine pole stability
and soil strain by limiting the ground-line deflection based on easy to conduct, inexpensive, rapid
site characterization.
This paper included in the proceedings of the ASCE Electrical Transmission and
Substation Structures present methods for assessment and repair of steel tower and steel pole
foundations. The paper introduces both direct inspection procedures (visual assessment, physical
measurements) to develop corrosion inspection on steel poles under soil. Common assessment
methods, possible corrosion ratings, and repair techniques are introduced in this summary paper
that can be adapted for the steel poles that will be directly embedded in soil. For example, the
study suggests using the “SSPC VIS2 Standard Method for Evaluating Degree of Rusting on
Painted Steel Surfaces” developed by the Society for Protective coatings that can be used to
classify the type of corrosion and severity for the samples collected and quantify the inspection
result following the standard. The study states that directly embedded poles often requires
necessary excavation for a shallow depth between 18 in. to 24 in. to allow the inspector to make
11
visual assessments and physical measurements to determine the amount of section loss caused by
corrosion. The study suggests when direct measurements or physical measurements from
excavation is not easy to conduct, that nondestructive testing methods using ultrasound or
electromagnetic acoustic transducers could also be an option to detect the corrosion on steel
members buried under ground. In addition, the study suggests that based on the direct or indirect
assessment, unless severe corrosion with metal loss, pitting, thinning, or perforation is observed,
if the corrosion rating is between low and moderate, the next inspection can be conducted in ten
years.
This study was presented in the conference proceedings of the ASCE Electrical
Transmission and Substation Structures Conference and provided interesting results of the
survey conducted by an ad hoc task force team assembled by the Deep Foundation Institute with
experienced individuals from the electric power industry, utility consultants, utility companies
and academia. The conference proceedings paper summarizes the survey results of 45 questions
about the designer demographics, design approach, deep foundation design practices,
geotechnical exploration practices, reinforced concrete design practices, direct embedment pole
foundation design, alternate foundation types, foundation field testing and validation, and
construction considerations.
A total number of 22 surveys were collected which is a low number to generalize, but
there are some points we can still learn from this survey result that there is little consistency in
the foundation design of transmission lines for designers, consultants, and utilities. Many of the
utilities and consultants had their own internal design manuals due to the lack of a uniform
guidance or specifications. The top deflection of the foundation used as performance factors at
12
the ground-line varied between zero to six inches and rotation between zero to two degrees. Half
of the respondents used factored loads when evaluation foundation performance criteria, while
the rest used service loads or do not identify the load type. And, 73% of the designers stated that
they use some reduced foundation resistance due to the near surface soil conditions but no more
than one quarter agreed on the method for determining the reduced resistance. Regarding direct
embedment foundations, the survey results demonstrate that the backfill material was compacted
native soil (57%), engineered aggregate (79%), and concrete (74%). Most designers used
analytical (84%) and general practice (79%) methods for the embedment depth design. The
participants of the survey also addressed that 36% of the respondents have no limits to free fall
placement of concrete within drilled shafts and 54% do not allow cold joints within concrete
The current state of US practice for high-mast tower foundations are drilled-shaft
foundations. These foundations consist of a drilled-shaft excavation with concrete, a rebar cage
containing longitudinal (vertical) and transverse steel, wiring conduit, and anchor bolts. The
anchor bolts are embedded with proper length and spacing to transfer structural loads to the
concrete. These bolts attach to a transverse plate that is welded to the pole.
The excavations are typically bored with a large excavator-mounted drill rig and
appropriately sized tooling for the shaft with diameters in 6-in increments typical. The anchor
bolts are set with a template. With the current state of practice, the foundation contractor never
13
The pole erection is performed by another contractor who may self-perform or
subcontract. Frequently, the electrical contractor will perform or supervise this work and this
can be source malfunction as they typically do not perform foundation and structural work.
Owner inspections of in-service pole often reveal that bolts are loose, and likely, not tightened
Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 are the physical properties, effective projected area (EPA)
capacity of the pole, and maximum reactions at the base for a typical 120-ft direct embed steel
pole, and 140-ft direct embed steel pole, respectively, used for cellular towers in US designed by
embedment depth ranges between 24 to 26 ft with aggregate backfill placed between the soil and
the steel pole for a 140-ft tower. The embedment depth for the 120-ft tower range between 19 to
23 ft with aggregate backfill. The 140-ft tower has a base shear ranging between 9.6 kips to 14.9
kips while the 120-ft tower has base shear ranging between 7.1 kips and 11.5 kips. These loads
are approximately two to three times the load observed in typical High Mast Towers with the
identical height of 120 and 140 ft. The auger diameter for the backfill ranged between 3.5 to 4.0
ft for 120-ft tower and 4.0 to 4.5 ft for 140-ft tower. The calculations shown in both tables have
notes that indicate that the tabulated EPA values are based on the assumption that 80% of the
total EPA is located at the top of the pole and the remaining is located 20-ft below the top. The
notes provided by the Rohn design engineers indicate that if all loads are located at the top of the
14
Table 2.1: Design Information of a 120-ft Direct Embed Steel Cellular Pole
120-ft-DEP-Design-Overview-193192.pdf)
15
Table 2.2: Design Information of a 140-ft Direct Embed Steel Cellular Pole
140-ft-DEP-Design-Overview-193193.pdf)
16
2.3 Proposed State of Practice
The proposed state of practice for high-mast towers is to adopt a similar system that the
electrical utility industry uses for transmission and distribution pole. Direct embedment
eliminates the fatigue prone weld details at the baseplate-to-tube connection. It also eliminates
the need to rebar cages, anchor bolt placement, bolt tightening, secondary issues such a gap
under the baseplate permitting animal nesting and moisture intrusion (but, Nebraska require a
This method requires the contractor to drill the same excavation but instead of setting a
rebar cage and an anchor bolt cage, the pole base positioned at the bottom of the shaft and the
pole is properly plumbed from the top. The lowest pole section will be approximately 15 to 20 ft
greater than the shaft depth. This section accommodates conduit holes and above-grade
handholes that are fabricated off site. The shaft is filled with either concrete or aggregate
backfill. The remaining sections of the pole attached to the bottom section with a slip-fit
connection that is standard practice. Various drilling and placement procedures are outlined in
the draft specification in Appendix A. The soil type and condition play a large role here.
The utility contractor installs the top sections and finishes the electrical work. Different
scenarios could be permitted, e.g., the pole might be assembled and then place in the shaft; this
The Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) within American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) published a design guideline for steel transmission pole structures. In this document,
sections outline design and installation guidelines with commentary for directly embedded steel
17
transmission poles. The design guideline states in Section 9.4 of the guideline that the embedded
section shall be designed to resist the overturning moment, shear, and axial loads. In addition,
the guideline states that the length of the section of the pole below the ground line shall be
determined using a lateral resistance approach and the owner shall be responsible for supplying
the structural designer information regarding the embedment depth, allowable foundation
rotation, and design point of fixity of the embedded section. In the commentary of for Section
9.4, the document states that a directly embedded pole foundation typically is designed to
transfer overturning moments to the in-situ soil, rock, or backfill by means of lateral resistance
and axial loads can be resisted by a bearing plate installed on the base of the pole. If additional
bearing capacity is required, base-expanding devices can be installed at the bottom of the pole.
The commentary includes that the quality of backfill, method of placement, and degree of
compaction greatly affects the strength and rotation of the foundation system and, thereby, the
design of the embedded pole. In addition, the commentary states that the direct-embedded pole
foundations have become popular because of their relatively low installation cost. The guideline
also adds a commentary that buoyancy of the pole should be considered when using direct
embedded-poles where high water table is present. This document also provides in Section
11.5.2 some installation guidelines that the annular opening around the embedded pole shall be
backfilled with soil or concrete and that the soil shall be compacted in accordance with the
additional information addressing that care should be taken during the backfilling and
compaction process to prevent damage to the protective coating of the embedded pole section.
The commentary section for installation also addresses that the Line Designer should provide
specific recommendations and requirements for the type of backfill material and the method of
18
backfill placement to ensure that in-service behavior of the pole is in accordance with the design
2.4.2 IEEE Guide for Transmission Structure Foundation Design and Testing
This guide was jointly prepared by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) Power Engineering Society Transmission and Distribution Committee and the American
Committee. The guide states that direct embedment foundations which has been traditionally
used for wood pole foundations in distribution lines has recently increased in number for steel
and concrete pole foundations in transmission lines. This guide provides the definition of direct
embedment: “Foundations that are made by power augering a circular excavation in the ground
and inserting the pole (wood, steel, or concrete) directly into the excavation, and backfilling the
void between the pole and the sides of the excavation.” Then the guide highlights that the
quality of backfill, method of placement, and the degree of compaction strongly influences the
stiffness and strength of the direct embedment foundation. The guide also provides the principal
differences between direct embedment foundations and drilled shaft foundations. The guide
indicates that similar analytical models used in drilled shaft design can be used for direct
uplift, and lateral loads is similar to that of drilled shafts. This is important for the present work
as well.
However, the major difference between the two types of foundations that this document
summarizes is that drilled shafts transfer loads directly into in-situ soil while direct embedment
foundations transfer loads to the backfill which in turn transfer the loads to the in-situ soil due to
the presence of backfill between the pole and the in-situ soil. The guide also introduces a
19
design/analysis model that can be used for direct embedment foundations which is the model
developed by the research conducted and summarized on the EPRI EL-6309 Report introduced
The following are some of the important aspects highlighted in the report: 1) Backfill
backfill can be readily compacted and is generally preferable to a cohesive soil, 3) To obtain
proper compaction, the backfill should be placed in layers of 6 in. or less and compacted to the
specified density, 4) The uplift capacity of direct embedment foundations is related to the quality
of the backfill and the adhesive and friction forces that can be mobilized at the structure-backfill
interface or at the backfill-in-situ soil interface, 5) For compression loads, significant end-
bearing capacity can only be achieved if the direct embedded pole is closed with a base plate.
The Omaha Public Power District (OPPD) published a 17-page document with technical
specifications for galvanized steel transmission structures that includes design and construction
requirements. The specification addresses that all stress calculations shall be based on an elastic
analysis in accordance with ASCE/SEI 48-11. The following is to highlight some of the design
requirements (Section 3) for embedded poles listed in this specification: 1) Embedded poles shall
continue the taper at ground line to a point 6 feet below ground line. From this point to the
bottom of the section, the taper may continue or the diameter may be held constant. No reverse
tapers will be allowed. 2) The base section of all embedded poles shall have a maximum
projection 30 ft above the ground line unless otherwise noted on the drawings. 3) The base of all
embedded poles shall have a minimum projection of 10 ft above the ground line unless otherwise
noted on the drawings. For construction requirements, the specification states that direct
20
embedded poles shall have a minimum of 3/16 in. thick ground sleeve extending above and
below ground line as shown on the drawings. In addition, the document states that all direct
embedded galvanized steel poles shall be coated with a minimum 16 mil dry thickness of two
component hydrocarbon extended polyurethane coating that is resistant to ultraviolet light and
conform to ASTM G14-77. Figure 2.5 shows an example of the embedded base section from a
Figure 2.5: Example Drawing of an Embedded Base Section for Galvanized Steel Poles
(CAD drawing provided by the Omaha Public Power District)
The NDOT Standard Specifications for Highway Construction (2017) Section 407
payment for pole and tower foundations. Either a concrete foundation or a power installed
foundation are the options listed in the technical specifications. The size of the concrete
foundation should be sufficient to include ground rods, reinforcing steel, anchor bolts, conduit
21
entrance bends, and a spare conduit bend. It is recommended that the contractor shall obtain soil
data and design and construct the tower foundation if the foundation details are not shown in the
contract. NDOT specifications states that the concrete foundations for the tower installations
shall be constructed according to the following steps: a) All foundation excavations shall be free
or loose dirt, b) All concrete shall be Class 47B-3000 (47B-20), c) The anchor bolt pattern shall
be centered in the foundation, and 3) The contractor shall perform all excavations, backfilling,
and placing of reinforcing steel and concrete in accordance with Sections 702 (Excavation for
Table 2.3 was developed by the research team currently working with the Alaska
The table summarizes the current State Department of Transportation (State DOT) practices for
light pole foundation designs. Delaware and Illinois are the only states that require a special
requirement for these foundation designs to conduct further structural analysis or soil analysis
coordinated with geotechnical engineers. Connecticut, Maine, and Oregon use the AASHTO
LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
22
Table 2.3: Summary of State DOT Design Requirements for Light Pole Foundations
This discussion is relative to metals in direct contact with the soil. In the case of directly
embedded HMTs, the surrounding backfill is concrete or aggregate. For concrete, clearly a large
protective layer exists and this is similar as for assets such as drilled-shaft foundation, concrete
slabs on grade, abutments, and so forth. The considerations in this case are similar to protecting
23
reinforcement steel with a coating. For aggregate backfill, the site soil is not in direct contact;
however, the groundwater and the associated chemistry is likely best characterized by this soil.
It is likely that concrete will be the typical solution, and that the aggregate fill is the
exception. Moreover, concrete backfill could be explicitly specified in corrosive locations. The
discussion below helps to provide a means for identifying such locations. (this should be
Metals buried under soil behave completely different from metals in the atmosphere.
Because the underground environment changes constantly depending on the soil condition, the
electrochemical process (oxidation and oxygen reduction; anodic and cathodic reactions) can
differ for the underground environment even when the locations considered are geographically
close. The soil texture (silt, sand, clay contents), moisture content, oxygen concentration, redox
potential (degree of aeration in soil), pH level, resistivity, ion contents (specifically, the amount
of aggressive ion salts such as chloride and sulfate contents), and bacteria level of the soil are all
It is well known no single parameter listed above that affects the rate of corrosion of
buried metal but rather multiple of them interacting together through an iterative process that
affects the metallic structures buried underground. For this reason, measurements of a single
parameter (for example, only measuring the soil resistivity) should not be used to plan corrosion
mitigation plans and design for corrosion resistance of a buried metal structure. As shown in
Figure 2.6 (de Arriba-Rodriguez et al., 2018), any of the parameters listed above can affect the
rate of corrosion.
24
Figure 2.6: Rate of Corrosion of Metals buried under Soil (retrieved from de Arriba-
Rodriguez et al., 2018)
There are multiple qualitative and quantitative methods that can be used to make the
decision to select which corrosion protection method will be used or determine the design values
(coating thickness, metal thickness for corrosion protection, etc.) for steel structures being
embedded in soil. Again, with the understanding no one single parameter but multiple
parameters that affect the underground corrosion, NDOT can adapt or modify one of these
existing qualitative or quantitative methods that consider various factors in evaluating the
For example, for a qualitative evaluation, the American Water Works Association
(AWWA) uses a point system that takes account for soil resistivity, pH, Redox Potential (mV),
Sulphide, and Moisture levels. The Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association (DIPRA) developed
a design decision model based on the likelihood, considering various parameters that AWWA
25
listed, and consequence (pipe diameter, construction repair cycles, depth of the embedment, and
alternate water supply conditions) they selected for underground pipes. Table 2.4, Table 2.5,
Table 2.6 and are a score sheet, consequence score sheet, and the corrosion protection
underground pipes. Based on this qualitative design decision model, the engineer can select
NDOT can possibly use a similar method to qualitatively determine the level of corrosion
protection for the HMT foundation directly embedded using aggregate backfill. The parameters
used by AWWA and DIPRA for the likelihood (Table 2.4) of metals being corroded under soil is
similar for the HMT directly embedded. For example, the California Department of
Transportation (CALTRANS) classifies every site as corrosive or non-corrosive site for their
projects. They define a site to be corrosive if one or more of the following conditions exist for
the representative soil at the site: Chloride concentration is 500 ppm or greater, sulfate
concentration is 2,000 ppm or greater, or the pH is 5.5 or less. If the site is defined to be
26
Table 2.4: Underground Corrosion Likelihood Score Sheet (retrieved from DIPRA, 2018)
Maximum
Likelihood Factor Points Possible
Points
Soil Resistivity < 500 ohm-cm 30 30
≥ 500-1000 ohm-cm 25
> 1000-1500 ohm-cm 22
> 1500-2000 ohm-cm 19
> 2000-3000 ohm-cm 10
> 3000-5000 ohm-cm 5
> 5000 ohm-cm 0
Chlorides > 100 ppm = positive 8 8
50 – 100 ppm = trace 3
< 50 ppm = negative 0
Similar to Table 2.4 of DIPRA, CALTRANS would measure the soil resistivity and if the
soil has a minimum resistivity less than 1,000 ohm-cm, they classify that the soil has high
possibilities to transport soluble salts and is susceptible for corrosion activities to take place.
When the minimum resistivity is less than 1,000 ohm-cm, chemical testing is further required to
evaluate the chloride and sulfate level in the soil sample. The threshold values that CALTRANS
27
uses are comparable with the point system used by DIPRA (Table 2.4) and indicates the cases
with high points (more likely corrosion will take place). (CALTRANS, 2018)
However, the parameters listed in the consequence (Table 2.5) for pipe design should be
modified for HMTs. Possible consequence factors would be the embedment depth, pole
diameter below the ground-line, and access availability for potential repair work. If the
embedment depth is deep, or the access availability for potential repair work will be low, or the
pole diameter below the ground-line is large, the consequence scores will be high. The possible
corrosion mitigation methods in Table 2.5 should also be modified for other methods that can be
Table 2.5: Underground Pipe Corrosion Consequence Score Sheet (retrieved from DIPRA,
2018 and Arriba-Rodriguez et al., 2018)
Maximum
Consequence Factor Points
Possible Points
Pipe in Service 3” to 24 “ 0 22
30” to 36” 8
42” to 48” 12
54” to 64” 22
Location: Routine (Fair to good access, minimal traffic 0 20
and other utility consideration, etc.)
28
Table 2.6: DIPRA Design Decision Model (retrieved from DIPRA, 2018)
The most typical protection for a steel pole embedded with aggregate backfill in a
combination of: 1) protective coatings (epoxy, bituminous coating, etc.), 2) cathodic protection,
3) increasing cross-section area of steel, or 4) reinforced concrete jacket. Again, the concrete
backfill is the best solution in corrosive areas and its use parallel that of other NDOT assets in
such areas.
Quantitative methods exist for corrosion assessment for underground steel structures
whether to decide the structural dimensions that guarantee the service life of the structure being
buried in soil, field data that provides the information of soil condition (soil type, aeration level,
moisture level, pH level, soil resistivity, ion contents, and any bacteria contents), the amount of
steel loss in weight (due to corrosion) and the maximum penetration depth (pit depth in terms of
mils/years) can be used. Fortunately, the most complete quantitative study around the world was
conducted in US by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS; now National Institute of Standards
29
and Technology) and this is the most complete database that is still used these days although the
study may have limitations. NBS (now NIST) conducted a 45-year (1910-1955) study around
the entire US with thousands of steel samples buried and exposed in carefully selected
underground sites. The test sites and the 45-year corrosion study results are summarized by
Romanoff (1957). A total number of 128 sites were selected in US which represents 95 types of
soils. As shown in Figure 2.7 (Romanoff, 1957), Nebraska has four different types of soil
groups: 1) Prairie Soil, 2) Chernozen Soil, 3) Nebraska Sand Hills (no other locations in US have
Within the 128 sites, 10 sites can be selected to represent the Nebraska soil types. The
Knox silt loam and the Wabash silt loam from Omaha, Nebraska, Lindley silt loam from Des
Moines, Iowa, Marshall silt loam from Kansas City, Missouri, and the Muscatine silt loam from
Davenport, Iowa may represent the Prairie soil type which can be found in most of the eastern
part of Nebraska. The Fargo clay loam from Fargo, North Dakota may represent the Chernozen
soil type in the center Nebraska. Unfortunately, there was no test site in the NBS study that can
represent the Nebraska Sand Hills region. The unidentified silt loam from Denver, Colorado,
Billings silt loam from Grand Junction, Colorado can represent the Dark Brown Soils found in
the western Nebraska. The drainage, soil resistivity, pH, chemical composition, temperature,
annual precipitation, moisture level, air-pore space, apparent specific gravity, and volume
shrinkage of the test sites are reported for these sites. The sand, silt, clay components were also
measured for some of these sites. The loss in weight and the maximum penetration depth were
30
Figure 2.7: Soil Groups of US and Dots indicating the NBS Test Sites (retrieved from
Romanoff, 1957)
Table 2.7 shows the chemical and physical properties of the soils at the NBS test sites.
Table 2.8 shows the loss in weight and the maximum penetration depth measured during the test
period. If NDOT would like to make engineering decisions for the dimensions of the High Mast
Towers that will be buried under soil or coating thickness required for a desired service level
Table 2.7, Table 2.8, and Table 2.9 could be a reference in providing quantitative calculations
31
Table 2.7: Chemical and Physical Properties of the NBS Test Sites that represent Nebraska Soil Groups (retrieved from Romanoff, 1957)
Resist Mean An- Mois- Air- Vol-
Soil Inter- Composition of water extract, mg-eq per 100 g of soil Appar
-ivity Tem- nual ture pore ume
nal -ent
at pera- preci- equiv- space shrin
Test drain- speci-
Location 60℉ pH Total Na + ture pita- alent k-age
Site age fic
Type Acidit K as Ca Mg CO3 HCO3 CI SO4 tion gravit
of test
(ohm- y Na y
No. site
cm) (℉) (in.) (%) (%) (%)
Fargo Fargo,
8 P 350 7.6 A 1.42 1.72 2.55 0.00 0.71 0.01 4.43 39 24 37.0 8.7 1.56 21.0
clay loam North Dakota
Knox Omaha,
18 G 1,410 7.3 1.4 0.27 0.63 0.20 0.00 0.94 0.00 0.25 50.6 27.8 28.4 16.6 4.26 1.3
silt loam Nebraska
Lindley Des Moines,
19 G 1,970 4.6 10.9 0.38 0.32 0.41 0.00 0.46 0.03 0.46 49.5 32.0 28.4 3.9 4.76 11.8
silt loam Iowa
Marshall Kansas City,
21 F 2,370 6.2 9.5 - - - - - - - 54.4 37.1 31.2 10.8 1.66 6.5
silt loam Missouri
Muscatine Davenport,
30 P 1,300 7.0 2.6 0.32 0.65 0.40 0.00 0.71 0.09 0.24 49.9 32.4 29.4 7.2 1.81 7.5
silt loam Iowa
Wabash Omaha,
44 G 1,000 5.8 8.8 1.05 1.08 0.66 0.00 1.97 0.82 0.41 50.6 27.8 31.2 7.2 1.55 6.0
silt loam Nebraska
Unidentified Denver,
46 G 1,500 7.0 - - - - - - - - 50.0 14.4 7.6 23.2 - 0
silt loam Colorado
Billings Grand
101 F 261 4.5 A 5.21 19.24 1.43 0.00 0.66 1.56 22.48 52.0 8.8 30.0 - - -
silt loam Junction, CO
Billings Grand
102 F 103 7.3 A 22.63 16.56 3.85 0.00 0.56 4.67 36.82 52.0 8.8 20.4 - - -
silt loam Junction, CO
Billings Grand
103 F 81 7.3 A 22.01 13.32 2.00 0.00 0.18 11.09 25.70 52.0 8.8 30.6 - - -
silt loam Junction, CO
32
Table 2.8: Loss in weight and maximum penetration of wrought black ferrous metal (retrieved from Romanoff, 1957)
33
Table 2.9: Loss in weight and maximum penetration of 6-in. cast-iron pipe (retrieved from Romanoff, 1957)
34
2.6 Summary
Two backfills, concrete and aggregate, are considered for direct embedment. Concrete
encases the steel and help to protect against corrosion. This is a similar situation for other
reinforced concrete applications use with NDOT assets in corrosive soils. Aggregate backfill is
permeable and groundwater from the in-situ soil contacts the steel. This situation is of more
concern in corrosive environments. The typical backfill candidate is concrete and this is the best
choice in corrosive sites. Electric utilities use concrete encasement, galvanization, and a
protective mastic with success. A similar approach could be employed for the present work.
Table 2.10 provides a matrix of typical Nebraska soils and potential embedment options.
The culvert casing is not recommended due to compaction issues associated with the
corrugations at the soil-culvert. This was discussed previously in the constructability section.
Foundation Type
Permanent Permanent
Earth Earth
Casing Casing
Form Form
Form Form
Concrete Aggregate
Concrete Aggregate
Backfill Backfill
Backfill Backfill
Loess
x x
and Silt
Sand x x
Soil
Type
Silty
x x
Clay
Silt
35
3. HIGH MAST LOAD AND RESISTANCE
3.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an example of structural load calculations and the direct
embedment foundation resistance calculations based on a typical 120- and 140-ft HMTs
constructed in Nebraska. The structural loads were computed using the AASHTO LRFD
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
(2015) and a spreadsheet that was based on the fundamental principles of structural analysis
foundation resistance calculations were demonstrated through checking the vertical and
horizontal capacities. The horizontal load carrying capacity was calculated based on the
procedures introduced in the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for
Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2015). This method of analysis was developed
3.2.1 General
The general drawings and the specifications of HMTs used by NDOT (Bushnell Tower
Project Plans and Specs, 2015). The pole was divided into twenty stations where static shear and
moments are computed assuming a uniform tape in diameter and thickness. Based upon the load
effects, the resulting curvature is integrated to calculate rotation, and the rotation is integrated to
calculate translation. The resulting translation is also used to compute the second-order load
The following example provides the steps to calculate the base reaction (axial, shear,
moment at the base) and tip displacement at the top of the tower for a 140-ft HMT with 12
36
luminaires which is the maximum possible for NDOT standards. The wind load in this example
is calculated following the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway
Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2015). The Standard Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2015) (allowable stress method)
The analysis was performed on a typical NDOT HMT make of steel galvanized tube that
tapers at a rate of 0.14in/ft vertically. This rate is typical and is set in the manufacturing process.
The pole is modeled with typical bending assumptions as outline above. The pole height above
grade is L = 140 ft, the top diameter is Dtop = 7.76 in., the bottom diameter is Dbot = 26.5 in., and
the thickness at the top and bottom is ttop = 0.1875 in. and tbot = 0.4375 in. The thickness
typically varies from section to section (three or four are typical). But, for numerical analysis,
the thickness was assumed to be varied at a constant rate which is more conservative regarding
the load increase and simple to implement. The luminaire has an effective projected area (12
luminaires) EPA = 18.72 ft2 weighing W = 3,450 lbs. NDOT specifications state 250 lbs per
luminaire, twelve luminaires, additional 15% added for arms and other assemblies.
Wind load shall be based on the pressure of the wind acting horizontally on the HMT as
defined in Section 3.8 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for
37
where:
approach for resistance. AASHTO LRFD LTS 3.8-1b for a 700-year MRI (Mean
Recurrence Interval) Basic Wind Speed for Nebraska is 115 mph. However, the
basic wind speed is 114 mph for a 700-year MRI per the latest ASCE 7-16 which
is adopted within AASHTO LRFD LTS. Therefore, we used 114 mph as the basic
approach for resistance. Both specifications were used to determine the load effect
at the top of the foundation (bottom of the pole). A brief commentary is provided:
AASHTO LRFD LTS 3.8-2b for a 1,700-year MRI (Mean Recurrence Interval)
Basic Wind Speed for Nebraska is 120 mph. The load and resistance factors are
calibrated to provide a reliability index of approximately 3.0 for 300-year MRI, 3.0
to 3.5 for 700-year MRI, and 3.5-4.0 for 1,700-year for main members. NCHRP
Report 796 provides the details of this calibration (Puckett, et al. 2014)
38
Based on the fact that the basic wind speed is squared in calculating the design wind
pressure, the basic wind speed used in this example will result in approximately
60% higher wind pressure than typical design calculations made following the
strength limit is used rather than only a fraction of the strength per allowable stress
design (standard specifications) The results should be essentially the same as the
standard specification. A secondary analysis was also performed with the Standard
Specification loads.
where:
z is the height above the ground at which the pressure is calculated, and
zg is a constant that varies with the exposure condition and based on ASCE/SEI
is a constant that varies with the exposure condition and based on ASCE/SEI
39
Directionality Factor
Article 3.8.5. The values in the table are consistent with those from ASCE 7-16 as based
upon work by Ellingwood (1981) and Ellingwood et al. (1982). Because the typical
is less than 1 Hz or if the ratio of the height to least horizontal dimension is greater
structures being considered in AASHTO LRFD LTS are all under this category and
Drag Coefficient
The wind drag coefficient shall be determined from Table 3.8.7-1. According to
Table 3.8.7-1, poles that have hexdecagonal (16-sides) shape with design wind
The pole is divided into twenty sections assuming a uniform taper rate in diameter. The
calculated pole taper rate is (Dbot - Dtop)/L = 0.134 in./ft which is slightly lower than the typical
Valmont design with a 0.14 in./ft taper rate. Based on the input parameters and the pressure
calculated following the wind load parameters of the AASHTO LRFD LTS (2015), lateral load,
40
P, is calculated at twenty stations. This lateral load accumulated towards the base to calculate
the shear force, V. Next, shear force at each location multiplied by the length of each station
(total pole length divided by the number of stations) provides the moment, M, at each station.
Dividing the moment by stiffness, EI, will provide curvature, ∅ at each station. This is possible
based on the Bernoulli-Euler beam theory ‘plane section remains plane’, which gives the
connection between curvature and strain produced at each station. With the material properties
of steel, and the moment calculated at each station, strain can be calculated at each station and
dividing the maximum strain at each station by the ‘distance from the neutral axis to the location
strain is being calculated’ will provide curvature. In summary, using the statics (equilibrium
the theory that plane section remains plane, the lateral load at each station was translated into
curvature. Finally, from geometry (compatibility), multiplying curvature with the length of each
station will provide rotation, 𝜃, at each station. By adding up all the rotations, slope from the
groundline can be calculated. In addition, rotation at each station multiplied by the distance
between each station to the groundline will provide translation (displacement), ∆ ,at each station.
By summing all translations, the tip translation at the top of the tower can be calculated.
As a final step, the axial load including the self-weight of the pole at each station and the
weight of the luminaire was multiplied with the translation at each station to take account the
second-order effects that increases the moment at each station. The load factor for dead load was
1.25 and for wind load 1.0. Using statics, material properties, and geometry, the three
fundamental principles for flexural analysis, the curvature, rotation, and translation was all re-
calculated considering the P-∆ effects. The total moment at the base increased by 12%
considering the second-order analysis. As a check, the moment magnifier calculated using the
41
simplified approach in AASHTO LRFD LTS Article 4.8.1 is 1.273 which is a higher value and
more conservative at the tower base. A typical moment diagram is illustrated in Figure 3.1
including the initial moment, second-order moment considering the P-∆ effects, and the
AASHTO LTS magnified moments using the magnifier calculated by the simplified approach.
The simplified approach provides higher moment below 60 ft but less moment above 60 ft than
42
3.2.5 Base reactions from structural analysis
The following
Table 3.1 summarizes the base reactions including the axial load, shear force, moment at
the base, and tip translation at the top of the 140-ft HMT. A typical moment diagram is
Table 3.1: Calculated Base Reactions for a typical Nebraska 140-ft HMT
3.3.1 General
Foundation resistance calculations were conducted to check the capacity of the pile
foundation for luminaire poles based on the combination of available information (e.g., structural
information) and unavailable (e.g., geotechnical information). For the unavailable information,
conservative engineering judgement was applied. In addition, the ultimate vertical and lateral
43
resistance of the pile foundation were computed and compared with the factored axial force,
Loading condition for this foundation is shown in Table 3.2. Primarily, the axial force
and moment from the structural analysis was used for checking the vertical capacity of the
foundation while shear and moment was used to check the horizontal capacity of the foundation
in this example.
Table 3.2: Calculated Base Reactions for a typical Nebraska 120-ft and 140-ft HMT
The vertical load carrying capacity of the HMT foundation was calculated based on the
following assumptions.
Foundation dimensions
Foundation diameter
44
D = 4 ft (assuming that the pole is embedded inside a concrete backfill, this
diameter will allow 1 ft of working space additional to the typical diameter of steel
Foundation depth
Qu,net = Ap cu Nc*
where,
𝜋𝐷2
Ap is the cross-sectional area of the shaft. Ap = = 12.57 (ft2)
4
cu is the undrained cohesion (=200 psf, assumed highly saturated cohesive soil for
Nc* is the bearing capacity factor (=6.5 when cu /Pa = 0.25, this magnitude of Nc* is
The factored axial load from the structural analysis was 14.9 (kips)
This calculation is based on the assumption of using a closed end pipe pile. In addition,
the side friction of the embedded pole and the buoyance force are reviewed as follows:
Qf,net = As 𝛼 cu
45
where,
𝛼 is the reduction factor = 0.9 (could be 1.0 but used 0.9 to be conservative)
cu is the undrained cohesion (=200 psf, assumed highly saturated cohesive soil for
Therefore, Qf,net =(175.9) (0.9) (200/1000) = 31.6 (kips). The total vertical resistance becomes
47.9 kips with the sum of bearing capacity and friction capacity.
Buoyancy Check:
B = Ap 𝛾𝑤 L
where,
𝜋𝐷2
Ap is the cross-sectional area of the shaft. Ap = = 12.57 (ft2)
4
Therefore, B = (12.57) (62.4/1000) (14) = 11.0 (kips). Therefore, the buoyancy force is lower than
the summation of the net load bearing capacity (16.3 kips) and the side friction force (31.6 kips).
Since, there is sufficient side friction force that exceeds the factored axial load capacity and
buoyancy, respectively, a 2 in. hole at the base of the pole can be drilled on the bearing plate to
The horizontal load carrying capacity was checked following the procedures introduced
on the AASHTO LRFD LTS Article 13.6.1 Commentary. The procedure outline a procedure to
46
compute the required shaft depth that provides sufficient lateral resistance for the given factored
The AASHTO LRFD LTS (2015) Article 13.6.1 provides the approximate procedures for
procedures developed by Broms (1964a and 1964b). For cohesive soil, the required embedment
(4𝐻+6𝐷)
𝐿 = 1.5𝐷 + 𝑞 [1 + √2 + ]
𝑞
in which,
𝑀𝐹
𝐻= , and
𝑉𝐹
𝑉𝐹
𝑞= where,
9𝑐𝐷
Based on the factored moment and factored shear provided from the structural analysis and
47
Therefore, L = 1.5(4) + (0.67) x [1 + {2 + (4 x 79.6 + 6 x 4)/0.67}1/2] = 21.85 -> Use 22 ft
3.4 Summary
This foundation resistance calculation example demonstrates that the 4-ft diameter
foundation with an embedment of 14 ft (10% of the total height of the HMT) which was the
initial design values chosen may not satisfy the lateral resistance requirement for undrained
cohesive soil (200 psf) based on Brom’s graphical solution. Both the graphical solution and the
AASHTO LRFD LTS procedures demonstrated that the embedment length should be increase
approximately up to 17% of the total height (24 ft embedment length for the 140-ft pole).
However, this example is based on the conservative soil condition (reduced capacity) where
cohesive soils are used and with different soil conditions, the required embedment length can
change. Further numerical analysis with commercial software was conducted to perform
parametric study with varying soil conditions. The diameter can also be increased to satisfy the
strength required.
48
4. FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the parametric study that was conducted using LPILE
and COMSOL with varying conditions. Based on the numerical analysis, various foundation
systems with different soil conditions were suggested for direct embedment options that NDOT
may choose for future projects. For the parametric studies, service level base moment and shear
A round concrete shaft with permanent casing and core/insert as shown in Figure 4.1 was
used to model the steel HMT directly embedded in soil with concrete backfill. The embedment
length of 24 ft was selected from the load and resistance calculations in the previous chapter.
The steel section, casing, and core/insert material properties can be selected to represent the pole
directly embedded in soil with concrete backfill. The casing outside diameter and casing wall
thickness were selected based on the outside diameter of the concrete backfill and thickness of
the concrete backfill (subtracting outside diameter with the average steel pole diameter),
respectively. The core diameter and core wall thickness values were selected based on the
average diameter of the steel pole, and average thickness of the steel pole between the diameter
and thickness at the ground-line and bottom of the pole at the 24 ft embedment base. The
outside diameter of the concrete backfill was 48 in., the thickness of the concrete backfill was 23
in., the average diameter of the steel pole used in this analysis was 24.9 in., and the average
thickness of the steel pole used was 0.4161 in. based on the properties received from the typical
cross sections.
49
The material properties of the steel section, casing, and core/insert is shown in Table 4.1.
The model was also prepared to not have concrete filled in the core for numerical analysis for the
second run. The first run of simulation was to test out the conditions of the actual site conditions
while the second run of simulation was conducted to check whether the stiffness of pole or
Figure 4.1: Screen Capture of Figure 3.19 from LPILE Manual (Tab Sheet for Shaft
Dimensions of Drilled Shaft with Casing and Core to represent the Direct Embedment
Foundation)
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Table 4.1: Input Material Properties for LPILE Analysis
Second Run
4.2.2 Behavior of lateral piles with round concrete shaft and steel casing
The service level unfactored load conditions applied in this analysis was 245 ft-kips
moment and 3.1 kips shear force at the pile head. For the 140-ft tall HMT with a 28 ft
embedment depth and 4 ft diameter clayey soil with 200 psf cohesive, the deflection computed at
the ground-line of the embedded foundation was 0.6 in. The deformed shape is linear as shown
in Figure 4.2 indicating that the pile behaved close to a rigid body. This also indicates that the
behavior of lateral pile is governed by the surrounding soil (soft clay with 200 psf cohesive).
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Figure 4.2: Deflection of the embedded steel pole based on LPILE analysis
The shear force and bending moment diagram from the LPILE analysis is shown in
Figure 4.3. The service level shear force and the bending moment applied at the pole head at the
ground-line can be observed in both plots. The change in shear force direction occurs at 16 ft
below the ground-line. The maximum bending moment is observed at 4 ft depth from the pile
head. There is approximately 3 ft difference from the maximum bending moment location
calculated using the AASHTO LRFD LTS procedures in the previous chapter. But the
calculations in the previous chapter were based on factored loads and the loads in the LPILE
analysis was based on service loads which will cause the difference. The bending moment
diagram on Figure 4.3 demonstrates the applied moment at the pile head and a gradual decrease
due to soil resistance, and zero bending moment at the pile base as expected for a “short pile”.
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Figure 4.3: Shear Force and Bending Moment Profile for the embedded pole
The deflection of the pile head for different embedment length is plotted in Figure 4.4.
As shown in Figure 4.4, the top head deflection at the ground-line converges to less than 1 inch
when the pile length reaches 24 ft embedment length. This indicates that the selected 28 ft
Figure 4.4: Deflection of the embedded steel pole based on LPILE analysis
As discussed in Table 4.1, in order to check the soil-pile system behavior for different
modulus, embedded depth, and pile diameter, a second set of numerical analyses was conducted
53
with material properties shown in Table 4.1. The input value varied from the modulus of 3,600
ksi to the 36,000 ksi. The left figure on Figure 4.5 is showing the deflection profile for the given
service load conditions for the lower modulus while the right figure on Figure 4.5 shows the
deflection profile for the higher modulus. As shown in Figure 4.5, there are negligible effect of
modulus on the behavior of these lateral piles for the 200 psf cohesive soil. Therefore, a
parametric study with a solid column for various diameters and embedment depth were
conducted.
Figure 4.5: Shear Force and Bending Moment Profile for the embedded pole
For the parametric studies, the service loads (moment and shear) for the two typical
HMTs (140 ft and 120 ft) were considered. The horizontal displacement at the ground-line for
eight different embedment depth 28 ft, 26 ft, 24 ft, 22 ft, 20 ft, 18 ft, 16 ft, and 14 ft were
analyzed. Concrete backfill was used with five different types of natural soil surrounding the
backfill was studied: 200 psf cohesive clay, 400 psf cohesive clay, 600 psf cohesive clay, 30-
degree (friction angle) sand, and 35-degree sand. Two different backfill diameter was
54
considered: 4 ft and 3 ft. This backfill diameter was chosen because the typical diameter of the
140-ft HMT constructed in Nebraska is approximately 2 ft at the base and 6 in. to 1 ft working
space for concrete placement surrounding the 2 ft pole will result in 3 ft or 4 ft backfill. Table
4.2 summarizes the various foundation systems analyzed for the 140-ft HMT. The parametric
study started with a 28-ft embedment length which was the required length calculated based on
the AASHTO LRFD LTS procedures introduced in Chapter 3. For the worst condition with 200
psf cohesive clay surrounding the backfill, the ground-line deflection at the surface (at the head
of the pile) was 0.6 in. for 245 ft-kips moment and 3.1 kips shear (both surface level loads)
applied at the pile head. As the embedment length decreased to 24 ft, the ground-line deflection
was larger than twice the displacement shown for the 28-ft case (1.5 in. displacement for the 24
ft, and 0.6 in. for the 28 ft case). The analysis was conducted again for the case with 400 psf
cohesive clay. There the embedment length can be decreased to 22 ft from 28 ft with a relatively
better cohesion clay surrounding the backfill. Comparable ground-line deflection (0.55 in.) was
observed for the 22-ft embedment length pile surrounded by the 400 psf cohesive soil with the
case with 28-ft embedment when 200 psf clay is surrounding the backfill. The parametric study
was further extended to a 600 psf cohesive clay and the analysis demonstrates that the direct
deflection (0.7 in.) with the worst-case scenario (0.6 in. with 200 psf cohesive clay) as the
The parametric study was conducted for the 30-degree friction angle sand that showed
much less ground-line deflection for the 28-ft embedment length with the identical loading
conditions (approximately 1.33% of the deflection calculated for the 200 psf cohesive clay).
This is expected because sand typically have higher modulus than clay. With the 30-degree
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sand, the embedment length can be decreased to 16 ft while still having less than half of the
ground-line deflection (0.24 in.) for the 28 ft embedment length with 200 psf cohesive clay (0.6
in.). The friction angle was increased up to 35-degree sand (stiffer sand) which demonstrated
that the deflection decreases to less than half of what was calculated for the identical embedment
of 16 ft with a 4-ft diameter backfill to 0.09 in. With such a small displacement, a smaller
diameter backfill was included to check the feasibility of having a smaller pile diameter. The
backfill was decreased from 4 ft to 3 ft. With the 16 ft embedment (this is 10% of the tower
height + 2 ft), the backfill diameter of 3 ft with a 35-degree sand had 0.14 in. ground-line
displacement. With the 3 ft backfill diameter, the study further investigated the ground-line
displacement with 30-degree sand and 200 psf cohesive clay. With the 30-degree sand, the 3-ft
backfill diameter pile with 16-ft embedment length resulted in 0.22 in. ground-line displacement
(approximately 1/3 of the worst-case scenario with 200 psf-clay, 4 ft backfill, and 28 ft
embedment length). One additional analysis was conducted for the 3-ft backfill with the 200 psf
clay with 24-ft embedment length, and the computed ground-line displacement was 2.2 in.
(approximately 50% more than the identical case with 4-ft diameter backfill).
The parametric study for a 120-ft tower was additionally conducted with the service level
moment of 177 ft-kips and 2.6 kips shear. The ground-line horizontal displacements calculated
from the analysis is shown in Table 4.3. With the loads decreased with a shorter tower height,
only the 3-ft backfill option was considered. With the worst case of 200 psf cohesive soil, 28-ft
embedment length was the only case that provided ground-line displacement less than 0.6 in.
However, as the cohesion was increased to 400 psf, the embedment was decreased to 20 ft
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Table 4.2: Parametric Study for Various Foundation Systems (140-ft Tower)
Case
(Pole Height – Embedment Ground-Line Displacement
Length – Pile Diameter - (in.)
Shear Strength – Soil Type)
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Table 4.3: Parametric Study for Various Foundation Systems (120-ft Tower)
Case
(Pole Height – Embedment Ground-Line Displacement
Length – Pile Diameter - (in.)
Shear Strength – Soil Type)
With the 600 psf cohesive soil, it was found that 10% of the tower height + 2 ft with a 3
ft diameter backfill will still provide ground-line displacement less than 0.5 in. With 30-degree
or 35-degree sand the 120-ft HMT with 3-ft diameter backfill with an embedment length of 10%
of the tower height will only produce approximately half of the displacement (0.22 in. or less)
observed in the worst-case scenario with 200 psf cohesive clay as the surrounding soil.
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4.3 COMSOL Analysis
encountering weak clay soil in eastern Nebraska, a finite element model was developed as an
In this analysis, the steel pole was modeled as tube that has the height above grade equal
to the eccentricity associated with the service load effects, Mbase = 245 ft-kips and Vbase = 3.1
kips. The equivalent load effects are Ptip = 3.1 kips applied at Lbeam = 245/3.1 = 79 ft.
The pole is surrounded by a “backfill” that is either concrete or large aggregate, see the
green domain in Figure 4.6, which is surrounded by soil that is assumed to be either a soft
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The base geometry properties are provided in Table 4.4. Figure 4.7 provides a close up
of the tube, backfill, and soil interfaces. Figure 4.8 provide the detail of the bottom of the
domains. Note that the pole and the backfill do not extend to the bottom of the soil domain
thereby permitting movement. The soil domain base boundary condition is considered fixed;
however, the depth below the pole/fill is sufficiently large to obviate boundary effects associated
with stiffening the pole’s base boundary. This is also illustrated in elevation in Figure 4.9. The
pole was modeled with solid elements, this was a matter of convenience as its role is to: provide
proper load effect to the fill and provide proper stiffness within the fill. Note that the fill,
whether modeled as aggregate or concrete is significantly stiffer than the surrounding soil. This
is illustrated below in the analysis results that show near rigid body behavior.
Geometric
Value Comment
Dimension
r1 12[in] inside tube radius
thickness 0.5 [in] tube thickness
r2 r1+thickness outside tube radius
r3 24[in] fill radius (concrete or aggregate)
soil radius, large to avoid
r4 5*r3
boundary effects
distance of bottom to model
PoleBottom 2[ft] boundary, large to avoid boundary
effects
h2 24[ft] Foundation depth (model depth)
h2-
h1 Pole depth
PoleBottom
r5 r4+1[ft] Outer radius for infinite model
h3 Lbeam Pole ht above fill
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Figure 4.7: Close Up of Tube, Fill, and Soil Domains
61
Material Properties
The material properties are provided in Table 4.5. The clay properties are listed first and
the EsoilSoftClay parameter was used in the analysis. Sand, concrete, and steel properties are
listed, respectively.
First, the results from the finite element model for a soft clay is presented. This is likely
the most critical application for the embedment design. The sandy soil is presented thereafter.
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Figure 4.10 illustrates the tip-loaded pole and the von Mises stresses in the pole. These
stresses are of little consequence in this analysis as the pole is designed and checked using the
statics checks were performed to ensure that the applied load at the tip is appropriately balanced
by the reactions of the soil domain; this included horizontal forces and overturning moment.
Note the load factor illustrated in the following plots is Lfactor = 1.8 times the stresses due to the
The displacement field is shown in Figure 4.11. Note the top of the pole moves in the
direction of the load and the bottom of the pole moves in the opposite direction. Both
translations are distributed vertically along the pole and decrease to a center of rotation. See
Figure 4.12. Note that the translation line is linear, therefore the pole and fill act as a nearly rigid
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body as compared to the deformation of the soil. This is as expected and consistent with LPILE
and Brom’s analyses. The typical stress field for normal stresses is shown in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.14 provides a typical load vs. translation plot. Note that some nonlinearity exists
indicating that the soil is experiencing plastic behavior. Figure 4.15 illustrates a Boolean plot
where red indicates locations plastic strains exist which are primarily near the top of the fill and
near the bottom of the file. These areas create a force couple that resist the overturning moment.
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Figure 4.12: Translation along the fill edge (Clay)
65
Figure 4.14: Load-translation plot (Clay)
Figure 4.15: Boolean plot where plastic strains exist (red = yes, blue = no)
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Figure 4.16: Effective Plastic Strain
The simulation was rerun at Lfactor = 1 several times, while changing the soil modulus
of elasticity, Esoil over a range to values. The translation profile is plotted for each analysis. As
expected higher Esoil the smaller the displacements. Note that as the soil become stiffer relative
to the tube and fill, a slight nonlinear translation, i.e., flexing of the pole/fill is illustrated. In all
cases, the center of rotation is approximately 150 in = 12.5 ft from the top of grade, or about
The simulation was rerun by changing the distance from the bottom of the domain to the
bottom of the fill, i.e., this decreases that shaft depth. The results are shown in Figure 4.17 and
Figure 4.18. As expected the load effects in the soil increase with a shorter shaft; however,
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results are promising that both shaft depth and diameter could be optimized in the future based
Figure 4.18: Parametric Variation Shaft Depth = 28-ft distance from bottom (Lfactor = 1,
Clay)
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Figure 4.19: Pole Bottom vs Effective Plastic Strain (Shaft Depth = 24 ft – Pole Bottom,
Clay)
The model was changed to a sandy soil with other properties remaining the same. Figure
4.20, Figure 4.21, Figure 4.22 illustrate the results. There were small and localize plastic strains.
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Figure 4.21: Translation in sandy soil
70
An independent finite element model of the direct-embedment foundation was developed
and documented. Clay and sandy soil were modeled. The results indicate reasonable
performance with load effect less than the results from the LPILE model. This COMSOL
simulation may be used in the future for more detailed soil model and optimized design, perhaps
to decrease the shaft diameter and/or embedment depths. Field testing should be performed to
validate this level of refined modeling. The LPILE results are larger and are used below.
The recommended direct embedment length for NDOT was selected based on the criteria
of having horizontal ground-line displacement less than 0.6 in. for clayey soils and 0.3 in. for
sandy soils. The final selection matrix for various direct embedment foundations are provided in
Table 4.6.
Direct Expected
Diameter of
Pole Height (ft) Embedment Soil Type Ground-line Service Loads
Backfill (ft)
Length (ft) Displacement (in.)
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5. SITE CONSIDERATIONS AND CONSTRUCABILITY
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides information related to possible issues NDOT may encounter during
the construction of direct embedment foundations for High Mast Towers. Based on the
construction issues listed in this chapter, a draft construction specification is listed in Appendix
addition to the constructability, cost comparison of selected foundation systems, local soil
conditions in Nebraska, and site considerations and steps for corrosion protection strategies that
5.2.1 Overview
As outlined previously, drilled shafts are common foundations for high-mast poles and
other ancillary structures such as signs, traffic signals, and so forth. Local contractors likely
have this experience and are familiar with the geotechnical challenges. Hole stability is
paramount for both standard foundations and direct embedment. Stability is a concern for both
safety and the proper consolidation of backfill; stability can be addressed in several different
ways depending upon the types of soils, layering, and the moisture condition.
Geotechnical report attempts to define the local conditions of the soils to inform both the
designer about the size and foundation type; but most importantly, to advise constructor about
the site conditions regarding the construction method. However, geotechnical information may
be limited for a particular site, and in fact, reports might be based upon previous bores located
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The excavation must be closely observed and the contractor must be ready to react if the
soil is not representative of the report. The typical methods are outlined next. This discussion is
general and specific requirements are outlined in the draft specification provided in Appendix A.
The soil is stable and supports the integrity of the shaft diameter. This is the most
desirable situation. Unfortunately, it is so desirable that many contractors are overly optimistic
and push this type of construction in poor soil conditions. Difficulties arise when the soil starts
to slough and create voids in the walls. These voids are very difficult to fill and compact
properly, more so if the backfill material is aggregate. Another concern is that sloughing occurs
as the pole is being set and the additional soil in the bottom of the shaft affects the embedment
depth. In addition, the pole may bear at the bottom of the shaft against the sloughed soil rather
than the competent backfill material creating possible structural integrity concern.
Slurries fill the excavation with dense fluid-like material that can help to maintain the
shaft integrity. This method can be used for poor soils with the exception of gravel. Polymer
slurries are used frequently in the electrical utility industry, but placement can be tricky:
sloughing is occurring.
Backfill placement is critical and typically concrete is used. The concrete displaces the
slurry as the concrete is placed from the bottom of the shaft upward. A tremie or concrete pump
73
is required. Aggregates are not recommended because of separation of fines and difficulty with
compaction.
5.2.4 Culvert
Using pipe culvert is a common method for hole stability because the material is
relatively cheap and readily available. However, corrugated ribs in the culvert provide areas
where the interface between the culvert and soil cannot be properly compacted creating voids.
These voids should be filled with grout to insure the integrity of the bearing surface, which is
important, especially for high-mast applications where the overturning moments are high
Casings are commonplace and offer one of the best methods to insure shaft stability.
Casings use, however, is the most expensive method of all outlined here. With this method the
contractor advances the casing down the hole as drilling progresses. There is little chance of
sloughing as the drill picks up any materials between the hole bottom and the bottom of the
casings. Once the casing has reached required shaft depth, the pole can be set.
Setting the pole for direct embedment is a critical operation. The lateral support of the
pole must be of sufficient control and stiffness to maintain the pole’s position during backfill that
will include concrete pumping and potential wind challenges. The design will provide a section
of pole above grade and this section must be checked for adequacy and consistent with the
planned equipment. Adjustment after backfill placement is difficult, and certainly impossible,
after concrete hardening. The specifications call for a maximum deviation of plumbness. Unlike
the anchor-bolt methods, there are no leveling nuts to adjust for plumbness. Finally, poles has
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protective coating of galvanizing and/or mastic. Proper handling is necessary to not scrape or
otherwise damage these coatings. Damage must be repaired by hand by application of coatings
prior to backfill. Small uncoated areas can lead to corrosion “hot spots” that can affect the
5.2.7 Backfill
The backfill process is critical. The design must allow for enough space between the pole
and the soil for the backfill operation to occur. This process must be monitored to make sure that
earth formed the contractor needs to take the necessary precautions to not cause sloughing into
the placed backfill material. The pole also needs monitored so that there is minimal
displacement during the backfill placement and the plumbness tolerances are maintained. On
site owner inspection should occur during the backfill operation, once fill is placed there is no
The highly-populated area of Nebraska – where Lincoln and Omaha is located (the area
within the red boundary in Figure 5.1), the shales are bed rocks covered by glacial tills and
intermittent Loess layers/pockets as summarized in Pabian (1970). These layers are the local soil
conditions for major structures such as cut/fill slopes, structural foundations, subgrade for
The weathered shales contain approximately 50% fine contents. Swelling pressure of
these weathered shales is in the range of 10 kPa to 24 kPa according to Song et al. (2019). The
24 kPa swelling pressure is high enough to nullify the effect of overburden thickness up to 40 ft.
This is high enough to open cracks in these soils. In addition, the temperature condition in this
75
area is frequently below negative 4 degrees Fahrenheit (-20 ℃) during winter days, but it is
frequently above 104 degrees Fahrenheit (40 ℃) during the summer days providing a
temperature fluctuation of 108 degrees Fahrenheit. Freeze-thaw cycles combined with wet-dry
Figure 5.1: Geologic Bed Rock Map of Nebraska (retrieved from Pabian, 1970)
Glacial tills typically contain 10% to 25% fines with occasional inclusion of core stones,
and their strength characteristic is significantly affected by the water content. The glacial tills at
76
the surface during the rainy season show immeasurably low vane shear strength while it is in the
Back calculated strength of failed slopes in Nebraska by Song et al. (2019) showed that
the field strength of these soils at failure could be in the range of 70% to 10% of the initial
strength. Extensive laboratory test results by Stark and Eid (1994), Stark et al. (2005), and
Wright et al. (2007) also demonstrated that substantial strength degradation for highly plastic
soils are observed through ring shear tests and drained triaxial compression tests. Findings of
these previous studies indicate that weathering induced strength degradation of surface soils in
this area could be an underlying source of troubles for many different geotechnical structures.
Therefore, in the eastern part of Nebraska, a critical shear strength (200 psf for clayey
soils, internal friction angle of 30 degrees for sandy soils) is recommended to be used in
designing direct embedment foundations for HMT. In other areas, field testing such as field
vane or CPT tests are recommended to obtain the correct soils parameters, and corresponding
foundation embedment depth similar to what is listed in Table 4.6. For the case with no
available direct field test results of clay cohesion or internal friction angle for sand, NDOT
engineers are recommended to resort to SPT vs. cohesion, and/or SPT vs. internal friction angle
When there is absolutely no information regarding the soil conditions, particularly areas
outside Eastern Nebraska, it is recommended to use a cohesion of 200 psf for clayey soils,
internal friction angle of 20 degrees for sandy soils and use the Broms’ method to compute the
required embedded depth conservatively. When LPILE is used, special care must be taken
because the stiffness calculation module in LPILE may not properly accommodate this internal
77
friction angle lower than 29 degrees, though it may conduct the calculation and present an output
file.
Although the NIST field data introduced in Chapter 2 is an extensive field data that can
be used for quantitative design, it may be less practical to conduct corrosion design based on this
data. It may make more sense to conduct the preliminary design with a qualitative method
similar to the DIPRA design decision tables. The likelihood, consequences, and the possible
protection method will determine the initial design for corrosion resistance. The field data
produced by NIST can be used as a reference to what possible pit depths could be estimated and
the service life of the structure that will be buried under soil. The followings are suggested
procedures for corrosion protection strategies in Nebraska based on the literature review:
1. Check with the NDOT M&R Division whether the site is in a corrosive area. The
definition of corrosion area could be similar to what CALTRANS is using for their
judgement. For example, the site is in a corrosive area if chloride concentration is 500
ppm or greater, sulfate concentration is 2,000 ppm or greater, or the pH is 5.5 or less.
2. If the site is in the corrosive area, and the soil resistivity is equal or less than 1,000 ohm-
cm (both AWAA and CALTRANS classify this to be a highly corrosive area), the degree
the solution) and ion contents or organic contents should be additionally measured by the
corrosion consultant or expert hired by the NDOT M&R division to collect additional
information that will affect the corrosion rate of the embedded HMT.
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3. Depending on the HMT embedment length, pole diameter, and access availability for
repair work (if necessary), and the likelihood of underground corrosion (based on the
parameters measured in step 2), the NDOT M&R division may make decisions which
with epoxy or bituminous material, cathodic protection, increasing the pole thickness
below the ground-line, or use reinforced concrete jackets around the steel pole.
4. If both the likelihood and the consequence scores are calculated to be high, a combination
5. If necessary, the NIST tables provided (old reference but the most extensive field data up
to date) can be used to compute the potential maximum pit depth and weight loss of the
embedded pole. This will provide the expected service life of the embedded HMT
structure. Based on the expected life calculations, the design can change as needed.
This section looks into the cost comparisons made for the conventional High Mast Tower
with the bolted base plate versus the case with direct embedment. The goal of the project is to
eliminate the fatigue-prone pole to base detailing by directly embedding the High Mast Tower
and improving the performance not necessarily to save the cost. However, it is anticipated that
there will be some cost difference due to the change. For example, since the baseplate to tube
connection is eliminated, and there is no need for anchor bolts, the fabrication cost will most
likely decrease with the change in detailing. The handhold does not change for both cases and
the slip connection for the remaining sections are based on standard practice for both cases
which will not likely to change the cost. Table 5.1 summarizes the estimated cost difference
including the material and fabrication cost of the pole, concrete and rebar required in both
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construction methods, and anchor bolts needed in the conventional construction. It is anticipated
Table 5.1: Cost Comparisons between Conventional vs. Direct Embedment (USD)
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6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Summary
High-Mast Tower (HMT) foundations have been traditionally designed and constructed
using cast-in-place foundation with anchor bolts that are used to secure the tower to the
foundation. This type of design requires a base plate that is welded to the tower shaft. The
Nebraska Department of Transportation (NDOT) has recently experienced issues with stresses
that this type of design presents at the anchor bolt/foundation or base plate/tower shaft interface.
This research project objective was to develop an alternative design for HMT foundations with
direct embedment of the HMT which can eliminate fatigue-prone details associated with the
First, the literature that includes research from academia and industry, current and
proposed state of practice from industry, examples of design specifications and guidelines, and
corrosion for buried structures were reviewed. Secondly, structural loads for the typical 120- and
140-ft HMTs constructed in Nebraska and the soil resistance for them were calculated. The
structural loads were computed using the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports
for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2015), with a spreadsheet based on the
calculations were made to check the vertical and horizontal soil capacity for the typical HMTs
used in Nebraska. Further parametric study was conducted using two numerical software:
LPILE and COMSOL for varying soil conditions and foundation systems with different
embedment length and backfill diameter for the service level base moment and shear. Required
embedment length and backfill diameter is provided as a matrix using the LPILE analysis results
which provided higher values than the finite element model created with COMSOL. Finally,
81
based on the site considerations and construability, a draft design specification and soil
parameters that can be used for Nebraska soil conditions are provided with details listed in the
6.2 Conclusion
Based on the literature review, concrete and aggregate are recommended as backfill for
direct embedment of HMT. The typical backfill candidate is concrete since this is the best
choice in corrosive sites. Earth form or permanent casing form with concrete or aggregate
backfill is recommended for Nebraska soil. Culvert casings are not recommended due to
From the load and resistance calculations, the shear force at the base (ground-line) for the
120-ft and 140-ft HMT were 4.0 kips, and 4.8 kips, respectively. The moment at the base for the
120-ft and 140-ft HMT were 273 ft-kips, and 382 ft-kips, respectively. The axial loads at the
base were 13.4 kips for the 120-ft HMT and 14.9 kips for the 140-ft HMT. Without considering
the side friction of the embedded pole, the net load carrying capacity of the HMT is sufficient to
resist the axial loads subjected at the ground-line. The required embedment length for the worst-
case soil conditions (200 psf cohesive clay) based on the AASHTO LRFD LTS procedures was
140-ft HMT embedded in 200 psf cohesive clay. This embedment length can be decreased down
to 18 ft (10% pole height plus 4 ft) as the cohesion increases up to 600 psf. If the natural soil
surrounding the directly embedded HMT is sand with an internal friction angle of 30 degrees, the
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embedment length can further be decreased to 16 ft which is 10% of the pole height plus 2 ft.
The backfill diameter can further be decreased to 3 ft from 4 ft if the internal friction angle is
increased 5 degrees. The 120-ft HMT embedded in 200 psf cohesive clay may require 28 ft
embedment length with a 3 ft diameter backfill to maintain ground-line displacement below 0.6
in. The embedment length can be decreased to 16 ft (10% pole height plus 4 ft) if the cohesion is
increased three times the worst-case scenario. For the 120-ft HMT, with 30-degree internal
friction angle sand, the required embedment can decrease down to 14 ft which is 10% of the
tower height plus 2 ft when, 0.3 in. is the target ground-line displacement.
Finally, based on the construction issues listed for earth formed, polymer slurry, culverts,
and permanent casings, earth formed and permanent casing were the two options recommended
for Nebraska HMTs. Appendix A provides specifications based on the two critical operation in
construction which is setting the pole and installing backfill. Based on the locality of soil
conditions in Nebraska, if Standard Penetration Testing data are available, methods introduced in
Appendix B can be used to calculate the soil parameters required in the design process. If soil
conditions are not available, it is recommended to use a cohesion of 200 psf for clayey soils and
an internal friction angle of 20 degrees for sandy soils and use the Brom’s method to compute
the required embedded depth conservatively. Since, the corrosion activity for buried structures
can be affected by many different scenarios, a five-step procedure for corrosion protection
strategy is provided in Section 5.5 of this report. The first step includes evaluating the site if it is
a corrosive area or not based on the threshold values of chloride concentration with 500 ppm or
greater, sulfate concentration of 2,000 ppm or greater, and the pH being 5.5 or less. If the site is
in the corrosive area, and the soil resistivity is equal or less than 1,000 ohm-cm, further site
measurements should be taken including the amount of moisture, pH level, ion contents, and
83
organic contents to characterize the site soil conditions. Based on these measurements the
NDOT Materials and Research division should choose either to use protective coatings with
epoxy or bituminous material, cathodic protection, or increase the pole thickness (yet, with the
concrete backfill, this may not be required). If the likelihood and the consequence of corrosion is
specifically high in the site where the HMT will be constructed, a combination of the corrosion
protection methods listed above can be applied. If the corrosion rate (pit depth per years) is
required to calculate the expected life, or the required increase in thickness of the pole buried
underground is needed, the NIST tables provided in Chapter 2 can be utilized as a reference. It is
anticipated that there will be a cost saving of approximately $9,300 per pole with the reduced
COMSOL was developed and documented in Chapter 4. The results indicate reasonable
performance with load effects less than the results from the LPILE model. This COMSOL
simulation can be used in the future for more detailed soil model and optimized design to
decrease the shaft diameter and/or embedment depths. In order to have this level of refined
In addition, since the calculations provided in this report is based on assumptions for the
soil parameters, the research team can further engage with the NDOT Materials and Research
division to conduct field demonstration including design and construction of a full-scale HMT
84
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and Traffic Signals, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC, 342 pp.
Ahearn, E.B., and Puckett, J.A. (2010), “Reduction of Wind-Induced Vibrations in High Mast
Light Poles,” Technical Report FHWA-WY-10/02F, Federal Highway Administration,
McLean, Va., 104 pp.
ASCE (2015), “Technical Challenges and Innovative Solutions in Grid Modernization,”
Proceedings of the Electrical Transmission and Substation Structures, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Branson, MO, 587 pp.
ASCE/SEI 48-11 (2011), Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Reston, Virginia, 85 pp.
Broms, B.B. (1964a), “Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive Soils,” ASCE Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, Vol.90, No.SM2, pp.27-63.
Broms, B.B. (1964b), “Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless Soils,” ASCE Journal of the
Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Vol.90, No.SM3, pp.123-156.
Caltrans (2018), “Corrosion Guidelines Version 3.0,” Corrosion Branch, Materials Engineering
and Testing Services, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA, 42 pp.
Connor, R.J., and Hodgson, I.C. (2006), “Field Instrumentation and Long-Term Monitoring of
High Mast Lighting Towers in the State of Iowa,” Technical Report 518, Iowa Department
of Transportation, 66 pp.
Connor, R.J., Collicott, S.H., DeSchepper, A.M., Sherman, R.J., and Ocampo, J.A. (2012),
“Fatigue Loading and Design Methodology for High Mast Lighting Towers,” NCHRP
Report 718, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC, 130 pp.
Das, B.M. (2014), Principles of Foundation Engineering, Cengage Learning.
de Arriba-Rodriguez, L. Villanueva-Balsera, J., Ortega-Fernandez, F., and Rodriguez-Perez, F.
(2018), “Methods to Evaluate Corrosion in Buried Steel Structures: A Review,” Metals,
Vol. 8, No. 334, doi:10.3390/met8050334, 21 p.
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Goode, J.S., and van de Lindt, J.W. (2007), “Development of a Semiprescriptive Selection
Procedure for Reliability-Based Fatigue Design of High Mast Lighting Structural
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Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J.G., Galambos, T.V., and Corniess, C.A. (1982), “Probability-Based
Load Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations,” Journal of the Structural Division,
Vol.108, No.5, pp.978-997.
EPRI (1989), “Direct Embedment Foundation Research,” EPRI EL-6309, Project 1280-3 Final
Report, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 148 pp.
IEEE (2001), IEEE Guide for Transmission Structure Foundation Design and Testing, IEEE
Standard 691, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, 186
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Calibration of AASHTO-LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
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Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, NCHRP Report 796, Transportation Research Board,
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(2011),” Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lehigh
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APPENDIX A
NDOT Sample Construction Specification for Direct Embedded Poles
Personnel Qualifications
Construction Personnel. Use a supervisor with at least three years of experience
in the construction of direct embedded poles. Supervisor must remain on-site
during all direct embedment installation activities. Upon request provide a resume
of job experience, project description, the owning agency’s name, email address,
and phone number.
Submittals
Furnish the following in the installation plan:
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to be taken when concrete does not meet minimum specifications or when
unforeseen delays occur during the concreting process.
Execution
Drilling Operations
A. Excavate holes according to the installation plan. Report all deviations from
the plan to the onsite inspector.
E. Each drilled shaft shall be accurately located, sized and plumbed. The
maximum deviation of the drilled pier from its designated location shall not
be more than 2 inches at its top elevation. The drilled shaft shall not be out
of plumb more than 1 inch in 5 feet of height.
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G. All drilled excavations will be inspected by NDOT before the placement of
concrete or aggregate. All drilled excavations that cannot be visually
inspected shall be treated as a wet hole. Refer to wet method for concrete
placement.
Aggregate Placement
A. Backfill: Holes shall be backfilled with crushed aggregate backfill as specified
on the Drawings.
B. Backfill shall be compacted until the material has reached the required
compaction
C. Native and engineered backfill shall be banked and tamped twelve (12) inches
above the natural ground surface.
E. Lifts of backfill material shall not exceed six inches in depth. Any extremely
dry materials shall be dampened during the backfill operation to obtain the
desired density
Concrete Placement
A. Dry Method
Use the dry construction method at sites where the groundwater level and soil
conditions are suitable to permit construction in relatively dry conditions and
where the sides and bottom of the excavation may be visually inspected before
placing concrete.
ii. All water and loose materials shall be removed from the holes and
reinforcement shall be thoroughly cleaned before concrete is placed.
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concrete strikes the pole or sidewall, reduce the height of free-fall and
reduce the rate of concrete flow into excavation. If placement cannot be
satisfactorily accomplished by free-fall, use tremie or pumping to place
concrete.
iv. The top 6 feet of concrete shall be rodded or vibrated to provide a dense
mass free of voids. As placed, the concrete shall have a slump between
6 to 8 inches. When scum or laitance accumulates on the top of the
concrete, it shall be removed and replaced with fresh concrete to the
proper elevation.
v. If approved casings are left in place, the void areas between the form
and the excavation walls shall be filled with lean concrete mix. The lean
concrete or grout mix shall be placed and tamped to fill the annular
space.
vii. Concrete shall maintain a minimum 6-inch slump for the duration of the
pour.
B. Wet Method
Use the wet construction method or the casing construction method for shafts
that do not meet the above requirements for the dry construction method.
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iii. Fluid within the excavation shall be stable when concrete is deposited,
and shall be maintained at a height necessary to ensure hydrostatic
equilibrium during concrete placement, but not less than 5 ft above the
water table. After placing, the ground water level in the area adjacent to
the drilled shaft shall be kept static (no pumping) until the concrete has
taken its initial set.
iv. Concrete shall maintain a minimum 7-inch slump for the duration of the
pour.
The drilled shaft installation record shall contain the following information:
A. Contractor's name
B. Drilled shaft number and location
C. Overall depth of excavation
D. Depth to water
E. Final depth if different from design drawings
F. Note any caving, sloughing of excavation and drilling difficulties
G. Casing insertion, size and length, and whether or not removed
H. Date and time of start and finish excavation
I. Date and time concrete placed
J. Calculated volume of excavation based on diameter of shaft
K. Total actual quantity of concrete or aggregate placed within shaft
excavation
L. Concrete Yield Plot (volume versus shaft depth)
M. Concrete batch plant ticket numbers
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APPENDIX B
Soil Parameters for Nebraska
SPT has been used for a long time in geotechnical investigation. The method is
conducted by dropping a 140 lb (63.5kgf) hammer from 30 in (762mm) height and hitting the
SPT shoe (also called as a sampler) of a 2 in (50.8 mm) outside diameter and 1.5 in (35 mm)
inside diameter into the ground, and measuring the number of blows required to penetrate the
The SPT does not utilize any stress and/or strain measurement mechanism, so it does not
anticipated that stronger/harder soils may show higher penetration resistance resulting a higher
SPT blow count. Engineers, therefore, have used the SPT blow counts to indirectly obtain the
engineering properties of soils based on empirical charts/correlations for more than two
generations.
In this study, SPT blow counts were practically the only engineering test results
available, therefore, the best engineering judgement was used to obtain required engineering
The SPT blow count technique was widely used in the geotechnical area due to its
simplicity and ease of fabrication (USBR, 2020). This simple mechanism and easy to fabricate
feature made the creation of several different versions of SPT testing devices and practices. At
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some point, it was realized that the SPT test results obtained in one area may not be compatible
to SPT test results from another area. Similarly, SPT test results obtained from style A
equipment may not be compatible to SPT test results obtained from style B equipment. As a
solution to secure an interchangeable SPT blow counts, the standardization of SPT has
developed. This involves in equalization of SPT blow count by applying several correction
factors. Following is the summary of correction factors based on Das (2014) for soil samples
from Juneau, Arkansas. This detailed correction method is originally proposed by Skempton
𝑁𝜂𝐻 𝜂𝐵 𝜂𝑆 𝜂𝑅
𝑁60 =
60%
where,
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Table B-1: Variation of correction factors (retrieved from Das, 2014)
The correction factors in Table B-1 are computed for representative soil conditions as follows:
a) Hammer efficiency:
For United states, safety, rope and pully hammer, ηH = 60% = 0.6
c) Sampler correction:
For no liner, ηS = 1
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Additional Correction Factors for Cohesionless Soils
The strength and stiffness of cohesionless soils are affected by the confining pressure that
which varies by depth. This is the same with the SPT blow counts. Therefore, additional
For sand:
(N1)60 = CNN60
where,
(N1)60 = value of N60 corrected by confining pressure with respect to a standard value
At approximately (3– 15 ft) depth, CN ≈ 1.0 to 1.33 (Normally consolidated coarse sand)
From the correction factors introduced previously, the representative correction factors for
= 0.85 N for cohesive soils (Correction for the confining pressure not applied.)
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≈ 1.0 N for both cohesionless soils and cohesive soils because this much difference
in SPT blow count does not make substantial difference in predicted material constant
of soils.
However, it should be noted that some correlations are based on the uncorrected SPT
blow counts and in such cases, uncorrected SPT blow counts should be used.
The following Figure B-1 shows the typical trend lines of the internal friction angle and
the SPT blow count based on different research (Wolff, 1989; Peck et al. 1974; Hatanaka and
Uchida, 1996; Mayne et al., 2001 and JRA, 1996). From Figure B-1, the reseults from Wolff
(1989), Peck et al. (1974) and JRA (1996) predicted consistent and slightly conservative internal
friction angle.
Figure B-1: Prediction of internal friction angle based on SPT blow count
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Therefore, these three methods were used for the prediction of internal friction angles
based on the SPT blow counts. For SPT blow counts ranging between 10 to 25, the graphical
Cohesion
Cohesion for cohesive soils were also predicted from the SPT blow counts. This study
compared the proposed equations or plots based on corrected SPT blow count and uncorrected
Terzaghi and Peck (1976) < 12 12–24 24–48 48–91 91–182 > 182
Hara et al. (1974) < 48 48–79 79–131 131–206 206–340 > 340
Terzaghi and Peck (1976) <12.5 12.5–25 25–50 50–100 100–200 > 200
Parcher and Means (1968) <12 12–25 25–50 50–100 100–200 > 200
Sowers (1970) (CH) < 24 24–49 49–99 99–186 186–373 > 373
Sowers (1970) (CL) < 14 14–29 29–58 58–109 109–218 > 218
Sowers (1970) (SC–ML) <7 7–14 14–29 29–54 54–109 > 109
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