HARDWARE: The Components of System Unit

What is a system unit?

 System unit – is a case that contains electronic components of the computer used to process data.
The case of the system unit, sometimes called chassis is made up of metal or plastic and protects the
internal electronic components from damage.

What are common components inside the system unit?

 Processor – interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer
 Memory – typically holds data waiting to be processed and instructions waiting to be executed
 Adapter cards – are circuit boards that provide connections and functions not built into the
motherboard.
 Sound card
 Video card
 Ports – device outside the system unit often attached to ports on the system unit by a connector
on a cable. These devices may include a keyboard, mouse, microphone, monitor, printer,
scanner, card reader/writer, digital camera, PC video camera, and speakers.
 Drive bays – holds one or more disk drives
 Power supply – converts electricity from a power cord plugged in a wall outlet into a form that
can be used by the computer.

What is the motherboard?

 Motherboard – sometimes called a system board, is the main circuit board of the system unit.
Contains adapter cards, processor chip, and memory module.
 Memory chips are installed on memory cards (modules) that fit in a slot on the
motherboard.

What is a chip?
 A computer chip is a small piece of semi-conducting material, usually silicon, on which
integrated circuits are etched.
 An integrated circuit contains many microscopic pathways capable of carrying electrical
current.
 Manufacturer’s package chips so the chips can be attached to a circuit board, such as
motherboard or an adapter card.

What is the central processing unit (CPU)?

 The processor, also called the central processing unit (CPU), interprets and carries out the basic
instructions that operate a computer.
Processor contains a two components, the control unit and arithmetic logic unit that works together
to perform processing operations
o Control Unit – is the component of the processor that directs and coordinates most of the
operations in the computer.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – another component of the processor performs arithmetic,
comparison, and other operations.

What is a machine cycle?

 Four basic operations which a processor repeats.
o Fetching – is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from memory
o Decoding – refers to the process of translating the instructions into signals the computer can execute.
o Executing – is the process of carrying out the commands.
o Storing – means writing the results to memory.

What is pipelining?
 The processor begins fetching a second instruction before it completes the machine cycle for the first
instruction.
 Processors that use pipelining are faster because they do not have to wait for one instruction to
complete the machine cycle before fetching the next.

What is a register?
 Are part of the processor which is small, high-speed storage locations that temporarily hold data and
instructions
 Processors have many different types of register, each with a specific storage function.
 o Register function include
 storing the location from where the an instruction was fetched
 storing an instruction while the control unit decodes it
 storing data while the ALU computes it
 storing the results of a calculation

What is a system clock?

 The processor relies on a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock to control the timing of
all computer operations.
 The system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the operating pace of
components of the system unit.
o Each tick equates to a clock cycle
 In the past, processor used one or more clock cycles to execute each instruction.
Processors today often are superscalar, which means they can execute more than one
instruction per clock cycle.
o The pace of the system clock, called clock speed, is measured by the number of ticks per
second. Current personal computer processors have clock speeds in the gigahertz range. Giga
is a prefix that stands for billion, and hertz is one cycle per second. Thus, one gigahertz
(GHz) equals one billion ticks of the system clock per second. A computer that operates at
3.2 GHz has 3.2 billion (giga) clock cycles in one second (hertz).
 The system clock is one of the factors that influence a computers speed. The faster the
clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per second. The speed of
the system clock has no effect on devices such as printer or disk drive.
o Processor speed can also be measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS)
 Current desktop personal computers can process more than 7,000 MIPS. No real
standard for measuring MIPS exists, however, because different instructions require
varying amount of processing time.

Does the system clock also keep track of the current date and time?
 No, a separate battery-backed chip, called the real-time clock, keeps track of the date and time in a
computer. The battery continues to run the real-time clock even when the computer is off.

Which processor you should select?

 The faster the processor, the more expensive the computer.
 The leading processor chip manufacturers for personal computers are Intel, AMD (Advanced Micro
Devices), IBM, Motorola, and Transmeta.

o Intel used a model number to identify the various chips. After learning that the processor
model numbers could not be trademarked and protected from use by competitors, Intel began
identifying its processors with names – thus emerges the series of processors known as the
Pentium.

 Notebook computers and tablet PC use a Pentium M (1-2 GHz) processor.

 Basic PC use a brand of Intel processor called the Celeron (266 MHz – 3.06 GHz).
 Two more brands, called the Xeon (1.4 to 3.6 GHz) and Itanium (733 – 800 MHz)
processors, are ideal for workstations and low-end servers

o AMD is the leading manufacturer of Intel-compatible processors, which have an internal

design similar to Intel processors, perform the same functions, and can be as powerful, but
often are less expensive.
o Transmeta, also a manufacturer of Intel-compatible processors, specializes in processors for
mobile computers and devices.
o Intel and Intel-compatible processors are used in PC.
o Apple Computers use an IBM processor or a Motorola processor, which has a design
different from the Intel-style processor. The PowerPC processor has a new architecture that
increased the speed of the latest Apple computers.

o Technologies that improves processing performance of a processor chips

 Hyper-Threading (HT) Technology – which improves processing power and time
by allowing the processor chip to mimic the power of two processors. For even higher
level of performance with lower levels of power consumption, several processor chip
 manufacturers now offer a dual-core processor, which is a chip that has two separate
processors.
 Most processors have built-in instructions to improve the performance of multimedia
and 3-D graphics.
 Processor for notebooks computers include technology to integrate wireless
capabilities and optimize and extend battery life.
 System-on-a-chip processor – a new type of processor, integrates the functions of a
processor, memory, and a video card on a single chip.
 Lowered-priced personal computers, Tablet PCs, networking devices and
consumer electronics such as music players and game console sometimes have
a system-on-a-chip processor.
 The goal of system-on-a-chip manufacturers is to create processors that have
faster clock speeds, consume less power, are small, and are cost effective.

Buying a Personal Computer

 If you purchase an IBM compatible PC, you will choose an Intel processor or an Intel-compatible
processor.
 Apple Macintosh and Power Macintosh computers have a Motorola or IBM processor.
o Current Apple Processor includes the PowerPC G4 and PowerPC G5.
 A home user surfing the Web, for example, may need only a 2 GHz processor, while an artist
working with graphics or applications requiring multimedia capabilities such as full-motion video
may require at least a 3 GHz processor.
 The higher the clock speed, the faster the processor, and the more expensive the computer.
 Instead of buying an entirely new computer, you might be able to upgrade your processor to increase
the computers performance.
o Be certain the processor you buy is compatible with your computers motherboard; otherwise,
you will have to replace the motherboard, too.
o Replacing a processor is a fairly simple process, whereas replacing a motherboard is much
more complicated.

What are heat sinks, heat pipes, and liquid cooling?

 Processor chips generate quite a bit of heat, which could cause the chip to burn up. Although the
computer’s main fan generates airflow, today’s processor require additional cooling.
o Heat sink – is a small ceramic or metal component with fins on its surface that absorbs and
disperses heat produce by electrical components such as a processor.
 Some heat sinks are packaged as part of a processor chip.
 Others are installed on the top or side of the chip.
o Heat pipe – a smaller device cools processors in notebook computers.
o Liquid cooling technology – uses a continuous flow of fluid(s), such as water and glycol, in a
process that transfers the heated fluid away from the processor to a radiator-type grill, which
cools the liquid, and then returns the cooled fluid to the processor.

What is parallel processing?

 Some computers use more than one processor to speed processing times.
 Parallel processing – this method uses multiple processors simultaneously to execute a program.
Parallel processing divides a problem into portions so that multiple processors work on their
assigned portion of the problem at the same time.
 Parallel processing requires special software that recognizes how to divide the problem and then
bring the results back together again.
 Some personal computers implement parallel processing with dual-core processors or multi-core
processor chips, respectively called dual processor or multiprocessor computers.
 Supercomputers used parallel processing for applications such as weather forecasting.

How do computers represent data?

 To understand fully the way a computer processes data, you should know how a computer processes
data. People communicate through speech by combining words into sentence. Human speech is
analog because it uses a continuous (wave form) signals that vary in strength and quality.
 Most computers are digital, they recognize only two discrete states: on and off. This is because
computers are electronic devices powered by electricity, which has only two states: on and off.
  The two digits, 0 and 1, easily can represent these two states. The digit 0 represents the electronic
state of off (absence of electronic charge). The digit 1 represents the electronic state of on (presence
of an electronic charge).
 When people count, they use the digits in the decimal system (0 through 9). The computer, by
contrast, uses a binary system because it recognizes only two states.
o Binary system – is a number system that has just two unique digits, 0 and 1, called bits.
 Bit – (a short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data the computer can process.
What is a byte?
 Byte –8 bits are grouped together as a unit.
 A byte provides enough different combination of 0s and 1s to represent 256 individual characters.
o These characters include numbers, uppercase and lowercase letters of the alphabet,
punctuation marks, and others, such as the letters of the Greek alphabet.

What are three popular coding systems to represent data?

 The combination of 0s and 1s that represent characters are defined by patters called a coding
scheme.
 In one coding scheme, the number 4 is represented as 00110100, the number 6 as 00110110, and the
capital letter E as 01000101

1. ASCII scheme—(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) – is the most widely
used coding system to represent data. Most personal computers and midrange servers use the
ASCII coding scheme.

2. EBCDIC scheme — (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) – is used primarily
on mainframe computers and high-end servers.

 The ASCII and EBCDIC coding schemes are sufficient for English and Western European
language but are not large enough for Asian and other languages that use different alphabets.

3. Unicode—is a 16-bit coding scheme that has the capacity of representing more than 65,000
characters and symbols. The Unicode coding scheme is capable of representing almost all the
worlds’ current written languages, as well as classic and historical languages. To allow for
expansion, Unicode reserves 30,000 codes for future use and 6,000 codes for private use.
Unicode is implemented in several operating systems, including Windows XP, Mac OS X,
and Linux. Unicode-enabled programming languages and software products includes Java,
XML, Microsoft Office and Oracle.

How is a letter converted to binary form and back?

 Coding schemes such as ASCII make it possible for humans to interact with a digital
computer that process only bits.
1. When you press a key on a keyboard, a chip in the keyboard convert’s the key’s
electronic signal into a special code that is sent to the system unit.
2. Then, the system unit converts the code into a binary form the computer can process and
stores it in memory. Every character is converted to its corresponding bytes, which
actually a series of on/off electrical states.
3. When processing is finished, software converts the byte into a human-recognizable
number, letters of the alphabet, or special character that is displayed on the screen or is
printed.
4. All these conversion take a place so quickly that you do not realize they are occurring.

What is Memory?
 Memory – consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed by the processor,
data needed by those instructions, and the results of processed data (information)
o Memory stores three basic categories of items
 The operating system and other system software that control or maintain the computer and
its devices.
 Application programs that carry out a specific task such as word processing and resulting
information
 The data being processed by the application program and resulting information.
 Bytes and Addressable Memory
o Byte (a character) – is the basic storage unit in memory. When the application program instructions
and data are transferred to memory from storage device, the instructions and data exists as bytes.
 Each byte resides temporarily in a location in memory that has an address.
o Address – is a unique number that identifies the location of a byte in memory.
How is Memory measured?
 Memory Sizes
o Kilobyte (KB or K) – is equal to exactly 1024 bytes.
o Megabyte (MB) – is equal to approximately 1 million bytes
o Gigabyte (GB) – equals to approximately 1 billion bytes
o Terabyte (TB) – equals to approximately 1 trillion bytes.

Term Abbreviation Approximate Number of Bytes Exact Amount of Bytes Approximate number of Pages or Text
Kilobyte KB or K 1 thousand 1,024 ½
Megabyte MB 1 million 1,048,576 500
Gigabyte GB 1 billion 1,073,741,824 500,000
Terabyte TB 1 trillion 1,099,511,627,776 500,000,000

Types of Memory
o Volatile Memory – when the computers power off, it loses its content. (temporary)
 Example: RAM (Random Access Memory)
o Nonvolatile Memory – does not lose its content when power is removed from the computer
(permanent).
 Examples: ROM (Read Only Memory), flash memory, CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor).

What is random access memory (RAM)?

 Also called main memory.
 Consist of memory chips that can be read from and written to by the processor and other devices. When you
turn on power to a computer, certain operating system files (such as the files that determine how the Windows
XP desktop appears) load into RAM from a storage device such as hard disk. These files remain in RAM as
long as the computer has continuous power. As additional programs and data are requested, they also load into
RAM for storage.
 The processor interprets and executes programs instructions while the program is in RAM.
 Saving – is the process of copying data, instructions, and information from RAM to a storage device such as
hard disk.
o Three basic types of RAM chips
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips - must be re-energized constantly or they lose their contents.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) chips - are much faster than DRAM chips because
they synchronized to the system clock.
 Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) chips – are even faster than SDRAM
chips because they transfer data twice for each clock cycle, instead of just once.
 DDR 2 – is even faster than DDR.
 Dual Channel SDRAM – is faster than a single channel SDRAM because it delivers
twice the amount of data to the processor.
 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) – is yet another type of DRAM that is much faster than
SDRAM because it uses pipelining techniques.
 Static RAM (SRAM) chips - are faster and more reliable than any variation of DRAM chips.
These chips do not have to re-energize as often as DRAM chips, thus the term static. SRAM
chips however are much more expensive than DRAM chips.
 Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM) – stores data using magnetic charges instead of electrical
charge. Manufactures claim that MRAM has a greater storage capacity, consume less power,
and has faster access times than electronic RAM. MRAM retains its contents after power is
removed from the computer, which could prevent loss of data for users.
Where does memory reside?
 RAM chips - usually resides on a memory module, which is a small circuit board.
 Memory slots on the motherboard hold memory modules.
o Three types of memory modules
 Single Inline Memory Module (SIMMS) – has pins on the opposite sides of a circuit board
that connect together to form a single set of contact.
 Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMMS) – the pins are opposite sides of the circuit board do
not connect and thus form a two sets of contacts.
 Rambus Inline Memory Module (RIMMS) – houses RDRAM chips.

What is cache?
 Most of today’s computers improve processing times with cache (pronounced as cash)
 Two types of cache are memory cache and disk cache.
o Memory cache – helps speed the processes of the computer because it stores frequently used instructions
and data.
 Most personal computers today have two types of memory cache:
 L1 cache – is built directly in the processor chip. L1 cache usually has a very small
capacity, ranging from 8KB to 128KB. The more common sizes for personal computers
are 8KB to 16KB.
 L2 cache – is slightly slower than L1 cache but has a much larger capacity, ranging from
64KB to 16MB. When discussing cache, most users are referring to L2 Cache. Current
 processor includes advanced transfer cache (ATC), a type of L2 cache built directly on
the processor chip. Processors that use ATC perform much faster rates than those that do
not use it
 L3 cache – is a cache in the motherboard that is separate from the processor chip. L3
cache exists only on computers that use L2 advanced transfer cache.
 Cache speeds up the processing time because it stores frequently used instructions and data. When the processor
needs an instruction or data, it searches in the memory in this order: L1 cache, then L2 cache, then L3 cache (if it
exist), then RAM – with greater delay in processing for each level of memory it must search. If the instruction or
data is not found in memory, then it searches a slower speed storage medium such as hard disk, CD DVD.

What is read-only memory (ROM)?

 Read-only Memory (ROM) – refers to the memory chips storing permanent data and instructions. The data on
most ROM chips cannot be modified – hence, the name read-only.
 ROM is nonvolatile, which means its contents are not lost when power is removed from the computer. In addition
to computers, many devices contain ROM chips. For example, ROM chips in printers contain data for fonts.
 Three types of ROM
o Firmware – manufactured with permanently written data, instructions, or information.
o PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) – is a blank ROM chip on which a programmer can write
permanently. Programmers used microcode instructions to program a PROM chip. Once a programmer
writes the microcode on the PROM chip, it functions like a regular ROM chip and cannot be erased or
changed.
o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) – type of PROM chip that allows a
programmer to erase the microcode with an electric signal.

 Flash Memory – is a type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased electronically and rewritten, similar to
EEPROM. Most computers use flash memory to hold their startup instructions because it allows the computer easily
to updates it contents. For example, when the computer changes from standard time to daylight savings time, the
contents of the flash memory (and the real time clock chip) change to reflect the new time.
o Flash memory chip also store data and programs on many mobile computers and devices such as PDAs,
smart phones, printers, digital cameras, digital voice recorders, and pagers.

 CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) technology – uses battery power to retain information even
when the power to computer is off.
o Used in some RAM chips, flash memory chips, and other types of memory chips
o Stores date, time, and computer’s startup information

What is access time?

 Access time - is the amount time it takes the processor to read data, instructions, and information from the memory.
o A computer access time directly affects how fast the computer processes data
 Measured in nanoseconds (ns), one billionth of a second
 It takes 1/10 of a second to blink your eye; a computer can perform up to 10 million operations in same amount of
time

What is an adapter card?

 Adapter Card – sometimes called an expansion card, is a circuit board that enhances functions of a component of
the system unit and/or provides connections to peripherals.
 Peripheral – is a device that connects to the system unit and is controlled by the processor in the computer.
Examples of peripherals are modems, disk drive, printers, scanners, and keyboards.

Types of Adapter Cards

Adapter Card Purpose
Disk Controller Connects disk drives
FireWire Connects FireWire devices
Graphics Accelerator Increases the speed at which graphics are displayed
MIDI Connects musical instrument
Modem Connects other computers through telephone or cable television lines
Network Connects other computers and peripherals
PC-to-TV converter Connects a television
Sound Connects speakers or a microphone
TV Tuner Allows viewing of television channels on the monitor
USB 2.0 Connects to USB 2.0 devices
Video Connects a monitor
Video Capture Connects a camcorder

What is an expansion slot?

 Expansion slot – is a socket on the motherboard that can hold an adapter card.
 Plug and Play – means the computer automatically can configure adapter cards and other peripherals as you install
them.
 Sound Card – enhances the sound-generating capabilities of a personal computer by allowing sound to be input
through a microphone and output through external speakers or headset.
  Video Card – also called a graphic card, converts computer output into a video signal that travels through a cable to
the monitor, which displays an image on the screen.

What are PC cards, and flash memory cards?

 PC Card Slot – is a special type of expansion slot that holds a PC Card.
 PC Card – is a thin, credit card-sized device that adds memory, storage, sound, fax/modem, network, and other
capabilities to mobile computers.
o PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) – these standards helps to ensure
the interchangeability of PC Card among mobile computers.

 Flash Memory Card - is a removable flash memory device that allows users to transfer data and information
conveniently from mobile device to their desktop computers.
 USB Flash Drive – is a flash memory storage device that plugs in a USB port on a computer or portable device.
o Hot plugging – a feature that allows you to insert and remove removable flash memory and other devices
while the computer is running.

What are ports and connectors?

 Port – is the point at which a peripheral attached to a system unit so the peripheral can send data to or receive
information from the computer. Ports have different types of connectors.
 Connector – joins a cable to a peripheral. One end of the cable attached to the connector on the system unit, and the
other end of the cable attached to the connector on the peripheral.
o Most connectors are available in one or two genders
 Male connectors – have one or more exposed pins, like the end of an electrical cord you plug in
the wall.
 Female connectors – have matching holes to accept the pins on a male connector, like an electrical
wall outlet.
o Gender changer – is a device that enables you to join two connectors that are both female or both male.

What are different types of connectors?

 Serial Port – is a type of interface that connects a device to the system unit by transmitting data one bit at a time. A
serial port usually connects devices that do not require fast data transmission rates, such as a mouse, keyboard, or
modem.
o COM port (Communications Port) – is one type of serial port.

 Parallel Port – is an interface that connects devices by transferring more than one bit at a time. Originally, parallel
ports were developed as an alternative to the slower speed serial ports.
o Many printers connect to the system unit using a parallel port.

 USB Port – short for Universal Serial Bus port can connect up to 127 peripherals together with a single connector
type. Devices that connect to the USB port include the following: mouse, printer, digital camera, scanner, speakers,
MP3 music players, CD, DVD and removable drives.
o USB 2.0 – the latest version of USB is a more advanced and faster USB, with a speed 40 times higher than
that of its predecessor.
o Daisy chain – means that First USB device connects to USB port on computer, Second USB
device connects to first USB device and Third USB device connects to second USB device, and so on
o USB hub – is a device that plugs in a USB port system in which you can plug cables from USB devices

 FireWire Ports – previously called an IEEE 1394 port, is similar to a USB port in that in can connect multiple types
of devices that require faster data transmission speeds, such as digital video cameras, digital VCRs, color printers,
scanners, digital cameras and DVD drives to a single connector.
o A FireWire port allows you to connect up to 63 devices together. The FireWire ports supports Plug and
Play.

What are special-purpose ports?

o MIDI Port – a special type of serial port that connects the system unit to a musical instrument, such as electronic
keyboard.
 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) – is the electronic music industry’s standard that defines how
devices, such as sound cards and synthesizers represents sounds electronically.
 Synthesizer – which can be a peripheral or a chip, creates sound from digital instructions

o SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) Port – a special high speed parallel port that allows you to attached SCSI
peripherals such as disk drives and printers.

o IrDA (Infrared Data Association) Port – some devices can transmit data via infrared light waves.

o Bluetooth Port – an alternative to IrDA. Bluetooth technology uses radio waves to transmit data between two devices.
Unlike IrDA, the Bluetooth devices do not have to be aligned with each other.
What is a bus?
o Bus – electrical channels that allows the various devices both inside and attached to the system unit to
communicate with each other.
 Two parts of Bus
o Data Bus – transfer actual data
o Address Bus – transfer information about where the data should reside in memory.
 Bus Width - determines the number of bits that the computer can transmit at one time.
o For example, a 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits (4 bytes) at a time, on a 64-bit bus; bits
transmit from one location to another location 64-bits (8 bytes) at a time. The larger the
number of bits handles by the bus, the faster the computer transfer data.
o Word size is the number of bits processor can interpret and execute at a given time
 Two basic types of Bus
o System bus – is part of the motherboard and connects the processor to main memory
o Expansion Bus – allows the processor to communicate with peripherals.

What is an expansion bus?

 Allows processor to communicate with peripherals
 Types of Expansion Buses on the motherboard
 PCI Bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect bus) – is a high speed expansion bus that connects
higher speed devices. Types of cards you can insert in a PCI bus expansion slot include video
cards, sound cards, SCSI cards, and high-speed network cards.
 AGP Bus (Accelerated Graphics Port) – is a bus designed by Intel to improve the speed with
which 3-D graphics and video transmit.
 USB and FireWire Bus – are buses that eliminate the need to install cards in expansion slots.
 PC Card Bus – expansion bus for PC Card.

What is a bay?
 Bay – is an opening inside the system unit in which you can install additional equipment. A bay is
different from a slot, which is used for the installation of adapter cards.
 Drive Bays – rectangular openings that typically holds disk drives
 Two types of Drive Bays
o External Drive Bays – allows a user to access the dive from outside the system unit
 Examples: Floppy Disk Drive, CD Drives, DVD Drives, Zip Drives, and tape
drives.
o Internal Drive bays – is concealed entirely within the system unit.
 Example: Hard disk drives are installed in internal bays.

What is a power supply?

 Power Supply – is the component of the system unit that converts the wall outlet AC power into DC
power.
 Fan keeps system unit components cool
 External peripherals might use an AC adapter, which is an external power supply
Coding Schemes and Number Systems Unicode Code for a symbol, as shown in the table, is
obtained by appending the symbols corresponding digit
in the left-most column to the symbols corresponding
ASCII Symbol EBCDIC three-digit code in the column heading.
00110000 0 11110000
00110001 1 11110001 003 004 005 006 007
00110010 2 11110010 0 0 @ P ` p
0030 0040 0050 0060 0070
00110011 3 11110011
1 1 A Q a q
00110100 4 11110100 0031 0041 0051 0061 0071
00110101 5 11110101 2 2 B R B r
00110110 6 11110110 0032 0042 0052 0062 0072
00110111 7 11110111 3 3 C S c s
0033 0043 0053 0063 0073
00111000 8 11111000
4 4 D T d t
00111001 9 11111001 0034 0044 0054 0064 0074
01000001 A 11000001 5 5 E U e u
01000010 B 11000010 0035 0045 0055 0065 0075

01000011 C 11000011 6 6 F V f v
0036 0046 0056 0066 0076
01000100 D 11000100
7 7 G W g w
01000101 E 11000101 0037 0047 0057 0067 0077
01000110 F 11000110 8 8 H X h x
01000111 G 11000111 0038 0048 0058 0068 0078

01001000 H 11001000 9 9 I Y I y
0039 0049 0059 0069 0079
01001001 I 11001001 A : J Z j z
01001010 J 11010001 003A 004A 005A 006A 007A
01001011 K 11010010 B ; K [ k {
003B 004B 005B 006B 007B
01001100 L 11010011
01001101 M 11010100 C < L \ l |
003C 004C 005C 006C 007C
01001110 N 11010101 D = M ] m }
01001111 O 11010110 003D 004D 005D 006D 007D
01010000 P 11010111 E > N ^ n ~
003E 004E 005E 006E 007E
01010001 Q 11011000
F ? O _ o del
01010010 R 11011001 003F 004F 005F 006F 007F
01010011 S 11100010
01010100 T 11100011 Decimal Binary Hexadecimal
01010101 U 11100100 0 0000 0
01010110 V 11100101 1 0001 1
01010111 W 11100110 2 0010 2
3 0011 3
01011000 X 11100111
4 0100 4
01011001 Y 11101000 5 0101 5
01011010 Z 11101001 6 0110 6
00100001 ! 01011010 7 0111 7
00100010 “ 01111111 8 1000 8
9 1001 9
00100011 # 01111011
10 1010 A
00100100 $ 01011011 11 1011 B
00100101 % 01101100 12 1100 C
00100110 & 01010000 13 1101 D
00101000 ( 01001101 14 1110 E
00101001 ) 01011101 15 1111 F
00101010 * 01011100
00101011 +
CONVERSIONS

Decimal number system – is a base 10 number system (deci means 10). The decimal number system uses 10
symbols (0 through 9).

Binary number system – is a base 2 number system (bi means 2). The symbols it uses are 0 and 1.

Octal number system – is a base 8 number system (octal means 8). ). The octal number system uses 8 symbols (0
through 7).

Hexadecimal number system – uses 16 symbols to represents values (hex means six). These includes the
symbols 0 through 9 and A through F.

Decimal Number System:

1 4 3 =
(1x102) + (4x101) + (3x100)

1 4 3 =
(1x100) + (4x10) + (3x1)

100 + 40 + 3 = 143

Binary Number System:

1 0 0 1 =
(1x23) + (0x22) + (0x21) + (1x20)

(1x8) + (0x4) + (0x2) + (1x1) =

8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 9

Octal Number System:

2 0
(2x81) + (0 x 80) =

(2x8) + (0x1) =

16 + 0 = 16

Hexadecimal Number System:

A 5
(10x161) + (5 x 160) =

(10x16) + (5x1) =

160 + 5 = 165