Questions - MNG - MINING ENGINEERING/SEMESTER V/18MNG-505E[C] - GEO-

INFORMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN MINING - Fundamentals of Geographic Information

Systems

Topic: 3.1 Define the Geographic Information Systems

Qn.1 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
Define the term GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system build to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage and display all kinds of spatial or geographical data. GIS application are tools
that allow end users to perform spatial query, analysis, edit spatial data and create hard copy
maps. In simple way GIS can be define as an image that is referenced to the earth or has x and y
coordinate and it’s attribute values are stored in the table. These x and y coordinates are based
on different projection system and there are various types of projection system. Most of the time
GIS is used to create maps and to print. To perform the basic task in GIS, layers are combined,
edited and designed.

Qn.2 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Write an essay on Historical development of GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

The phrase, "geographic information system", was coined by Roger Tomlinson in 1968, when he
published the scientific paper, "A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning".
Tomlinson, acknowledged as the "father of GIS", is credited with enabling the first
computerized–GIS to be created through his work on the Canada Geographic Information System in
1963. Ultimately, Tomlinson created a framework for a database that was capable of storing and
analyzing huge amounts of data; leading to the Canadian government being able to implement its
National Land-Use Management Program.E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's
1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in
the London epidemic of 1854

One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used, came from the field
of epidemiology in the, "Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le
département de la Seine" (1832). French geographer and cartographer, Charles Picquet, created a
map outlining the forty-eight Districts in Paris, using halftone color gradients, to provide a visual
representation for the number of reported deaths due to cholera, per every 1,000 inhabitants.
In 1854, John Snow, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a
cholera outbreak in London through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through
plotting the residence of each victim on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources.
Once these points were marked, he was able to visualize the water source within the cluster that
was responsible for the outbreak. This was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic
methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements
of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, Snow's map was unique due to his use
of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically
dependent phenomena.
The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split
into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used
for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate
layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman. This
work was originally drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was introduced, with the
advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When
all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera.
Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for
each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the main typical features of a
contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered to be a GIS in itself –
as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.
Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS: Ian McHarg's publication "Design
with Nature" and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S.
Census Bureau's DIME (Dual Independent Map Encoding) system.
Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose
computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.
In 1960 the world's first true operational GIS was developed in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, by the
federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was
called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and
manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory – an effort to determine the land
capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation,
wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was
also added to permit analysis.
CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for
overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that
spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the
attribute and location information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become
known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of
convergent geographic data.
CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was
developed as a mainframe-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning
and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was
never available commercially.

In 1964 Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at
the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important
theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had
distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY – that served
as sources for subsequent commercial development—to universities, research centers and
corporations worldwide.
By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (MOSS and GRASS GIS) were in development,
and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph) along with Bentley Systems
Incorporated for the CAD platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute
(ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System), MapInfo Corporation and
ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software,
successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to
separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing
attribute data into database structures.]
In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product was released
for the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was
ported to the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research
department into the business environment.

By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and
standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data
over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number
of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to
perform specific tasks. Increasingly geospatial data and mapping applications are being made
available via the World Wide Web

Topic: 3.2 What are the Components of GIS

Qn.3 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
List out the key components of GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

A working GIS integrates five key components: - (i) Hardware (ii) Software (iii) Data (iv) People and
(v) Methods

Qn.4 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Explain the components of GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Geographical Information System has three important components: computer hardware set of
application modules and a proper organization context.

A working GIS integrates five key components: - (i) Hardware (ii) Software (iii) Data (iv) People and
(v) Methods

Computer Hardware Module: The general hardware component of a geographical information

system is the computer or central processing unit.

It is linked to a disk drive storage unit, which provides space for storing data and programs. A
digitizer, scanner and other device is used to convert data from maps and documents into digital
form and send them to computer. A digitizer board is a flat board used for vectorisation of any map
object. A plotter or other kind of display device is used to present the result of the data processing
and a tape device is used for storing data or programs on magnetic tape.

Computer Software Module The GIS software includes the programs and the user interface for
driving the hardware. GIS software is essential to generate, store, analyze, manipulate and display
geographic information or data. A good GIS software requires user friendliness, functionalities,
compatibilities, updatability, documentation, cost effectiveness. The following is a list of GIS
software producers and their main products.
● Environmental Systems Research Institute ( ESRI ): ArcInfo, ArcView.
● Autodesk: AutoCAD Map
● Clark Labs: IDRISI
● International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences: ILWIS
● Mapinfo Corporation: Mapinfo.
● Bentley Systems: Microstation.
● PCI Geomatics: PAMAP
● TYDAC Inc. : SPANS

Data is the most important component of a GIS. Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or purchased from a
commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources,
often stored in a DBMS. The integration of spatial and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key
functionality afforded by GIS.

People GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage and develop plans for
applying it to real world problems. GIS user range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
identification of GIS specialist's vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS
technology. This is what called 'brain ware' which is equally important as the Hardware and
software. Brain ware refers to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and
justification, for using GIS.

Method A successful GIS operates according to a well designed implementation plan and business
rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

For many years, though GIS has been considered to be too difficult, expensive, and proprietary.
The advent of graphical user interface (GUI), powerful and affordable hardware and software,
and public digital data has broadened the range of GIS application and brought GIS to
mainstream use.

Topic: 3.3 Summarize the different variables of GIS

Qn.5 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Briefly explain the Limitations of Vector and Raster Data Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Limitations of Vector Data

Compared to a raster data model, vector requires more time and technology to input the data.
Errors are likely to occur when inputting vector data.

Limitations of Raster Data

Most of the output maps for raster data could not be used by cartographers because of it's
inaccuracy. The image of a non-contiguous maps will not be as accurate as vector data map would
be due to the distortion created by the different cell sizes
Topic: 3.4 Explain the functionality of the GIS
Qn.6 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
Mention any four GIS software producers and their main products Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

The following is a list of GIS software producers and their main products.
● Environmental Systems Research Institute ( ESRI ): ArcInfo, ArcView.
● Autodesk: AutoCAD Map
● Clark Labs: IDRISI
● International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences: ILWIS
● Mapinfo Corporation: Mapinfo.
● Bentley Systems: Microstation.
● PCI Geomatics: PAMAP
● TYDAC Inc. : SPANS

Qn.7 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Explain the Data capture technique in GIS. Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.
Data capture
Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of the time of
GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored
in a digital format.
Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital
data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries
from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce
vector data.
Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey
instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO). Positions from a global
navigation satellite system (GNSS) like Global Positioning System can also be collected and then
imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field
computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing
sessions. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with
decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the
data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate
positions collected using a laser rangefinder. New technologies also allow users to create maps as
well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate.
Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors
attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidar, while platforms
usually consist of aircraft and satellites. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons
called helikites first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-
information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm was used to link the
photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data
than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) are banned.
Recently aerial data collection is becoming possible with miniature UAVs. For example,
the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with a ground sample distance of 1 inch
(2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes.
The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft-
copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs.
These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured
directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Analog aerial photos must be
scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is
skipped.
Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use
different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing
collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and
classes of interest, such as land cover.
When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a
relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be
interpreted but also the cost of data capture.
After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further
processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some
advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an
intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned
maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For
example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.
Data representation

GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.) with
digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete
objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or elevations). Traditionally,
there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping
references: raster images and vector. Points, lines, and polygons are the stuff of mapped location
attribute references. A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which
combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a "3D color
image". GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of
what they set out to show or determine.

Topic: 3.5 Define Vector model

Qn.8 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
What type of geographical features are represented by Vector points Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Points When geographic features are too small to represent as polygons, points features are used;
in other words, simple location. For example, the locations of Trees, depth, Point Of Interest.
These vector points are simply XY Co-ordinates.

Qn.9 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
What type of geographical features are represented by Vector Lines Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Lines or poly lines vector lines or poly lines connect with each vertex with paths, they usually
represent features that are linear such as rivers, roads, railroads, and pipelines.

Qn.10 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
What type of geographical features are represented by Vector Polygons Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Polygons Cartographers used polygons to display geographic features that have an area. For
example, it may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or land uses.

Qn.11 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
Define the term Vector data model Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.
The basic framework of the model is to describe each needed feature by its geometry (location
and shape) and attributes (also known as properties or characteristics). Usually, related features
(for example, all of the road features in a county) are grouped into a single dataset. Most Vector
data formats use standard relational database technology to store the attributes, but need GIS-
specific data structures to store the geometry.

The basic structures (geometric primitives) available for describing the represented geometry of
a feature depend on the Dimension of the feature (or at least, the dimension chosen to represent
it). Traditionally, there are three geometric primitives: points, lines, and polygons.

Qn.12 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Briefly explain the Vector Data Model Disadvantages Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Vector Data Model Disadvantages are

The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.

It has a complex Data Structure.

Difficult overlay operations.
High spatial variability is inefficiently represented.
Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are impossible.

Qn.13 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Briefly explain the Vector Data Model Advantages Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Vector Data Model Advantages are

Compact data structure – Need less space for storing data.

Accurate Graphic output.
Since most information, e.g. printed version maps, is in vector form no data conversion is
required.
Exact geographic location of data is maintained.
Easily make a connection between topology and network, efficient for network analysis.

Qn.14 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Explain the Vector data model Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.
The basic framework of the model is to describe each needed feature by its geometry (location and
shape) and attributes (also known as properties or characteristics). Usually, related features (for
example, all of the road features in a county) are grouped into a single dataset. Most Vector data
formats use standard relational database technology to store the attributes, but need GIS-specific
data structures to store the geometry.
The basic structures (geometric primitives) available for describing the represented geometry of a
feature depend on the Dimension of the feature (or at least, the dimension chosen to represent it).
Traditionally, there are three geometric primitives: points, lines, and polygons.
● Point (0-dimensional): represented by a single coordinate: p = (x, y). In some vector
formats, multipoint features are allowed, in which a single feature consists of multiple
coordinates; three-dimensional points (x,y,z) are another common feature.
● Line (1-dimensional): represented by an ordered list of points (known in this context as |vertices):
l = [p1, p2, p3, ..., pn]. Some vector formats are able to store more complex linear structures,
such as multi lines (single features consisting of multiple line segments) and various forms of
parametric curves.
● Polygon (2-dimensional): only the boundary is represented (the software is expected to accurate
interpolate all of the interior points) as a line that closes: P = [p1, p2, p3, ..., pn, p1]. Some
vector formats can store structures such as multi-part polygons (e.g., the State of Hawaii).
● Volume (3-dimensional): there are actually several strategies for representing three-dimensional
shapes, but the most common is a poly face, consisting of a set of three-dimensional polygons,
that together form a surface (the software is expected to interpolate the interior of the solid).

To be meaningful, the coordinates used in these geometric primitives are usually measured within
a standard coordinate system, such as the Geographic coordinate system (GCS) or Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM).
The attributes of the features to be represented are typically structured using the concepts of
the relational database, in which a row (or tuple) represents the full description of an individual
feature, consisting of columns for each attribute type, and all of the rows for a given topic are
grouped together in a table.
Vector Data Formats

Vector data can better represent topographic features than the raster data model. Vector data
models can represent all types of features with accuracy. Points, lines, and polygons, are accurate
when defining the location and size of all topographic features. The vector data model is often the
data model of choice for GIS because it can contain information about topology which underlies a
large number of GIS operations.

Limitations of Vector Data

Compared to a raster data model, vector requires more time and technology to input the data.
Errors are likely to occur when inputting vector data.

Topic: 3.6 Define Raster model

Qn.15 (Marks: 1)
Name: T.Madhukar
Define the term Raster data model Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

A raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a grid) where
each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. Rasters are digital
aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.

Qn.16 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Write a short on Raster Data Model in GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Raster Data Model

A raster data type is made up of pixel or cells and each pixel has an associated value. Digital
Photography is the best example of raster data type model, anyone who is familiar with digital
photography can recognize the pixels as the smallest individual unit of an image, where each
pixel value in the image corresponds to a particular color and the combination of these pixels will
create an image. As of now, the best example of raster data that is commonly used is Aerial
photos, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of
digitization. Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells and these each cells stores a
single value. Raster data can be images (raster images) with each pixel containing a color value.
In Raster, data is represented as a grid of (usually square) cells. Each cell of a raster, stores a
single value and it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue)
colors.
Qn.17 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Write a short on Structure of Raster Data Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Structure of Raster Data

The raster logical model represents a single geographic phenomenon (usually, but not always
a field) as a two-dimensional array of samples, usually at regular spacing in both the x and y
directions. Each sample having a single value. The meaning of the sample measurement depends
on which of two conceptual models the measurement framework may use. In a lattice, each value
represents a measurement at a single point. In a grid, each value represents a summary of the
values within a square, such as mean temperature. Each horizontal array of values (having the
same y value) is called a row, and each vertical array (having the same x value) is called a column.
Each sample location (whether point or square) is called a cell, or pixel if the raster is an image.

In most raster data structures, the array is stored as an ordered list of values, either going across
the cells in a row then going to the beginning of the next row (row-major) or going down the cells
in a column then going to the beginning of the next column (column-major). A header is included
at the beginning of the file, providing at least the basic metadata necessary to arrange the list as a
two-dimensional grid in the proper spatial location:

the x, y coordinate of the sample in the first row and column (usually either the Northwest or
Southwest corner) the dimensions or spacing of each cell, known as the cell size or resolution.
Traditionally, the cell size has been required to be the same in the x and y directions (i.e., the cells
are square), but some modern structures allow this to vary. ​

Qn.18 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Briefly explain the Raster data model Disadvantages Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Raster Data Model Disadvantages are

(i)Dataset can be large, storage space can be a problem.

(ii)Network analysis is difficult to perform.

(iii) Loss of information when using large cells.

(iv)Insufficient projection transformation.

(v)Difficult in a representation of Topology connections.

Qn.19 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Briefly explain the Raster data model advantages Mobile: 9177701113
Answer.

Raster Data Model Advantages are

(i) Better for storing Image data.

(ii) A powerful format for statistical and spatial analysis.

(iii) Easy and efficient overlaying.

(iv) Simple Data Structure.

(v) Same Grid Cell for several attributes.

Qn.20 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Explain the Raster data model Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Raster grids are usually made up of square or rectangular cells. Unlike vector data models, which
show geographic data through points, lines, or polygons, raster data is displays one value in each
cell. This value can be interpreted to mean several different things. Changing the cell size of Raster
data can make the projected image more or less blurry, the . Raster data is especially effective at
representing data that is continuous, such as elevation, precipitation, aspect, and slope. All forms
of digital imagery whether it is from low altitude UAV's, suborbital, or satellite is displayed in a
raster cell grid. Lidar and radar imaging is done in raster. Raster data derived from lidar data is
particularly useful in building digital elevation models.

Structure of Raster Data

The raster logical model represents a single geographic phenomenon (usually, but not always
a field) as a two-dimensional array of samples, usually at regular spacing in both the x and y
directions. Each sample having a single value. The meaning of the sample measurement depends
on which of two conceptual models the measurement framework may use. In a lattice, each value
represents a measurement at a single point. In a grid, each value represents a summary of the
values within a square, such as mean temperature. Each horizontal array of values (having the
same y value) is called a row, and each vertical array (having the same x value) is called a column.
Each sample location (whether point or square) is called a cell, or pixel if the raster is an image.

In most raster data structures, the array is stored as an ordered list of values, either going across
the cells in a row then going to the beginning of the next row (row-major) or going down the cells
in a column then going to the beginning of the next column (column-major). A header is included
at the beginning of the file, providing at least the basic metadata necessary to arrange the list as a
two-dimensional grid in the proper spatial location:

the x,y coordinate of the sample in the first row and column (usually either the Northwest or
Southwest corner)

the dimensions or spacing of each cell, known as the cell size or resolution. Traditionally, the cell
size has been required to be the same in the x and y directions (i.e., the cells are square), but
some modern structures allow this to vary.

the number of rows and columns. Technically, only one of these is required to know how to arrange
the list as an array (depending on whether it is row-major or column-major), but both are usually
included.

the data type of each value (e.g., short integer, long integer, double-precision floating point, ASCII
character), specifically the number of bytes needed for each value.

Other helpful metadata is often included in the header, such as the coordinate system or the units
of measure in which the values are given.

On top of this core data model, GIS and image file formats may add a number of extensions:

Compression. For analytical GIS data, lossless compression algorithms (such as LZW, RLE, or PNG)
are required, while images can be represented by lossy algorithms (such as JPEG).

Mosaics. The Esri Geo database format, as well as other modern GIS formats, allows for multiple
rasters (usually remote sensing imagery) to be collected and represented to users as a single
seamless image, even though the individual rasters are still stored separately.

Scale Hierarchies. To improve drawing performance at smaller scales, many formats allow users to
resample the original raster at a series of coarser resolutions, typically called a pyramid file. These
can then be read directly when displaying at a corresponding scale rather than re sampling at
display time.

Advantages of Raster Data

One of the great advantages of Raster data is the ability to portray continuous data which other
wise could not be displayed by points, lines, and polygons.

Limitations of Raster Data

Most of the output maps for raster data could not be used by cartographers because of it's
inaccuracy. The image of a non-contiguous maps will not be as accurate as vector data map would
be due to the distortion created by the different cell sizes

Topic: 3.7 What is Topographic model

Qn.21 (Marks: 3)
Name: T.Madhukar
Write a short on Topological Errors in GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Topological Errors in GIS

Topological errors can occur when data is scanned or digitized. They can be the result of human or
computer error. They can also occur when raster data is turned into vector data. In both cases,
vector lines are created but then must be further processed to form topologically correct
relationships, especially when creating polygons. Some examples of this include: overshoot,
undershoot, sliver polygons, unclosed polygons, and mismatching adjacent polygons. Topological
errors are dangerous to geographic information systems because they break the relationship
between features which prohibits correct analyses from being performed. These errors can be
corrected by a variety of tools available in different geographic information systems. Most of these
tools are able to look at problem areas and extend lines that don’t quite meet or fill in gaps in
polygons within a certain tolerance that is set by the user.

Qn.22 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Write an essay on Topological modelling in GIS Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

Topological modeling

A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial
data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be
performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency
(what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to
something else).

Topology in GIS

In geodatabases, a topology is a set of rules that defines how point, line, and polygon features
share coincident geometry. Topology describes the means whereby lines, borders, and points meet
up, intersect, and cross. This includes how street centerlines and census blocks share common
geometry, and adjacent soil polygons share their common boundaries. Another example could be
how two counties that have a common boundary between them will share an edge, creating a
spatial relationship.

Common terms used when referring to topology include: dimensionality, adjacency, connectivity,
and containment, with all but dimensional dealing directly with the spatial relationships of
features.

Dimensionality - the distinction between point, line, area, and volume, which are said to have
topological dimensions of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Adjacency - including the touching of land parcels, counties, and nation-states (They share a
common border).

Connectivity - including junctions between streets, roads, railroads, and rivers (Very common
topological error. See diagrams about "Overshoot" below).

Containment - when a point lies inside rather than outside an area.

Topology defines and enforces data integrity rules (there should be no gaps between polygons). It
supports topological relationship queries and navigation (navigating feature adjacency or
connectivity), sophisticated editing tools, and allows feature construction from unstructured
geometry (constructing polygons from lines).

Addressing topology is more than providing a data storage mechanism. In GIS, topology is
maintained by using some of the following aspects:
1. The geo database includes a topological data model using an open storage format for simple
features (i.e., feature classes of points, lines, and polygons), topology rules, and topologically
integrated coordinates among features with shared geometry. The data model includes the ability
to define the integrity rules and topological behavior of the feature classes that participate in a
topology.

2. Most GIS programs include a set of tools for query, editing, validation, and error correction of
topology.

3. GIS software can navigate topological relationships, work with adjacency and connectivity, and
assemble features from these elements. It can identify the polygons that share a specific common
edge; list the edges that connect at a certain node; navigate along connected edges from the
current location; add a new line and "burn" it into the topological graph; split lines at intersections;
and create resulting edges, faces, and nodes.

Elements of a geo database topology

In a geo database, the following properties are defined for each topology:

The name of the topology to be created

The cluster tolerance used in topological processing operations. The cluster tolerance is often a
term used to refer to two tolerances: the x,y tolerance and the z-tolerance. The default value for
the cluster tolerance is 10 times the coordinate resolution.

List of feature classes. First you need a list of the feature classes that will participate in a topology.
All must be in the same coordinate system and organized into the same feature dataset.

The relative accuracy rank of the coordinates in each feature class. If some feature classes are
more accurate than others, you will want to assign a higher coordinate rank. This will be used in
topological validation and integration. Coordinates of a lower accuracy will be moved to the
locations of more accurate coordinates when they fall within the cluster tolerance of one another.
Features with the highest accuracy should receive a value of 1, less accurate feature classes a
value of 2, even less accurate feature classes a value of 3, and so on.

A list of topology rules for how features share geometry.

Topological Errors in GIS:

Topological errors can occur when data is scanned or digitized. They can be the result of human
or computer error. They can also occur when raster data is turned into vector data. In both cases,
vector lines are created but then must be further processed to form topologically correct
relationships, especially when creating polygons. Some examples of this include: overshoot,
undershoot, sliver polygons, unclosed polygons, and mismatching adjacent polygons. Topological
errors are dangerous to geographic information systems because they break the relationship
between features which prohibits correct analyses from being performed. These errors can be
corrected by a variety of tools available in different geographic information systems.
Most of these tools are able to look at problem areas and extend lines that don’t quite
meet or fill in gaps in polygons within a certain tolerance that is set by the user.
Topic: 3.8 Discuss the conversion between the Vector model and Raster
model
Qn.23 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Differentiate between Raster data model and Vector data model Mobile: 9177701113

Answer.

There are two essential methods used to store information in a Geographic Information System –
GIS for both reflections: Raster and Vector Data Model. GIS data represents real-world objects
such as roads, land use, elevation with digital data. The Real world objects or features of earth
can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a Tree) and continuous fields (like
elevation).

Raster Data Model

A raster data type is made up of pixel or cells and each pixel has an associated value. Digital
Photography is the best example of raster data type model, anyone who is familiar with digital
photography can recognize the pixels as the smallest individual unit of an image, where each
pixel value in the image corresponds to a particular color and the combination of these pixels will
create an image. As of now, the best example of raster data that is commonly used is Aerial
photos, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of
digitization. Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells and these each cells stores a
single value. Raster data can be images (raster images) with each pixel containing a color value.
In Raster, data is represented as a grid of (usually square) cells. Each cell of a raster, stores a
single value and it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue)
colors.

Raster Data Model Advantages

1. Better for storing Image data.

2. A powerful format for statistical and spatial analysis.
3. Easy and efficient overlaying.
4. Simple Data Structure.
5. Same Grid Cell for several attributes.

Raster Data Model Disadvantages

1. Dataset can be large, storage space can be a problem.

2. Network analysis is difficult to perform.
3. Loss of information when using large cells.
4. Insufficient projection transformation.
5. Difficult in a representation of Topology connections.

Vector Data Model

Vector data represent the features as an individual point, and they are stored as pairs of (x, y)
coordinates. If these points are joined, they create a lines feature, or if they joined into a closed
ring, they create a polygon, but all vector data fundamentally consists of lists of coordinates that
define vertices and paths. Vectors are frequently used in all kinds of applications. One common
area is urban planning, where land parcels and buildings are often represented as polygons,
roads as poly lines or polygons (road edge), and small features like telephone poles are
represented by points.

Geographical features are best to represent by below-mentioned types of geometry:

Points When geographic features are too small to represent as polygons, points features are used;
in other words, simple location. For example, the locations of Trees, depth, Point Of Interest.
These vector points are simply XY Co-ordinates.

Lines or poly lines vector lines or poly lines connect with each vertex with paths, they usually
represent features that are linear such as rivers, roads, railroads, and pipelines.

Polygons Cartographers used polygons to display geographic features that have an area. For
example, it may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or land uses.

Vector features are group into layers and features in a specific layer have the same geometry
type. For example, if a layer contains a Polygons feature, then GIS application will only allow a
user to create a new polygon feature in the same layer. Each of the vector features is stored in a
database along with their attributes. For example, a database that describes a Street may contain
a Street’s Name, Type, speed limit. The User can perform spatial analysis with different
geometries.

Vector Data Model Advantages

1. Compact data structure – Need less space for storing data.

2. Accurate Graphic output.
3. Since most information, e.g. printed version maps, is in vector form no data
conversion is required.
4. Exact geographic location of data is maintained.
5. Easily make a connection between topology and network, efficient for network
analysis.

Vector Data Model Disadvantages

1. The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.

2. It has a complex Data Structure.
3. Difficult overlay operations.
4. high spatial variability is inefficiently represented.
5. Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are impossible.

Qn.24 (Marks: 5)
Name: T.Madhukar
Discuss the conversion between the Raster model and Vector model Mobile: 9177701113
Answer.
Raster-to-vector translation:

Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For
example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by
generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell
spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion.

More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed
in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false
color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two
dimensional Fourier transforms. Since digital data is collected and stored in various
ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to
convert geographic data from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit
assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Object
ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of object-oriented
programming and sustained work by Barry Smith and co-workers.

The process of raster to vector conversion includes tracing the contents of raster images
using edge detection. Some of these software are simple and only convert images to
black colored vectors or vectors of defined single color. The advanced ones detect and
trace colors, thus rendering colorful vectors.

Some of these software to convert Raster to vector also allow you to tweak the values of
detailing, edge detection, and various other parameters for desired conversion. Real time
review has also been provided by some of these raster to vector converter software, so
that you can view the changes as you apply them.

These freeware support a number of image formats for raster to vector conversion. Using
these, you can convert JPEG to vector, PNG to vector, BMP to vector, and TIFF to vector,
pretty easily. The commonly supported vector files for conversion are SVG, EPS, AI, DXF,
and more. So, if you are looking for any of the following types of raster to vector
conversion, then these freeware will help you out: JPEG to SVG, PNG to SVG, JPEG to
EPS, PNG to EPS, JPEG to AI, PNG to AI, JPEG to DXF, PNG to DXF, BMP to EPS, BMP to
SVG, BMP to AI, or BMP to DXF.

The process of raster to vector conversion is simple. First load the image you want to
convert to vector in the Load Image tab. In the Vectorization tab, you will find options to
customize vector output. Here, you can change the levels of Detailization and Neighbor
segments color difference using their respective sliders. As you adjust the above
parameters, you can preview the output vector file by first clicking on Vectorise button,
then Show Result button. Once satisfied with the result, Save the vector image as XAML
or SVG on your PC. The vectorized image is saved in the same folder from where you
loaded the raster image.

The combinations of supported image formats let you carry out some of the most popular
types of conversions for JPEG to vector and PNG to vector.