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Jenth dition

0 N A. VA
KA S• . A P
E 1

1 s
 Contents vii

Process for Preparing a Lesson 62 Student Self-Assessment 98

Step 1: Determine the Learning Goals 62 Tests 99
Step 2: Consider Your Students' Needs 63 Expanding the Usefulness ofTests 99
Step 3: Select, Design, or Adapt a Worthwhile Task 63 Improving Performance on High-Stakes Tests 100
Step 4: Design Lesson Assessments 64 Communicating Grades and Shaping Instruction 100
Step 5: Plan the Before Phase 64 Grading 100
Step 6: Plan the During Phase 65 Shaping Instruction 101
Step 7: Plan the After Phase 65 Resources for Chapter 5 102
Step 8: Reflect and Refine 66
High-Leverage Routines 66
3-Act Math Tasks 67
CHAPTER 6
NumberTalks 67 Teaching Mathematics Equitably
Worked Examples 67 to All Students 103
Warm-ups and Short Tasks 68
Learning Centers 69 Mathematics for Each and Every Student 104
Differentiating Instruction 69 Providing for Students Who Struggle and Those
with Special Needs 105
Open Questions 70
Multitiered System of Support: Response to Intervention 105
Tiered Lessons 70
Implementing Interventions 106
Para ll el Tasks 73
Teaching and Assessing Students with Learning Disabilities 110
Flexible Grouping 73
Adapting for Students with Moderate/Severe Disabilities 112
Planning for Family Engagement 74
Culturally and linguistically Diverse Students 112
Communicating Mathematics Goals 74
Funds of Knowledge 113
Family Math Nights 75
Mathematics as a Language 113
Homework Practices 78
Cu lturally Responsive Mathematics Instruction 114
Resources for Families 79
Involving All Families 80 Teaching Strategies That Support Culturally and linguistically
Diverse Students 116
Resources for Chapter 4 81
Focus on Academic Vocabulary 116
Foster Student Participation during Instruction 118
Implementing Strategies for English Learners 120
Providing for Students Who Are Mathematically Gifted 121
CHAPTER 5
Acceleration and Pacing 122
Creating Assessments for Learning 83
Depth 122
Integrating Assessment into Instruction 83 Complexity 122
What Are the Main Assessment Types? 84 Creativity 122
What Should Be Assessed? 85 Strategies to Avoid 123
Assessment Methods 86 Reducing Resistance and Building Resilience 123
Observations 86 Give Students Choices That Capitalize on Their
Questions 88 Unique Strengths 123
Interviews 88 Nurture Traits of Resilience 123
Tasks 91 Make Mathematics Irresistible 124
Give Students Leadership in Their Own Learning 124
Rubrics and Their Uses 95
Generic Rubrics 95 Resources for Chapter 6 124
Task-Specific Rubrics 96

PART II Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics

Each of these chapters applies the core ideas of Part I to the content taught in K -8 mathematics. Clear discussions are pro-
vided for how to teach the topic, what a learning progression for that topic might be, and what worthwhile tasks look like.
Hundreds of problem-based, engaging tasks and activities are provided to show how the concepts can be developed with
students. These chapters are designed to help you develop pedagogical strategies now, and serve as a resource and reference
for your teaching now and in the future.
 •••
VIII Contents

CHAPTER 7 One More Than and Two More Than (Count On) 190
Developing Early Number Concepts Adding Zero 191
and Number Sense 125 Doubles 192
Combinations of 10 193
Promoting Good Beginnings 126
10 + 193
The Number Core: Quantity, Counting, and Cardinality 127
Making 10 193
Quantity and the Ability to Subitize 127
Use 10 195
Counting 128
Using 5 as an Anchor 195
Cardinality 130
Near-Doubles 195
Thinking about Zero 131
Reasoning Strategies for Subtraction Facts 196
Numeral Writing and Recognition 131
Think-Addition 196
Counting On and Counting Back 133
Down under 10 198
The Relations Core: More Than, Less Than,
Take from 10 198
and Equal To 134
Developing Number Sense by Building Number Reasoning Strategies for Multiplication and
Relationships 136 Division Facts 199
Relationships between Numbers 1 through 10 136 Foundational Facts: 2, 5, 10, 0, and 1 199
Relationships for Numbers 10 through 20 and Beyond 145 Nines 201
Derived Multiplication Fact Strategies 202
Number Sense in Their World 14 7
Division Facts 203
Calendar Activities 14 7
Estimation and Measurement 148 Reinforcing Basic Fact Mastery 205
Represent and Interpret Data 149 Games to Support Basic Fact Fluency 205
Resources for Chapter 7 151 About Drill 207
Fact Remediation 208
Resources for Chapter 9 210

CHAPTER 8
Developing Meanings for the Operations 153 CHAPTER 10
Developing Whole-Number
Developing Addition and Subtraction Operation Sense 154 Place-Value Concepts 211
Addition and Subtraction Problem Structures 155
Teaching Addition and Subtraction 158 Pre-Place-Value Understandings 212

Properties of Addition and Subtraction 164 Developing Whole-Number Place-Value Concepts 213
Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Counting by Ones 213
Developing Multiplication and Division Operation Sense 166
Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Words 214
Multiplication and Division Problem Structures 166
Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Place-Value Notation 215
Teaching Multiplication and Division 169
Properties of Multiplication and Division 17 4 Base-Ten Models for Place Value 215
Groupable Models 216
Strategies for Teaching Operations through
Contextual Problems 175 Pregrouped Models 216
Resources for Chapter 8 182 Nonproportional Models 217
Activities to Develop Base-Ten Concepts 217
Grouping Activities 218
Grouping Tens to Make 100 220
Equivalent Representations 221
CHAPTER 9
Developing Basic Fact Fluency 183 Reading and Writing Numbers 223
Two-Digit Number Names 223
Teaching and Assessing the Basic Facts 184 Three-Digit Number Names 225
Developmental Phases for Learning Basic Facts 184 Written Symbols 225
Approaches to Teaching Basic Facts 184 Place Value Patterns and Relationships-A Foundation
Teaching Basic Facts Effectively 186 for Computation 227
Assessing Basic Facts Effectively 188 The Hundreds Chart 227
Reasoning Strategies for Addition Facts 189 Relative Magnitude Using Benchmark Numbers 230
 Contents ix

Approximate Numbers and Rounding 232 Invented Strategies for Division 283
Connections to Real-World Ideas 232 Standard Algorithm for Division 286
Numbers Beyond 1000 232 Begin with Models 287
Extending the Place-Value System 232 Develop the Written Record 288
Conceptualizing Large Numbers 234 Two-Digit Divisors 290
Resources for Chapter 10 237 A Low-Stress Approach 291
Computational Estimation 292
Teaching Computational Estimation 292
Computational Estimation Strategies 293
CHAPTER 11
Developing Strategies for Addition Resources for Chapter 12 298
and Subtraction Computation 238

Toward Computational Fluency 239

CHAPTER 13
Connecting Addition and Subtraction to Place Value 240
Algebraic Thinking, Equations,
Three Types of Computational Strategies 246 and Functions 299
Direct Modeling 246
Invented Strategies 24 7 Strands of Algebraic Thinking 300
Standard Algorithms 249 Connecting Number and Algebra 300
Development of Invented Strategies in Addition Number Combinations 300
and Subtraction 251 Place-Value Relationships 301
Creating a Supportive Environment for Invented Strategies 251 Algorithms 303
Models to Support Invented Strategies 252 Properties of the Operations 303
Adding and Subtracting Single-Digit Numbers 254 Making Sense of Properties 303
Adding Multidigit Numbers 256 Applying the Properties of Addition and Multiplication 306
Subtraction as "Think-Addition" 258 Study of Patterns and Functions 307
Take-Away Subtraction 259 Repeating Patterns 308
Extensions and Challenges 260 Growing Patterns 309
Standard Algorithms for Addition and Subtraction 261 Relationships in Functions 310
Standard Algorithm for Addition 261 Graphs of Functions 312
Standard Algorithm for Subtraction 263 Linear Functions 314
Introducing Computational Estimation 265 Meaningful Use of Symbols 317
Understanding Computational Estimation 265 Equal and Inequality Signs 318
Suggestions for Teaching Computational Estimation 265 The Meaning of Variables 325
Computational Estimation Strategies 267 Mathematical Modeling 330
Front-End Methods 267 Algebraic Thinking across the Curriculum 332
Rounding Methods 267 Geometry, Measurement and Algebra 332
Compatible Numbers 268 Data and Algebra 333
Resources for Chapter 11 272 Algebraic Thinking 334
Resources for Chapter 13 335

CHAPTER 12
Developing Strategies for Multiplication
and Division Computation 273 CHAPTER 14
Developing Fraction Concepts 337
Invented Strategies for Multiplication 274
Useful Representations 2 74 Meanings of Fractions 338
Multiplication by a Single-Digit Multiplier 275 Fraction Constructs 338
Multiplication of Multidigit Numbers 276 Fraction Language and Notation 339
Standard Algorithms for Multiplication 279 Fraction Size Is Relative 340
Begin with Models 279 Models for Fractions 341
Develop the Written Record 282 Area Models 341
X Contents

Length Models 343 The Role of the Decimal Point 407

Set Models 344 Measu rement and Monetary Units 408
Fractions as Numbers 346 Precision and Equivalence 409
Partitioning 346 Connecting Fractions and Decimals 409
Iterating 354 Say Decimal Fractions Correctly 409
Magnitude of Fractions 357 Use Visual Models for Decimal Fractions 410
Equivalent Fractions 359 Multiple Names and Formats 412
Conceptual Focus on Eq uivalence 359 Developing Decimal Number Sense 414
Equivalent Fraction Models 360 Famil iar Fractions Con nected to Decimals 414
Fractions Greater than 1 363 Comparing and Ordering Decimal Fractions 418
Developing an Equivalent-Fraction Algorithm 365 Computation with Decimals 421
Comparing Fractions 367 Addition and Subtraction 42 1
Comparing Fractions Using Number Sense 367 Multiplication 423
Using Equivalent Fractions to Compare 3 70 Division 426
Teaching Considerations for Fraction Concepts 370 Introducing Percents 428
Fraction Challenges and Misconceptions 3 70 Physical Models and Terminology 428
Resources for Chapter 14 372 Percent Problems in Context 430
Estimation 432
Resources for Chapter 16 434

CHAPTER 15
Developing Fraction Operations 373
CHAPTER 17
Understanding Fraction Operations 37 4 Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional
Effective Teaching Process 37 4 Reasoning 435
Addition and Subtraction 376
Ratios 436
Contextual Examples 376
Types of Ratios 436
Models 377
Ratios Compared to Fractions 43 7
Estimation 380
Two Ways to Think about Ratio 437
Developing the Algorithms 381
Proportional Reasoning 438
Fractions Greater Than One 384
Types of Comparing Situations 439
Challenges and Misconceptions 384
Covariation 443
Multiplication 386
Strategies for Solving Proportional Situations 449
Contextual Examples and Models 386
Rates and Scaling Strategies 450
Estimation 392
Ratio Tables 453
Developing the Algorithms 393
Tape or Strip Diagram 454
Factors Greater Than One 393
Double Number Line Diagrams 455
Challenges and Misconceptions 394
Equations (Cross Products) 456
Division 394
Percent Problems 45 7
Contextual Examples and Models 395
Teaching Proportional Reasoning 458
Answers That Are Not Whole Numbers 400
Estimation 401 Resources for Chapter 17 459
Developing the Algorithms 401
Challenges and Misconceptions 403
Resources for Chapter 15 404
CHAPTER 18
Developing Measurement Concepts 460
CHAPTER"""16 The Meaning and Process of Measuring 461
Developing Decimal and Percent Concepts
Concepts and Skills 462
and Decimal Computation 405
Introducing Nonstandard Units 463
Extending the Place-Value System 406 Introducing Standard Un its 464
The 10-to-1 Relationship- Now in Two Directions! 406 Developing Unit Familiarity 464
 •
Contents XI

Measurement Systems and Units 466 Exploring Properties of Quadrilaterals 519

The Role of Estimation and Approximation 466 Exploring Polygons 52 1
Strategies for Estimating Measu rements 467 Circles 52 1
Measurement Estimation Activities 468 Investigations, Conjectures, and the Development
of Proof 522
Length 469
Comparison Activities 469 Transformations 523
Using Physical Models of Length Un its 4 70 Symmetries 525
Making and Using Rulers 4 71 Composition of Transformations 526
Conversion 4 73 Congruence 528
Similarity 529
Area 474
Dilation 529
Comparison Activities 4 74
Using Physical Models of Area Units 4 75 Location 530
The Relationship between Area and Perimeter 4 77 Coordinate Plane 53 1
Developing Formu las for Perimeter and Area 4 79 Measuring Distance on the Coord inate Plane 534

Volume and Capacity 484 Visualization 534

Comparison Activities 485 Two-Dimensional Imagery 535
Using Physical Models of Vol ume and Capacity Units 486 Three-Dimensional lmagery 536
Developing Formu las for Volumes of Common Resources for Chapter 19 542
Solid Shapes 487
Weight and Mass 489
Comparison Activities 489
Using Physical Models of Weight or Mass Un its 489 CHAPTER 20
Angles 490 Developing Concepts of Data and Statistics 543
Comparison Activities 490
What Does It Mean to Do Statistics? 544
Using Physical Models of Angu lar Measu re Units 490
Is It Statistics or Is It Mathematics? 545
Using Protractors 49 1
The Shape of Data 545
Time 492
The Process of Doing Statistics 546
Comparison Activities 492
Formulating Questions 549
Reading Clocks 493
Classroom Questions 549
Elapsed Time 494
Questions beyond Self and Classmates 549
Money 495
Data Collection 552
Recogn izing Coins and Identifying Their Val ues 495
Sampl ing 552
Resources for Chapter 18 499
Using Existing Data Sources 553
Data Analysis: Classification 554
Attribute Materials 554

CHAPTER 19 Data Analysis: Graphical Representations 557

Developing Geometric Thinking Creating Graphs 557
and Geometric Concepts 500 Bar Graphs 558
Pie Charts and Circle Graphs 560
Geometry Goals for Students 501 Contin uous Data Graphs 561
Developing Geometric Thinking 501 Bivariate Data 564
The van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thought 502 Data Analysis: Measures of Center and Variability 568
Implications for Instruction 506 Measures of Center 568
Shapes and Properties 507 Understanding the Mean 569
Sorting and Classifying 508 Choosing a Measure of Center 572
Composing and Decomposing Shapes 510 Variability 574
Categories of Two- and Three-Dimensional Shapes 512 Analyzing Data 576
Construction Activities 515 Interpreting Results 577
Applying Definitions and Categories 516
Resources for Chapter 20 578
Exploring Properties of Triangles 516
Midsegments of a Triangle 518
xi i Contents

CHAPTER 22
CHAPTER 21 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers,
Exploring Concepts of Probability 580 and Real Numbers 604

Introducing Probability 581 Exponents 605

Likely or Not Likely 581 Exponents in Expressions and Equations 605
The Probability Continuum 584 Order of Operations 606
Theoretical Probability and Experiments 585 Exploring Exponents on the Calculator 609
Process for Teaching Probability 586 Integer Exponents 610
Theoretical Probability 587 Scientific Notation 611
Experiments 589 Positive and Negative Numbers 614
Why Use Experiments? 592 Contexts for Exploring Positive and Negative Numbers 614
Use ofTechnology in Experiments 592 Meaning of Negative Numbers 616
Sample Spaces and the Probability of Compound Events 593 Tools for Illustrating Positive and Negative Numbers 618
Independent Events 593 Operations with Positive and Negative Numbers 619
Area Representation 596 Addition and Subtraction 619
Dependent Events 597 Multiplication 623
Simulations 598 Division 624
Student Assumptions Related to Probability 601 Real Numbers 626
Resources for Chapter 21 602 Rati onaiNu m be~ 626
Irrational Numbers 627
Supporting Student Reasoning about Number 629
Resources for Chapter 22 631

APPENDIX A Standards for Mathematical Practice 632

APPENDIX B NCTM Mathematics Teaching Practices from Principles to Actions 635
APPENDIX C Guide to Blackline Masters 637
APPENDIX D Activities at a Glance 643

References 662
Index 687
Credits 697
 Preface
All students can learn mathematics with understanding. It is through the teacher's actions that
every student can have this experience. We believe that teachers must create a classroom envi-
ronment in which students are given opportunities to solve problems and work together, using
their ideas and strategies, to solve them. Effective mathematics instruction involves posing
tasks that engage students in the mathematics they are expected to learn. Then, by allowing
students to interact with and productively struggle with their (JWn mathematical ideas and their
own strategies, they will learn to see the connections among mathematical topics and the real
world. Students value mathematics and feel empowered to use it.
Creating a classroom in which students design solution pathways, engage in productive
struggle, and connect one mathematical idea to another, is complex. Questions arise, such as,
"How do I get students to wrestle with problems if they just want me to show them how to
do it? What kinds of tasks lend themselves to this type of engagement? Where can I learn the
mathematics content I need to be able to teach in this way?" With these and other questions
firmly in mind, we have several objectives in the tenth edition of this textbook:
1. Illustrate what it means to teach mathematics using a problem-based approach.
2. Serve as a go-to reference for all of the mathematics content suggested for grades preK-8
as recommended in the Common Core State Standards (NGA Center & CCSSO, 2010)
and in standards used in other states, and for the research-based strategies that illustrate
how students best learn this content.
3. Present a practical resource of robust, problem-based activities and tasks that can engage
students in the use of significant mathematical concepts and skills.
4. Focus attention on student thinking, including the ways students might reason about num-
bers, and possible challenges and misconceptions they might have.
We are hopeful that you will find that this book is a valuable resource for teaching and learning
mathematics!

New to this Edition

The following are highlights of the most significant changes in the tenth edition.

Common Challenges and Misconceptions

Every chapter in Part II offers at least one table that summarizes common challenges stu-
dents encounter in learning that topic (Chapter 15, Fraction Operations has three). The table
includes the challenge, provides an example of what that might look like in either a sample of
student work or a statement, and then offers some brief ideas of what you might do to help.
Knowing common student challenges and misconceptions is a critical part of planning and can
greatly influence how a lesson is structured and what problems you use. The research from
many sources has been merged into these practical references.

Routines
More and more classrooms are using innovative lesson designs and short discussion routines to
help students develop number sense, flexibility, and the mathematical practices. In Chapter 4,
we have added se new sections on: 3-Act Tasks, Number Talks, and Worked Examples. For

xiii
xiv Preface

example, worked examples are mentioned in some of the tables identifying student challenges,
because there is research to suggest that analyzing worked examples is effective in helping
students learn.

Mathematical Modeling
Since the ninth edition, there has been significant national dialogue about the importance of
mathematical modeling and what this might look like across the grades. The Guidelines for
Assessment & Instruction in Mathematical Modeling Education (GAIMME) Report (COMAP &
SIAM, 2016) provides excellent guidance. Therefore, the section in Chapter 13 on mathemat-
ical modeling was completely rewritten to reflect the GAIMME report, as well as to showcase
a number of excellent books and articles that have emerged recently.

Infusion of Technology
You may notice that Chapter 7 (Technology) from the previous edition is gone. Readers and
reviewers have commented that this chapter is not needed in part because using technology
is much more commonly understood and used, and in part because it makes far more sense to
talk about technology as it relates to the mathematics. We have heard you and we have integrated
technology discussions, tools, and ideas throughout the book.

Mylab Education
Digital learning and assessment resources have been expanded significantly via MyLab Educa-
tion. The following resources have been designed to help you develop the pedagogical knowl-
edge and content knowledge needed to be a successful teacher of mathematics:
• Video examples: Embedded throughout all chapters, these examples allow you to see
key concepts in action through authentic classroom video, as well as clips of children
solving math problems. Additional videos feature your authors and other experts intro-
ducing and briefly explaining strategies for teaching important topics.
• Self-checks: Designed for self-study, these multiple-choice items are tied to each chap-
ter learning outcome, and help you assess how well you have mastered the concepts
covered in the reading. These exercises are self-grading and provide a rationale for the
correct answer.
• Application exercises: Video and scenario-based exercises appear throughout the chap-
ters and provide an opportunity for you to apply what you have learned to real classroom
situations. There are also ten exercises on observing and responding to student thinking that
include video clips of children talking through and solving problems on a whiteboard
app; accompanying questions ask you to analyze and child's reasoning, identify any mis-
conceptions, and explain any actions or prompts you might use as the teacher to guide
the student's learning. Expert feedback is provided after submitting your response.
• Math practice: Located at the end of most content chapters, these sets of questions
provide an opportunity to practice or refresh your own mathematics skills through
solving exercises associated with the content from that chapter. These questions are
also self-grading.
• Blackline masters, activity pages, and expanded lessons: These documents are
linked throughout each chapter and make it easy for instructors and students to down-
load and print classroom-ready handouts that can be used in a methods class or school
.
settings.

Major Changes to Specific Chapters

Every chapter in the tenth edition has been revised to reflect the most current research, stan-
dards, and exemplars. This is evident in the approximately 300 new references in the tenth
 Preface XV

edition! This represents our ongoing commitment to synthesize and present the most current
evidence of effective mathematics teaching. Here we share changes to what we consider the
most significant (and that have not already been mentioned above).

Teaching Mathematics in the 21st Century (Chapter 1)

The new Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (AMTE) Standards for Preparing
Teachers of Mathematics (AMTE, 2017) are described in Chapter 1. We added a section on
how to create a whole school agreement with a cohesive mathematics message.

Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

(Chapter 2)
Chapter 2 was revised in several significant ways, including revisions to the exemplar tasks (one
in each content domain) to each have a common format, and to each have a stronger focus
on multiple strategies. The discussions on theory were condensed, and making connections
between theory and teaching were revised to be more succinct and explicit.

Teaching through Problem Solving (Chapter 3)

The NCTM Teaching Practices (2014) have been integrated into Chapter 3. A completely
revamped section, now titled Developing Procedural Fluency, focuses on the importance of
connecting conceptual and procedural knowledge, and includes a new list of ways to adapt
drill-related tasks to emphasize understanding and connections (Boaler, 2016). Talk moves in
the Discourse section have been revised to include eight talk moves (Chapin, O'Conner, &
Anderson, 2013).

Teaching through Problem Solving (Chapter 4)

Beyond the new routines section (described above), the families section was heavily revised and
the lesson plan steps condensed and formatted for easier readability.

Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All Students (Chapter 6)

We expanded our emphasis on using an asset-based approach, focusing on students'
strengths rather than deficits. We emphasize a focus on using students' prior knowledge
and experiences to drive instructional decisions. There is also a revamping of the section
on gifted and talented students including attention to an excellence gap (students who may
be overlooked).

Basic Facts (Chapter 9)

Recent research (e.g., Baroody et al., 2016) has uncovered a new and effective addition reason-
ing strategy-Use 10, which has been added to this chapter, along with new visuals and insights
on teaching subtraction facts effectively.

Developing Strategies for Multiplication and Division

(Chapter 12)
In new updates in this chapter, there are expanded examinations of the written records of com-
puting multiplication and division problems including lattice multiplication, open arrays, and
partial quotients. There is also a new section of the use of the break apart or decomposition
strategy for division. A conversation about the selection of numbers for computational estima-
tion problems is also shared.
 •
XVI Preface

Algebraic Thinking, Equations, and Functions (Chapter 13)

In addition to the new section on mathematical modeling, there are several new ideas and
strategies for supporting algebraic thinking, including adapting the hundreds chart to
explore patterns and options for creating tables with more structure to help students notice
relationships.

Developing Fraction Concepts (Chapters 14)

Fraction concepts has an expanded focus on the fundamental ideas of sharing and iterating.
This chapter also has been reorganized, has more contexts for comparing fractions, and more
attention to student challenges in understanding fractions.

Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional Reasoning (Chapter 17)

The sections on additive and multiplicative reasoning have been significantly revised, includ-
ing a new discussion on social justice mathematics. Additionally, significantly more literature
connections are provided in this chapter and new activities.

Developing Concepts of Data Analysis (Chapter 20)

This chapter had numerous enhancements and changes! In addition to four new figures and
completely updated technology options, the discussion of variability is woven throughout the
chapter (including more attention to measures that are resistant to outlier), and sections on
boxplots, histograms, and bivariate data were expanded and revised (see new subsection on
bivariate categorical data).

An Introduction to Teaching Developmentally

If you look at the table of contents, you will see that the chapters are separated into
two distinct sections. The first section consists of six chapters and covers important ideas
that cross the boundaries of specific areas of content. The second section, consisting of
16 chapters, offers teaching suggestions and activities for every major mathematics topic
in the preK-8 curriculum. Chapters in Part I offer perspectives on the challenging task
of helping students learn mathematics. Having a feel for the discipline of mathematics-
that is, to know what it means to "do mathematics"-is critical to learning how to teach
mathematics well. In addition, understanding constructivist and sociocultural perspectives
on learning mathematics and how they are applied to teaching through problem solving
provides a foundation and rationale for how to teach and assess preK-8 students. You will
be teaching diverse students including students who are English learners, are gifted, or
have disabilities. In this text, you will learn how to apply instructional strategies in ways
that support and challenge all learners. Formative assessment strategies and strategies for
diverse learners are addressed in specific chapters in Part I (Chapters 5, and 6, respectively),
and throughout Part II chapters.
Each chapter of Part II focuses on one of the major content areas in preK-8 mathematics
curriculum. It begins with identifying the big ideas for that content, and provides guidance on
how students best learn that content through many problem-based activities to engage them
in understanding mathematics, as well as considering what challenges they may encounter and
how you might help them.
Hundreds of tasks and activities are embedded in the text. Take out pencil and paper, or use
technology, and try the problems, thinking about how you might solve them and how students
at the intended grades might solve them. This is one way to actively engage in your learning
about students learning mathematics. In so doing, this book will increase your own understand-
ing of mathematics, the students you teach, and how to teach them effectively.
 Preface xvii

Some Special Features of This Text

By flipping through the book, you will notice many section headings, a large number of figures,
and various special features. All are designed to make the book more useful as a long-term
resource. Here are a few things to look for.

C H APTER
Developing Fraction Concepts
LEARNER OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to: ~ Learning Outcomes
14.1 Describe and give examples for fractions constructs and fraction models.
14.2 Explain foundational concepts of fractional parts, including iteration and partitioning.
To help readers know what they
14.3 Illustrate the concept of equivalence across fraction models.
14.4 Describe strategies for comparing fractions and ways to teach this topic conceptually. should expect to learn, each chap-
ter begins with learning outcomes.
F ractions a re one of the most importam mpics .students need to understand to be successful
in algebra a nd beyond, yet it is an are-a in which U.S. srudents, as well as students in man y
commies, s truggle (OECD, 2014). National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Self-checks are numbered to cover
results have-consis tently shown that students have a weak understanding of fraction concepts
(Sowder & Weame, 2006; Wearne & Kouba, 2000). This lack of understanding is t hen o-.ns· and thus align with each learning
laced into difficulties v.~th fraction computation, decimal and pe-r cent concepts, and algebra
(Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, & Geary, 20 12; Booth & Newton, 201 2; Brown & Quinn, 2007; outcome.
National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, & Z hou, 20 13). ' C11erefore,
it is critical that you reach fracdons well, p resent fractions as interesting and important, and
commit to helping s tudents understand the meaning of fractions.

BIG IDEAS ~ Big Ideas

• f ractions can and should be represented across different interpretations (e.g., part-whole
and division) and different models: area (e.g., l of a garden}. length (e.g.. ~ of an inch) . and
set (e.g .. ~ of the marbles). Much of the research and litera-
• Fractions are equal shares of a whole or a unit. Therefore, equal sharing activities {e.g.,
2 sandwiches shared with 4 friends) build on wt'IOIEHJumber knowledge to introduce frac·
ture espousing a student-centered
tional quantities.
approach suggests that teachers
• Partitioning and iterating are ways students to understand the meaning of fractions. Parti·
tioning can be thought of as splitting the whole equally {e.g.. splitting a whole into fourths), plan their instruction around big ideas
and iterating can be thought of as making a copy of each piece and counting them (e.g..
one-fourth, two.fourths, etc.). rather than isolated skills or con-
• Equivalent tractions are ways of describing the same amount by using d ifferent-s ized frac·
tional parts. cepts. At the beginning of each chap-
• f ractions can be compared by reasoning about the relative s ize of the fractions. Estimation
and reasoning are important in teaching understanding of fractions.
ter in Part II, you will find a list of the
337 big mathematical ideas associated
with the chapter. Teachers find these
lists helpful to quickly envision the
mathematics they are to teach.
xviii Preface

Activity 21.9 CCSS·M: 7.G .B.4; 7.SP.C.6; 7 .SP.C.7b

Chance of Hitting the Target? ~ Activities
Project a target such as the one illustrated here with concentric circles havfng radii of 2 inches, 6 inches, 8 inches, and 10 Inches,
each region shaded a different color. Ask students to determine the fraction and percent of each colored region In the circle. The numerous activities found in every chapter of
Part II have always been rated by readers as one of
the most valuable parts of the book. Some activity
ideas are described directly in the text and in the
illustrations. Others are presented in the numbered
Activity boxes. Every activity is a problem-based
Ask students to discuss what the probability for landing on the center (assuming all throws land on the circle and are thrown
randomly). Ask students to discuss why data may or may not match the percent of the area that Is covered (e.g., people with
task (as described in Chapter 3) and is designed to
good aim will be able to hit the smaller areas more often). Then, have students propose what point values they would assign engage students in doing mathematics.
to each region. Students may assign values In various ways. For example, they may think the skinny outer circle is harder to
land on and give it more points than other sections, even though the area of that region may be more. Allow them time to
share their reasoning and to critique others' ways of assigning points.

Adaptations for Students with Special Needs and

Activity 9.2 CCSS·M: 1 .0A .A.1; 1.0A.C.6;
English Learners ...,.. 2.0A.B.2
How Many Feet in the Bed?
Chapter 6 provides detailed background and strategies for how Read How Many Feet in the Bed? by Diane Johnston Hamm. On the second
EHOUSH
LEARNERS
time through the book, ask students how many more feet are In the bed when
to support students with special needs and English learners a new person gets in. Ask students to record the equation (e.g., n ...,. ? ) and tell

(Els). But, many adaptations are specific to a activity or task. how many. Two less can be considered as family members get out of the bed.
Find opportunities to make the connection between counting on and adding
Therefore, Part II chapters offer adaptations and instructions using a number line. For ELs, be sure that they know what the phrases "two

within activities (look for the icon) that can meet the needs of
more" and "two less" mean (and clarify the meaning of foot, which is also used
for measuring). Acting out with students In the classroom can be a great illustra·
....
STUDENTS
SPECIAL
N.EEDS
tion for both El s and students with disabilities.
students with spec ial needs and Els.

~ Formative Assessment
Notes
D FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Notes. To assess understand ing of division algorithms, call
on different students to expla in ind ividua l steps using the appropriate terminology that
connects to the concept of division. Use an Observation Checklist to record students' responses, Assessment is an integral process
indicating how well they understand the algorithm. For students who are having difficulty, you
may want to conduct a short diagnostic interview to explore their level of understanding in with in instruction. Similarly, it makes
more deta il. Begin by having the student complete 115 + 9 and ask them to talk about what sense to think about what to be listen-
they are thinking as they carry out specific steps in the process. If there is difficulty explaining,
have the student use base-ten materia ls to directly model the problem and attempt to link the ing for (assessing) as you read about
actions to tl1e procedure. Then ask them to discuss verbally tl1e connections between what was different areas of content develop-
done witl1 the models and what was written symbolically. •
ment. Throughout the content chap-
ters, there are formative assessment
notes with brief descriptions of ways
to assess the topic in that section.
Reading these assessment notes as
you read the text can help you under-
stand how best to assist students
who struggle.

Technology Notes ...,..

. . TECHNOLOGY Note. An amazing computer tool for drawing two-dimensional views
Infusing technologica l tools is important W of block buildings is the Isometric Drawing Tool, available at the NGrM Illuminations
website. Using mouse clicks student~ can draw either whole cubes, faces, o r just lines. The
in learning mathematics. We have infused d rawings, however, are actually "buildings" and can be viewed as three-dimensional object~
technology notes throughout Part II. A tech- that when rotated can be seen from any vantage point. P repared investigations lead students
through the features of the tool. •
nology icon is used to identify places within
the text or activity where a technology idea or
resource is discussed. Descriptions include
open-source (free) software, applets, and
other Web-based resources, as well as ideas
for calculator use.
\._
 Preface xix

~Standards for Mathematical Practice

Standards for Margin Notes
Mathematical
• Practice Connections to the eight Standards of Mathe-
MP1. Make sense of matical Practice from the Common Core State
problems and persevere Standards are highlighted in the margins. The
in so lving them. location of the note indicates an example of the
identified practice in the nearby text.

~ End of Chapter Resources

3 72 Chapter 14 Developing Fraction Concepts
The end of each chapter there are Resources,
which include "Literature Connections" (found in all
RESOURCES FOR CHAPTER 14
Part II chapters) and "Recommended Readings."

Literature Connections. Here you will find exam-

LITERATURE CONNECTIONS Tm r.:t-ullm t tipt fOr u acbing fntrtious an disNmcd and
The Ooorbell Rang firooriu llrtivitiu 11r~ sharrd. Au crullmt ovrrvirw ofuacbing
fmrtirms.
ples of great ch ildren's literature for launch ing into
Hutchins (1986)
Often used to investifr-1te whole-number operations of rnul-
tiJ)licatio n and d i,rision, this book is a.lso '1\n excellent e:\rly
Lewi,, R. M., Gibbons, L. K., Kazemi, E., & LindT. (20 15).
Unwrapf)ing students ideas n.bout fractions. Teaching
the mathematics concepts in the chapter just read .
introduction to frnc:tions. The story is a simr)le tale of two
chiltiren preparing to share a plate of I 2 cookies.] ust as they
Cbildrn1 M11tbm111tia, 22(3), 158-1 68.
Tbit rxrrllmt r~11d providu 11 b(JTIJ-to for impkmm tiug tbtrr-
For each title suggested, there is a brief descrip-
have figured out how to share the cookies, the doorbell rings
and more chilttren arrive. You <:an change the nuJnber of chil-
ing uukt, inrluding StlfUmcing of w:skt, questions to posr, and
finYIIIltivrt as:sumum tool ta 'llumitor smdmt Jmdcntanding.
tion of how the mathematics concepts in the
d ren to create 11. sh:tring situation that req uires fractions (e.g.,
8 children).
Freeman, D. W , & j orgensen, T. A. (20 15). Moving beyond
brownies n.nd pizz.:1s. Ttachiug Cbildrm !11ftl'tbmllltia, l/{7),
chapter can be connected to the story. These lit-
The Man Who Counted: A Collection of Mathe-
4 12-420.
Tbit arn·rlr dcscril!rs sntdmt tbiu/.:ing lis thry compttr~ frac-
erature-based mathematics activities will help you
matical Adventu res
Tahan ( 1993) tious. In tb~ 'l!lorNU pttgrs, thry offir rxrrlk ut Ub of tasks
witb a raugr of rrmtrxb, rach Nt fomsiug 0 11 a diffirnlt rra-
engage students in interesting contexts for doing
This book contains a stOr)•, ~ Beasts of Bunien," about:\ wise
mathem:lticlan, Beremiz., and the n.arrator, who are traveling soniug st1·11ugy fOr r:rrmpariugfmcticms.
mathematics.
together on one camel. The)• are asketi b)• tluee brotherS to
solve an n.rgument: Tbt'irfitthn· h11t lrft thrm 15 cltm~k to dit:idc Books
JI'IJumg thrm: half f.(J one brothr1~ our-tbird f .(J tmoth~t; and mtr-
uinth to thr tbird brotbn·. T he story is an excellent context for
Lamon, S. (20 I Z). Tcachiugfractiont and r·ati.(lt for tmdn'1tand-
ing: Essmtiltl ctmtmt kn.(I'W/cdgr and inttrurtiqmtf stntugi~s.
Recommended Readings. In this section, you will
fractional part;; of sets (and t~.ddi~g fractions). Cht~.nging the
number of <:amels to 36 or 34, does not solve tlte challenge
New York, NY: Taylor & Fr:tncis Group.
At thr title impliu, this b(I(Jk btu a wraith of iujOnmlfiun to
find an annotated list of articles and books to aug-
because the sum o f },}, and & will never be one whole, no
matter how m:\ny camels n.re involved. See Bresser (1995) for
b~lp tvith bmcr uudcrstandingfrt~rtirms and trachiugfrarrions
u·~JI. J\1an)' rich tasks 1md studmt u:or/.: 11r~ prrn.ridrd th-rough-
ment the information found in the chapter. These
three <h )•S of t~.ctivities with this book. out.
McN•mara,J., & Sh•ughnessy, M. M. (20 10). Bryo11d piozos
recommendations include NCTM articles and
Apple Fractions
and pia: 10 c;smtial sh·augirs fin· supporting fittrtirm srnsr
Pallotta (2002)
(gmdu 3-5). Sausalito, CA: Math Solutions Publications.
books, and other professional resources designed
T1tis book offers interesting fucts !l.bout apr,les while intnxluc-
ing fractio ns n.s fuir shares (of ar,ples, a healthier option than
books th.:u focus on chooola.te n.nti cookjes!). In ttddition, the
Tbit book bat it a/1-cltwroum tlignctus, discussion ofrrsran:h
on Wtrbing frm:tious, and many llctivitia, including studmt
for the classroom teacher.
words fo r fractions are useti n.ntl connected to frnction sym- work.
~
bc)ls, nu1king it n. go<xi connection for frnctions in grnties 1-3.
Websltes
RECOMMENDED READINGS Ration!l.l Number Project (http://www.<:ehd.umn.edu/<:i/
rationalnumberprojectlmf) 1-09 .html).
Articles
Tbit projrrt offi,.s ctwllmt l~ssont tmd otb~r matrrillb for
Clarke, D. M., Roche, A., & Mitchell, A. (2008). Ten prncti-
Ullchiugfi-action ctmcrpb rj}~ctiu~Jy.
cal tif)S for mn.king frnctions come alive and make sense.
i\1JI'tbm111tia Ttttrhing in tlu !11fiddl~ Srbool, I 1(7), 373--380.
XX Preface

Supplements for Instructors

Qualified college adopters can contact their Pearson sales representatives for information on
ordering any of the supplements described below. These instructor supplements are all posted
and available for download (click on Educators) from the Pearson Instructor Resource Center
at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc. The IRC houses the following:
• Instructor's resource manual: The Instructor's Resource Manual for the tenth edi-
tion includes a wealth of resources designed to help instructors teach the course, includ-
ing chapter notes, activity suggestions, and suggested assessment and test questions.
• Electronic test bank: An electronic test bank (TB) contains hundreds of challenging
questions as multiple-choice or short-answer questions. Instructors can choose from
these questions and create their own customized exams.
• PowerPoint™ presentation: Ideal for instructors to use for lecture presentations or
student handouts, the PowerPoint presentation provides ready-to-use graphics and text
images tied to the individual chapters and content development of the text.

Acknowledgments
Many talented people have contributed to the success of this book and we are deeply grateful
to all those who have assisted over the years. Without the success of the first edition, there
would certainly not have been a second, much less ten editions. The following people worked
closely with John on the first edition, and he was sincerely indebted to Warren Crown, John
Dossey, Bob Gilbert, and Steven Willoughby, who gave time and great care in offering detailed
comments on the original manuscript.
In preparing this tenth edition, we have received thoughtful input from the following math-
ematics teacher educators who offered comments on the ninth edition. Each reviewer challenged
us to think through important issues. Many specific suggestions have found their way into this
book, and their feedback helped us focus on important ideas. Thank you to Jessica Cohen,
Western Washington University; Shea Mosely Culpepper, University of Houston; Shirley
Dissler, High Point University; Cynthia Gautreau, California State University in Fullerton;
Kevin LoPresto, Radford University; Ryan Nivens, East Tennessee State University; Adrienne
Redmond-Sanogo, Oklahoma State University; and Douglas Roebuck, Ball State University.
We are indebted to you for your dedicated and professional insight.
Additionally, we are very grateful for the ideas and reviews as we developed the tenth
edition. Graham Fletcher, mathematics specialist, Atlanta, Georgia, provided strong support
in the development of high leverage routines, including, of course, the new section on 3-Act
Tasks. Susan Peters, mathematics teacher educator, University of Louisville, provided critical
feedback and helpful ideas for developing concepts of data analysis. Their input resulted in
significant improvements to those chapters. We continue to seek suggestions from teachers
who use this book so please email us at [email protected] with any advice,
ideas, or insights you would like to share.
We are extremely grateful to our Pearson team of editors! Each of them has worked hard to
turn our ideas (and yours) into a reality. And that is why we have been able to continue to evolve
this book in a way to make it accessible online and via hard copy. Drew Bennett, our editor, has
helped us define the direction of this edition and make important decisions that would make
the book a better product for pre-service and in-service teachers. Our development editor,
Kim N orbuta, has been supportive and positive, keeping us on target, even with the tightest of
deadlines. Our content producer YagneshJani was always available with the missing resources
and answers we needed. Finally, we are very grateful to Jason Hammond and his editing team at
SPi-Global, who carefully and conscientiously assisted in preparing this edition for publication.
It has been a pleasure to interact with each of them and they have given us peace of mind to
have knowledgeable, strong support.
 Preface xxi

We would each like to thank our families for their many contributions and support. On
behalf of J olm, we thank his wife, Sharon, who was J olm's biggest supporter and a sounding
board as he wrote the first six editions of this book. We also recognize his daughters, Bridget
(a fifth-grade teacher in Chesterfield County, Virginia) and Gretchen (an Associate Professor
of psychology at Rutgers University-Newark). They were J ohn's first students, and he tested
many ideas that are in this book by their sides. We can't forget those who called J ohn "Math
Grandpa": his granddaughters, Maggie, Aidan, and Grace.
From Karen Karp: I would like to express thanks to my husband, Bob Ron au, who as a
mathematics educator graciously helped me think about decisions while offerin g insights and
encouragement. In addition, I thank my children, Matthew, Tammy, J oshua, Misty, Matt,
Christine, J effrey, and Pamela for their kind support and inspiration. I also am grateful for my
wonderful grandchildren, J essica, Zane, Madeline, J ack and Emma, who have helped deepen
my understanding about how children think.
From Jennifer Bay-Williams: I would like to begin by saying thank you to the many mathe-
matics teachers and teacher educators whose presentations at conferences, blogs, tweets, articles
and classroom lessons have challenged and inspired me. I am forever grateful to my husband,
Mitch Williams, whose background in English/Language Arts and great listening skills have
been an amazing support. Finally, thank you to my children, MacKenna (14 years) and N icolas
(11 years), along with their peers and teachers, who continue to help me think more deeply
about mathematics teaching and learning.
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Teaching Mathematics
in the 21st Century
LEARNER OUTCOMES
After reading th is chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to:
1.1 Summarize the factors that influence the effective teaching of mathematics.
1.2 Describe the importance of content standards, process standards and standards of
mathematical practice.
1.3 Explore the qua lities needed to learn and grow as a professional teacher of
mathematics.

ome of you will soon find yourself in front of a class of students; others of you may already
S be teaching. What general ideas will guide the way you will teach mathematics as you grow
in the teaching profession? This book will help you become comfortable with the mathematics
content of the preK-8 curriculum. You will also learn about research-based strategies that help
students come to know mathematics and be confident in their ability to do mathematics. These
two things-your knowledge of mathematics and how students learn mathematics-are the
most important tools you can acquire to be successful.

Becoming an Effective Teacher

of Mathematics
As part of your personal desire to build successful learners of mathematics, you might recognize
the challenge that mathematics is sometimes seen as the subject that people love to hate. At social
events of all kinds-even at parent-teacher conferences-other adults may respond to the fact
that you are a teacher of mathematics with comments such as "I could never do math," or "I can't
calculate the tip at a restaurant-! just hope they include suggestions for tips at the bottom of my
receipt." Instead of dismissing or ignoring these disclosures, consider what positive action you
can take. Would people confide that they don't read and hadn't read a book in years-not likely.
Families' and teachers' attitudes toward mathematics may enhance or detract from students' abil-
ity to do math. It is important for you and for students' families to know that mathematics ability
is not inherited-anyone can learn mathematics. Moreover, learning mathematics is an essential
life skill (OECD, 2016). So, you need to find ways of countering negative statements about math-
ematics, especially if they are declared in the presence of students. Point out that it is a myth that
only some people can be successful in learning mathematics. Only in that way can the chain of

1
2 Chapter 1 Teaching Mathematics in the 21st Century

passing apprehension from family member to child, or in rare cases from teacher to student, be
broken. There is much joy to be had in solving mathematical problems, and it is essential that
you model an excitement for learning and nurture a passion for mathematics in your students.
Ultimately, your students need to think of themselves as mathematicians in the same way as
they think of themselves as readers. As students interact with our increasingly mathematical and
technological world, they need to construct, modify, communicate or integrate new information
in many forms. Solving novel problems and approaching new situations with a mathematical
perspective should come as naturally as using reading to comprehend facts, insights, or news.
Particularly because this century is a quantitative one (Hacker, 2016), we must prepare students
to interpret the language and power of numeracy. Hacker states that "decimals and ratios are
now as crucial as nouns and verbs" (p. 2). So, for your students' sake, consider how important
mathematics is to interpreting and successfully surviving in our complex economy and in our
changing environment. Learning mathematics opens up a world of important ideas to students.
The goal of this book is to help you understand the mathematics methods that will make
you an effective teacher. We also base this book on the collective wisdom of an organization of
mathematics educators and mathematicians who developed a set of standards for what knowl-
edge, skills and dispositions are important in cultivating a well-prepared beginning teacher of
mathematics (Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators, 2017). This book infuses those
standards for developing elementary and middle school teachers of mathematics using the sug-
gestions of what best supports teacher candidates in methods courses. Because the authors of
this book were also engaged in the creation and writing of the Standards for Preparing Teachers
of Mathematics, the book is aligned with the AMTE standards. As you dig into the informa-
tion in the chapters ahead, your vision of what is possible for all students and your confidence
to explore and teach mathematics will grow.

A Changing World
In The World Is Flat (2007), Thomas Friedman discusses how globalization has created the
need for people to have skills that are long lasting and will survive the ever-changing landscape
of available jobs. He names categories of workers who regardless of the shifting terrain of job
options-will always be successful in finding employment. One of these "untouchable" cate-
gories is-math lover. Friedman emphasizes that in a world that is digitized and surrounded by
algorithms, math lovers will always have career opportunities and choices. Yet, there is a skills
gap of qualified people as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) jobs take
more than twice as long to fill as other jobs in the marketplace (Rothwell, 2014).
Now every teacher of mathematics has the job to prepare students with career skills while
developing a "love of math" in students. Lynn Arthur Steen, a well-known mathematician and
educator, stated, "As information becomes ever more quantitative and as society relies increas-
ingly on computers and the data they produce, an innumerate citizen today is as vulnerable
as the illiterate peasant of Gutenberg's time" (1997, p. xv). So, as you see there are an array
of powerful reasons why children will benefit from the study of mathematics and the instruc-
tional approaches you will learn in this book. Your students need to acquire the mental tools
to make sense of mathematics-in some cases for mathematical applications that might not yet
be known! This knowledge serves as a lens for interpreting the world.
Our changing world influences what should be taught in preK-8 mathematics classrooms
as there is a relationship between early mathematics performance and success in middle school
(Bailey, Siegler, & Geary, 2014) and high school mathematics (Watts, Duncan, Siegler, & Davis-
Kean, 2014). As we prepare preK-8 students for jobs that possibly do not currently exist, we
can predict that there will be few jobs where just knowing simple computation is enough to be
successful. We can also predict that many jobs will require interpreting complex data, design-
ing algorithms to make predictions, and using multiple strategies to approach new problems.
As you prepare to help students learn mathematics for the future, you will need some per-
spective on the forces that effect change in the mathematics classroom. This chapter addresses
the leadership that you, the teacher, will develop as you shape the mathematics experience for
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