Chapter 4

Elements of Realizability
Theory
Outline
4.1. Introduction

4.2. Causality and Stability

4.3. Hurwitz Polynomials

4.4. Positive Real Functions

4.5. Sturm’s Test

• Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis" Chapter 10

V.K. Aatre, "Network Theory and Filter Design“: Chapter 9

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Introduction: Network Design Steps
Network Function
approximation
Network Requirement -Rational Functions
-Specifications
-Scaling Test for Realizability
-Poles & Zeros

Analysis &
Fabrication Verify Design/Synthesis
-Simulation -Check Specifications -Choice of ntk structure
-Max. Power Transfer fulfilled? -Component computation
-Rescaling

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Introduction…
• In the last two chapters we were concerned with the problem of identifying
the response given the excitation and network: Analysis
• When we discuss about synthesis we are concerned with the problem of
constructing a network given the excitation 𝐸(𝑠) and response 𝑅(𝑠).
• The starting point for any synthesis is the Network (system) Function
R( s)
H (s) =
E (s)
• The first step in synthesis procedure is determining whether the system
function can be realized with a physical passive network (R, L, C, M).
• There are two considerations
✓Causality
✓Stability
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Causality
• By causality we mean that a voltage doesn’t appear between any terminals in
the network before a current/voltage is applied.
• The system doesn't respond before you “kick it”
• In time-domain, the impulse response of the network must be zero for
𝑡 < 0. h(t ) = 0 for t  0

• Some examples:

h(t ) = e u(t) : is causal because for t  0 u(t) = 0 , hence, h(t) = 0.

− at

−a t
h(t ) = e : is not causal because for t  0 , h(t ) is not zero.

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Causality…
• In certain cases, the network can be made causal by delaying the impulse
response by a certain time delay.

• If we delay ℎ(𝑡) by 𝑇, then ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑇) will be causal.

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Paley-Wiener criterion
• In the frequency domain causality is implied when the Paley-Wiener criterion
is satisfied.
• The Paley-Wiener criterion states that a necessary and sufficient condition
for causality is

log H ( j )

−  +1
2
d  

• The above equation to be satisfied

i. ℎ 𝑡 must have a Fourier transform 𝐻(𝑗𝜔)
∞

ii. න 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) 2 𝑑𝜔 < ∞ must be integrable

−∞

i.e. 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) must not be zero over a finite band of frequencies.

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Examples
• The ideal low pass filter
• Is not causal because it is zero
for all frequencies 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑐 .

• The Gaussian filter

H ( j ) = e − 
2

• Is not causal because


log H ( j ) 
2

−  2 +1
d =  2
−  + 1
d

is not finite.

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Examples…
• The amplitude function
1
H ( j ) =
 2 +1
• Is causal because


log H ( j ) 
log( 2 + 1)

−
 +1
2
d = 
−
 +12
d  

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Stability
• If a network is stable, then for a bounded excitation 𝑒(𝑡) the response 𝑟(𝑡)
will also be bounded. | e(t ) | C 0  t  
1
Time domain
| r (t ) | C2 0  t  
• Where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are real, positive and finite numbers.
• If a linear system is stable, then from the convolution integral and the above
definition of stability 
| r (t ) | C1  h( ) d  C2
0
• The above equation implies that the impulse response be absolutely
integrable. 

 h( ) d  
0

• One important requirement for ℎ(𝑡) to be absolutely integrable is, ℎ(𝑡)

approach zero as 𝑡 increases to infinity.
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Stability…
• Note that our definition of stability implies systems with sin 𝜔𝑡 impulse
response are not stable because


 sin t dt → 
0

• However, a simple 𝐿𝐶 network has such an impulse response.

• Since we don't want to call these systems unstable, we call them marginally
stable if they satisfy the following criterion.

lim h(t ) → 0
t →
and h(t )  C all t

• Stability in the frequency domain implies that the system function should
only have poles on the left had side of the ‘𝑠’ plane or simple poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis.
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Stability…
• This is because if we have a pole on the right hand side, then the impulse
response will have an exponentially increasing term, 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 .
• Hence, our response will not be bounded.
• If there is a double pole on the 𝑗𝜔 axis, then the impulse response of the
network will have a term 𝑡sin 𝜔𝑡.
• This will not be bounded.

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Stability Criterion
• If 𝐻(𝑠) is given as n

n n −1
a s + a s + ... + a1s + a0  (s − z )
i
( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) ( s − zn )
H ( s ) = n m n −1 m −1 =k i =1
=k
bm s + bm −1s + ... + b1s + b0 m
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) ( s − pm )
 (s − p
j =1
j )
• Both zero and infinite values of 𝑠 are possible pole or zero locations.
• When 𝑛 > 𝑚, 𝑠 = ∞ is a pole of order 𝑛 − 𝑚 The total number of zeros is
• When 𝑛 < 𝑚, 𝑠 = ∞ is a zero of order 𝑚 − 𝑛 equal to the total number of poles.
• When 𝑛 = 𝑚, 𝑠 = ∞ is neither a zero nor a pole but an ordinary point
• Due to the requirement of simple poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis, the order of the
numerator 𝑛 shouldn’t exceed the order of the denominator 𝑚 by more than
1. That is 𝑛 − 𝑚 ≤ 1.
• If 𝑛 > 𝑚 + 1 then there would be multiple poles at 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 = ∞.
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Stability Criterion …
• To summarize, for a network to be stable the following three conditions
must be satisfied
✓𝐻(𝑠) can’t have poles on the right side of the ‘𝑠’ plane.
✓𝐻(𝑠) can’t have multiple poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis.
✓The degree of the numerator of 𝐻(𝑠) can’t exceed that of the denominator by
more than 1.

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Stability and Causality
• 𝐻(𝑠) with poles on the LHS only has an inverse transform ℎ(𝑡) which is zero
for 𝑡 < 0.
ℒ −1
H s ℎ 𝑡 ;ℎ 𝑡 = 0 ,𝑡 < 0

• In this case stability implies causality.

• When dealing with system function of passive networks with lumped
elements (i.e. R, L , C) which is a rational function in 𝑠 with poles on the LHS
or on the 𝑗𝜔 axis only
• Causality stops to be a problem

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Hurwitz Polynomials
• We mentioned in the previous section that in order for a system to be stable,
its poles must lie in the left side of the ‘𝑠’ plane; moreover the poles on the 𝑗𝜔
axis must be simple.
• The denominator polynomial of a system function 𝐻(𝑠) that satisfies these
criteria belongs to a class of polynomials called Hurwitz polynomials.
• A polynomial 𝑃(𝑠) is said to be Hurwitz if it satisfies
• 𝑃(𝑠) must be real if 𝑠 is real.
• The roots of 𝑃(𝑠) have real parts which must be negative or zero.
• As a result of these conditions, if 𝑃(𝑠) is a Hurwitz polynomial given by
P(s) = an s n + an−1s n−1 + ... + a1s + a0
• Then all coefficients 𝑎𝑛 must be real and if 𝑠𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝑗β𝑖 is root of 𝑃(𝑠), then 𝛼𝑖
must be negative or zero.
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Examples
1. The polynomial
( )(
P(s) = (s + 1) s + 1 + j 2 s + 1 − j 2 )
is Hurwitz because
• For real s 𝑃(𝑠) is real, 𝑃(𝑠) = (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 +2)
• None of the roots lie on the right hand side of the ‘𝑠’ plane
2. G ( s ) = ( s − 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)

is not Hurwitz
• The root 𝑠 = 1 lies on the positive (RHS) ‘𝑠’ plane.

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Properties of Hurwitz polynomial
i. All the coefficients of the polynomial are non negative.
• This is readily seen by examining the types of terms 𝑃(𝑠) can have

( 2 2
)(
P( s) = (s +  i ) s + i (s +  i ) +  i
2 2
) s = − i
s =  ji
Simple real Simple pole on Complex
pole the jw axis conjugate roots s = − i  j i

• The multiplication of these non negative coefficients can only give non
negative coefficients.

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Properties of Hurwitz polynomial…
ii. The even and odd parts of 𝑃(𝑠) have roots on the 𝑗𝜔 axis only.
• If we denote the odd and even parts of 𝑃(𝑠) as 𝑛(𝑠) and 𝑚(𝑠)
P ( s ) = n ( s ) + m( s )

ODD EVEN

• If 𝑃(𝑠) is either even or odd, all its roots are on 𝑗𝜔 axis.

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Properties of Hurwitz polynomial…
iii.The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of odd to even or even to odd
𝜓 𝑠 = 𝑛(𝑠)/𝑚(𝑠) or 𝜓 𝑠 = 𝑚(𝑠)/𝑛(𝑠)
parts of a Hurwitz polynomial yields only positive quotient terms.
Greater
m( s ) 1 Degree
 (s) = = q1s + m( s ) R1 ( s )
n( s ) q2 s +
1  ( s) =   ( s ) = q1s +
1 n( s ) n( s )
q3 s +
1 Invert the remainder Lower
q4 s +
... n( s ) R2 ( s ) Degree
= q2 s +
1 R1 ( s ) R1 ( s )
+
qn s Inverting and dividing again
• All the 𝑞𝑖 ’s must be real and positive. (𝑞𝑖 ≥ 0) R1 ( s )
= q3 s +
R3 ( s )
R2 ( s ) R2 ( s )
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Theorem of Continued Fractions
• The steps to obtain the continued fraction expansion of 𝜓 𝑠 simply involve
division and inversion.
Theorem 1: states that the continued fraction expansion of the even to odd or
odd to even parts of a polynomial must be finite in length.
Theorem 2: states that, if the continued fraction expansion of the odd to even
or even to odd parts of a polynomial yields positive quotient
terms (𝑞𝑖 ≥ 0), then the polynomial must be Hurwitz to within a
multiplicative factor 𝑊(𝑠).
F ( s ) = W ( s ) F1 ( s )
• 𝐹(𝑠) is Hurwitz, if 𝑊(𝑠) and 𝐹1 (𝑠) are Hurwitz.

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Example
• Test whether the polynomial F ( s) = s 4 + s 3 + 5s 2 + 3s + 4 is Hurwitz.
• Solution:
m( s ) = s 4 + 5s 2 + 4 and n( s ) = s 3 + 3s
✓ Perform a continued fraction
expansion of 𝜓(𝑠) = 𝑛(𝑠)/𝑚(𝑠)
or 𝜓(𝑠) = 𝑚(𝑠)/𝑛(𝑠)
✓ Since the order of 𝑚(𝑠) is (one)
higher than 𝑛(𝑠), we start with
𝑚(𝑠)/𝑛(𝑠).
• Note that all the coefficients of
the quotients are positive.
• Hence 𝐹(𝑠) is Hurwitz.

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Exercise
• Test whether the following polynomial are Hurwitz using continued
fraction expansion.
(a) F ( s ) = s 4 + 16 s 3 + 86 s 2 + 176 s + 105
(b) F ( s ) = s 5 + 12 s 4 + 45s 3 + 60 s 2 + 44 s + 48
(c) G ( s ) = s 3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 6
(d) F ( s ) = s 7 + 2 s 6 + 2 s 5 + s 4 + 4 s 3 + 8s 2 + 8s + 4
(e) F ( s ) = s 7 + 3s 5 + 2 s 3 + 8s 2 + s

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Positive Real Functions
• A fundamental theorem, in passive network synthesis states that “a rational
function of 𝑠 is the driving point immittance (impedance/admittance) of a
passive network if, and only if, it is positive real.”
• A rational function 𝐹(𝑠) is a positive real function (prf) if it satisfies the constraints
• F(s) is analytic in 𝑠 plane
• 𝐹(𝑠) real for real 𝑠 Brune's Conditions
• 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑠 ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 ≥ 0
• If 𝐹(𝑠) is a prf then the reciprocal of 𝐹( 𝑠) (i.e. 1/𝐹(𝑠)) and 𝐹(1/𝑠) are also prf.
• If 𝐹( 𝑠) is expressed as : N (s)
F (s) =
D( s)
where 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) are polynomials in 𝑠, and both 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) must have real coefficients.
• This ensures that 𝐹(𝑠) is real when 𝑠 = 𝜎, 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) being real for 𝑠 = 𝜎, complex roots
must appear in conjugate pairs.
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Positive Real Functions…
• A prf 𝐹(𝑠) cannot have any poles and zeros in the right half (RH) 𝑠-plane.
• Any roots of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) on the 𝑗𝜔-axis must be simple.
• The residues of 𝐹(𝑠) and 1/𝐹(𝑠) at the simple poles on the 𝑗𝜔-axis must be
real and positive.
• Thus the numerator and denominator polynomials of a prf must be Hurwitz.
• A polynomial 𝐹(𝑠) is :
• Strictly Hurwitz polynomial if all its roots are in left half (LH) 𝑠-plane.
• Hurwitz if its roots are in LH plane or simple on the 𝑗𝜔-axis
• The analyticity of 𝐹( 𝑠) and 1/𝐹(𝑠) or the Hurwitz nature of 𝑁 𝑠 and 𝐷(𝑠)
can be tested in a number of ways.
• Routh-Hurwitz array, Continued fraction expansion and Strum’s Test

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Routh-Hurwitz array
• Let P ( s ) = an s n + an −1 s n −1 + ... + a1 s + a0
• For 𝑃(𝑠) to be Hurwitz all the coefficients 𝑎𝑖 . 𝑖 = 0 … 𝑛, must be of the same sign.
• No coefficient should be missing for a strictly Hurwitz polynomial.
• For a polynomial which has all its zeros on the 𝑗𝜔-axis alternate coefficients
must be zero, i.e. 𝑃(𝑠) is either even or odd polynomial.
• The Routh-Hurwitznarray is constructed as follows:
s an an − 2 an − 4
s n −1 an −1 an −3 an −5
s n−2 bn bn −1 bn − 2
s n −3 cn cn −1

s1
s0
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Routh-Hurwitz array…
an an − 2 an an − 4
− −
an −1 an − 3 an −1 an − 5
where bn = , bn −1 =
an −1 an −1
an an − 6
−
an −1 an − 7
bn − 2 =
an −1
an −1 an − 3 an −1 an − 5
− −
bn bn −1 bn bn − 2
cn = , cn −1 =
bn bn

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Routh-Hurwitz array…
• For a strictly Hurwitz polynomial
• No change of sign in the coefficients of the first column, i.e. 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑏𝑛 , 𝑐𝑛 , …
• No vanishing row
• A vanishing row in the array indicates that the polynomial cannot be strictly
Hurwitz.
• In this case, the vanishing row is replaced by an auxiliary polynomial.
• Let the 𝑘𝑡ℎ row, the row corresponding to 𝑠 𝑘 , be the row prior to the
vanishing row,
Pk ( s ) = ak s k + ak − 2 s k − 2 + ... + a0
will always be an even polynomial.

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Routh-Hurwitz array…
• A vanishing row shows the presence of equal and opposite roots and the order of
the polynomial 𝑃𝑘 (𝑠) indicates the number of equal but opposite roots.
• An auxiliary polynomial is defined as
dPk ( s )
Pak ( s ) = = k k s + (k − 2)ak − 2 s + ...
k −1 k −3

ds
• The coefficients of (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ row are replaced by the coefficients of the auxiliary
polynomial and the array is now continued.
• If there is a change of sign in the first column then the polynomial 𝑃(𝑠) is not
Hurwitz.
• If there are no changes of sign in the first column then the polynomial 𝑃𝑘 (𝑠) is
tested for its zeros and if the zeros are simple on the 𝑗𝜔-axis then 𝑃(𝑠) is Hurwitz

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Examples
Check whether
(a) P ( s ) = s 4 + 16 s 3 + 86 s 2 + 176 s + 105
(b) P ( s ) = s 5 + 12 s 4 + 45s 3 + 60 s 2 + 44 s + 48
(c) P ( s ) = s 5 + 20 s 4 + 147 s 3 + 484 s 2 + 612 s + 336

are strictly Hurwitz using Routh-Hurwitz array?

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Properties of prfs
1. If 𝐹 𝑠 is prf then 1/𝐹 𝑠 is also prf.
• If a DP impedance is p.r. then its reciprocal a DP admittance is also p.r.
2. The sum of prf is a prf.
• If two impedances are connected in series then the sum of impedances is p.r.
• Similarly, this holds for two admittances connected in parallel.
• Difference of two prfs is not necessarily p.r.
3. The poles and zeros of a prf cannot have positive real parts.
• They can not be in the RHS of s-plane
4. Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the 𝑗𝜔 axis.
5. The poles and zeros of a prf function are real or occur in complex
conjugate pairs.
• Since poles and zeros are functions of the elements in the network, they can not be
imaginary. Complex poles/zeros appear with conjugates.
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Properties of prfs …
6. The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials may
differ at most by unity.
• To avoid having multiple poles or zeros at 𝑠 = ∞
7. The lowest powers of the denominator and numerator polynomials my
differ at most by unity.
• To prevent the possibility of having multiple poles or zeros at 𝑠 = 0
8. The necessary and sufficient conditions or a rational function with real
coefficients 𝐹(𝑠) to be prf are
i. 𝐹(𝑠) must have no poles on the RHS of s-plane
ii. 𝐹(𝑠) may have only simple poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis with real and positive residues
iii. 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 ≥ 0 for all 𝜔.

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Strum's Test
• A rational function 𝐹(𝑠) with real coefficients is a prf if, and only if,
i. 𝐹(𝑠) is analytic in RH 𝑠-plane with at most simple poles on the 𝑗𝜔-axis
ii. The residues at any poles on the 𝑗𝜔-axis are real and positive.
c F ( j )}  0, for all 
iii. Re{
• To test for this condition (iii) , consider the following:

A( s ) Ae ( s ) + Ao ( s )
• Let F (s) = =
B ( s ) Be ( s ) + Bo ( s )
• if 𝐹(𝑠) is even ⟹ 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 = REAL
• else if 𝐹(𝑠) is odd ⟹ 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 = IMAGINARY

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Strum's Test…
• On the 𝑗𝜔-axis the Re 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 is the even part of 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 .

 Ae ( j ) + Ao ( j )  Be ( j ) − Bo ( j ) 
F ( j ) =   ; with Be ( j )  Bo ( j ) for 
 Be ( j ) + Bo ( j )  Be ( j ) − Bo ( j ) 
 Ae ( j ) Be ( j ) − Ao ( j ) Bo ( j )   Ao ( j ) Be ( j ) − Ae ( j ) Bo ( j ) 
=  +
 


 −   − 
2 2 2 2
 B e
( j ) Bo
( j )   B e
( j ) Bo
( j ) 
= ReF ( j )+ j ImF ( j )

• For 𝐹(𝑠) to prf: Re{F ( j )}  0, for all 

• Thus: Check if N ( 2 ) = Ae ( j ) Be ( j ) − Ao ( j ) Bo ( j )  0
• Note: Be 2 ( j ) − Bo 2 ( j )  0 is positve and real for 

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Strum's Test…
• If all the coefficients of 𝑁(𝑥) where 𝑥 = 𝜔2 are positive then 𝑁(𝑥) is positive
for all values of 𝑥 between 0 and ∞.
• When all the coefficients of 𝑁(𝑥) are not positive we can resort to Sturm's
test.
 N 0 ( x) = N ( x)
dN ( x)
 N1 ( x ) =
dx
= (1 x +  0 ) −
N i − 2 ( x) N i ( x)
 , i2
N i −1 ( x) N i −1 ( x)
where  0 & 1 are constants.
• This procedure is continued till 𝑁𝑛 is a constant.

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Strum's Theorem
• The number of zeros of 𝑁(𝑥) in the interval 𝑎 = 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ (𝑏 → ∞) is equal
to 𝑆𝑏 − 𝑆𝑎 , where 𝑆𝑎 and 𝑆𝑏 are the number of sign changes in the set
𝑁0 , 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , … , 𝑁𝑛
evaluated at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, respectively.
• By selecting 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏 = ∞, we can find the number of zeros of 𝑁(𝑥) from
0 to ∞.
• Every time 𝑁(𝑥) goes through a zero, the sign of 𝑁(𝑥) changes.
• If there are no zeros of 𝑁(𝑥) in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞, then 𝐹(𝑠) is prf.

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Examples
1. Check whether s 3 + 9 s 2 + 23s + 15
(a) F ( s ) =
s 2 + 6s + 8
2 s 4 + 7 s 3 + 11s 2 + 12 s + 4
(b) F ( s ) = 4
s + 5s 3 + 9 s 2 + 11s + 6
s 4 + 2 s 3 + 3s 2 + s + 1
(c) F ( s ) = 4 3
s + s + 3s 2 + 2 s + 1
are prf using Sturm’s test.
2. Determine the minimum value of the real positive constant 𝛼 for which the
following network functions is positive real and hence realizable.
2s 2 + s + 2
F (s) = 2
2 s + (1 + 2 )s + 

AASTU, ECE, 2021 37