1- What is the role of practice in second language learning according to the cognitive

perspective? How should practice be in second language learning/teaching?

According to the information processing model, learners have a limited capacity to

pay attention to information. However, with practice, new information becomes
easier to process, and learners can access it quickly and automatically, freeing up
cognitive resources for other language-related tasks. The model suggests that
language learning begins with conscious knowledge, such as grammar rules, known
as declarative knowledge. Through practice, this declarative knowledge can
transform into procedural knowledge, which is the ability to use the language. With
further practice, this knowledge becomes automatized, to the point where learners
may even forget that they initially learned it consciously.

Practice has gained renewed importance in the cognitive perspective, focusing on

how it converts declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge and, ultimately,
automatized knowledge. This perspective recognizes that practice is not limited to
producing the language but also influences skills like reading and listening. Lourdes
Ortega proposed three principles of practice within the cognitive-interactionist
perspective: practice should be interactive and enjoyable, it should have a
meaningful context, and the focus should be on forms essential to the task at hand.
In other words, practice should engage learners in interactive and enjoyable activities
with real-world significance, while prioritizing the language forms that are most
important for the specific task being practiced.

2.What are the applications of the sociocultural perspective to second language

learning?

The ZPD is a metaphorical location or 'site' in which learners co-construct knowledge in

collaboration with an interlocutor. In Krashen's i + 1, the input comes from outside the
learner and the emphasis is on the comprehensibility of input that includes language
structures that are just beyond the learner's current developmental level. The emphasis in
ZPD is on development and how learners co-construct knowledge based on their interaction
with their interlocutor or in private speech.

3.What modified interaction techniques a native speaker would use while speaking to
a not fully proficient non-native speaker?

To foster effective language learning, learners require opportunities to engage in interactions

with fellow speakers, collaborating to achieve mutual understanding through the process of
negotiating meaning. Through these interactive exchanges, interlocutors adapt their
communication strategies to sustain the conversation and make the input more easily
understood by learners who are less proficient. Various conversational adjustments can be
observed in this context. Firstly, comprehension checks occur when the native speaker
makes deliberate efforts to ensure that the learner has grasped the intended message (e.g.,
"Do you understand that the bus leaves at 6:30?"). Secondly, clarification requests are
instances where learners seek further explanation or ask the native speaker to repeat or
clarify something that was not fully comprehended (e.g., "Could you please repeat that?").
Lastly, self-repetition or paraphrasing takes place when the more proficient speaker restates
their statement, either partially or fully, to provide additional clarification. (For example, ‘ She
got lost on her way home from school. She was walking home from school. She got lost.’)

4.Can you discuss Krashen’s Monitor Model’s five hypotheses about second language
learning? What are the criticisms of these hypotheses from other researchers?

Krashen's Monitor Model emerged in the 1970s as a response to dissatisfaction with

behaviorism-based language teaching methods. The model consists of several hypotheses.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis suggests that language acquisition happens naturally,
akin to how children acquire their first language, while learning occurs through conscious
attention to rules and forms. Krashen emphasizes that acquisition is more prevalent than
learning in language development. The Monitor Hypothesis suggests that second language
learners may use their learned rules and patterns to fine-tune and make changes to their
acquired language. The Natural Order Hypothesis proposes that language learning follows
predictable sequences, with easier-to-state rules not necessarily being the first ones
acquired. The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, similar to the Zone of Proximal
Development, asserts that language acquisition is facilitated when learners are exposed to
comprehensible input that is slightly above their current level (i+1). Finally, the Affective Filter
Hypothesis introduces the concept of an affective filter, which represents emotional barriers
like anxiety, tension, or boredom that may hinder language acquisition. Activities such as
role-plays, games, singing songs, and group work are suggested as methods to reduce these
negative feelings.

However, Krashen's model has faced criticisms. Some argue that his theories are difficult to
test empirically, as pointed out by McLaughlin, while others, like White, have challenged the
accuracy of his conclusions. Despite these criticisms, Krashen's Monitor Model has made
significant contributions to the field of second language acquisition.

5.Can you discuss four features of natural acquisition settings, structure-based

instructional settings, and communicative instructional settings each by comparing
three of them altogether?

In natural acquisition
+Language is not presented step by step. The learner is exposed to a wide variety of
vocabulary and structures.
+Learners’ errors are rarely corrected. If their interlocutors can understand what they are
saying, they do not remark on the correctness of the learners’ speech. They would probably
feel it was rude to do so.
+The learner is surrounded by the language for many hours each day. Sometimes the
language is addressed to the learner, sometimes it is simply overheard.
+The learner usually encounters a number of different people who use the target language
proficiently.
In Structure-based Instructional Settings
+Linguistic items are presented and practiced in isolation, one item at a time, in a sequence
from what teachers or textbook writers believe is ‘simple’ to that which is ‘complex’
+Errors are frequently corrected. Accuracy tends to be given priority over meaningful
interaction.
+Learning is often limited to a few hours a week.
+In situations of foreign language learning the teacher is often the only native or proficient
speaker the student comes in contact with.

In communicative instructional settings

+Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextual cues, props, and
gestures, rather than through structural grading. Students provide each other with simplified
and sometimes erroneous input.
+There is a limited amount of error correction on the part of the teacher, and meaning is
emphasized over form. Students tend not to overtly correct each other’s errors when they
are engaged in communicative practice. Because the focus is on meaning, however,
requests for clarification may serve as implicit feedback. Negotiating for meaning may help
students see they need to say something in a different way.
+As in structure-based instruction, it is usually only the teacher who is
a proficient speaker. Learners have considerable exposure to the interlanguage of other
learners, particularly in student-student interaction. This naturally contains errors that would
not be heard in an environment where the interlocutors are native speakers, but it provides
many more opportunities for students to use the target language than is the case in most
teacher-fronted activities.

+Learners usually have only limited time for learning. In a typical teacher fronted classroom
with 25-30 students, individual students get very little opportunity to produce language in a
60-minute class, and when they do, it is usually in the form of a short response to a teacher's
question.
When students work in pairs or groups, they have opportunities
to produce and respond to a greater amount and variety of language.
Sometimes, however, subject-matter courses taught through the second
language can add time for language learning. A good example of this
is in immersion programmes where most or all the subject matter is
taught to a group of students who are all second language learners.
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First feature I wish talk about is how frequent feedbacks are received on errors. In natural
acquisition feedbacks are rarely received because emphasis is on actually understanding
each other rather than correct them and they would feel that it would be rude to correct them
, in structure based instruction settings things are different, since accuracy is given priority
the speaker receives feedback constantly. As for communicative instructions feedback is
offered only in limited amount because the emphasis is on meaning rather than form of
language.
Amount of native or native like speakers changes. Only time where a learner can encounter
high number of native speakers happens in natural acquisition settings while in structure
based instructions the teacher is usually the only native or proficient speaker, in
communicative instructional settings once again teacher is also the sole native speaker.
Third feature I want to discuss is the pressure to speak. In natural acquisition this pressure
is absent while on structure based instructional settings learner is pressurized to speak in
target language from the beginning. As for communicative instructional settings although
there’s a small pressure to speak accurately emphasis is placed on meaning.
Lastly learning one thing at a time happens only in structure based instruction as the
linguistic items are given one at a time. While on communicative and natural acquisitions
items ,forms and rules is given altogether without an intent.

6- Can you list the types of corrective feedback with examples that a language teacher
utilises in terms of recasts in content-based classrooms?

Explicit correction when the teacher clearly indicates that what the student has said was
incorrect such as ‘’ I guess you meant to say I saw not I seed’’.
Recasts are done by teacher saying sentence the same sentence but saying with the right
form of sentence such as
Student : I like didn’t my gift.
Teacher : I didn’t like my gift.
Clarification requests are used when students speak is misunderstood by the teacher and
repetition or reformulation is required. This method is used with phrases like ‘’What did you
mean by…?’’
Teacher : How long did you wait there?
Student : One.
Teacher : Sorry, come again.
Student : One.
Teacher : One what ?
Student : One hour.
Metalinguistic feedback contains information or questions related to correctness of the
student’s production without directly pointing out the mistake.Questions like ‘’Can you find
your mistake?’’ is used.
Student : We play together yesterday.
Teacher : We use -ed at the end of verbs when we are talking about past events.
Student : We played together yesterday.
Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information rather
than giving it to them.
Student : My father are thirsty.
Teacher : Sorry , your father ?
Student : He is thirsty?
Repetition teacher repeats the student’s sentence by adjusting their intonation to point out
their error.
We was three friends.
We were. We were three friends.

7- Can you identify and exemplify display questions and genuine questions?

Display questions are asked when teacher already knows the answer but they want the
learner to display their linguistic knowledge or lack of it.
Teacher : What tense did we work on last week?
Student : Past.
Teacher: What auxiliary in the past?
Student: Did.
A genuine question is where the teacher shows real interest in what the student is saying
and is asking a follow-up question to find out more.
Student A: I take my camera to Madam Tussauds yesterday.’
“Did you take lots of photos when you were there?”
“Really? And which celebrity did you want to take photos of?”

8.How can time for learning languages in school affect language teaching/learning?
Can you provide examples from research?

One significant difference between learning in a natural environment and a typical classroom is

the amount of time available for learning. In natural settings, there is ample time for learning,

whereas learners in classrooms have limited time. One way to provide more time for learning a

second or foreign language is through content-based instruction. However, this approach is not

always practical or preferred. Other options include increasing the overall instructional time or

spreading it more intensively throughout the school year. There are exceptions to these

alternatives, as Canadian researchers have studied different durations and distributions of time

in second language programs for English and French. For example, a study conducted in Quebec

compared students who received intensive English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction for

five hours every day over five months in Grade 5 or 6 with students who received the same total

instruction over 7-8 years in secondary school. Interestingly, the students who underwent the

intensive instruction performed as well as or even better than those who received instruction

through a slower-paced approach over a longer period of time, often referred to as a "drip feed"

approach.

9.What are the limitations of the ‘get it right from the beginning’ mentality?

Even though the emphasis is on the oral language,students rarely use the language
willingly.Teacher doesn't allow students to speak freely out of fear that they will make
mistakes.It is full of repetition technique.Motivation and evaluation is lost because sentences
students speak are meaningless to them and they may not even know the meaning if they
repeat correctly.

10.What are the advantages and limitations of the ‘just listen … and read’ mentality?
Students continued to perform as well as students in the regular programme. On other
measures, some groups of students in the regular programme had made greater progress,
especially in writing.

Finding reading material for primary school student learning a second language is
challenging. Finding reading materials for adults in early stages of second language
acquisition is challenging too, but graded readers specially designed for adult ESL learners
are increasingly available. These simplified literary classics, biographies, romances, and
thrillers offer interesting and age-appropriate content, while the vocabulary and writing style
remain simple.
Although learners benefited from this exposure to sentences with adverbs in all the correct
positions, their learning was incomplete. They improved in their acceptance of sentences
with word order that is grammatical in English but not in French.

11.Can you elaborate on the ‘get it right in the end’ mentality with its advantages,
disadvantages and implacability?

Learners will benefit in terms of both efficiency of their learning and the level of
proficiency they will eventually reach. Some things cannot be taught If the teaching fails to
take the student’s readiness into account but some aspects of language must be taught and
may need to be taught quite explicitly.
Proponents of ‘Get it right in the end’ argue that what learners focus on can eventually lead
to changes in their interlanguage systems, not just to an appearance of change. However,
the supporters of this proposal do not claim that focusing on particular language points will
prevent learners from making errors or that they will begin using a form as soon as it is
taught. Rather, they suggest that the focused instruction will allow learners to notice the
target features in subsequent input and interaction.
Proponents of ‘Get it right in the end’ argue that it is sometimes necessary to draw learners’
attention to their errors and to focus on certain linguistic (vocabulary or grammar) points.
However, it is different from the ‘Get it right from the beginning’ proposal in acknowledging
that it is appropriate for learners to engage in meaningful language use from the very
beginning of their exposure to the second language. They assume that much of language
acquisition will develop naturally out of such language use, without formal instruction that
focuses on the language itself.