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 COLLECTED WORKS OF
RICHARD J. CHORLEY

Volume 4

INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY
 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY
Spatial Aspects of the Interactions Between
Water Occurrence and Human Activity

Edited by
RICHARD J. CHORLEY

I~~~o~:~!n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published in 1969 by Methuen and Co. Ltd as part of 'Water, Earth and Man'
Published in this form in 1971
This edition first published in 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1969 Methuen & Co. Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-367-22096-9 (Set)

ISBN: 978-0-429-27321-6 (Set) (ebk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-22108-9 (Volume 4) (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-27332-2 (Volume 4) (ebk)

Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but
points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent.
Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome
correspondence from those they have been unable to trace.
Introduction to
GEOGRAPHICAL
HYDROLOGY
SPATIAL ASPECTS OF THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN
WATER OCCURRENCE AND HUMAN ACTIVITY

EDITED BY

Richard J Chorley

CONTRIBUTORS
R. P. Beckinsale, R. J. Chorley, R. W. Kates, A. V. Kirkby,
R. J. More, M. A. Morgan, R. L. Nace, T. O'Riordan,
J. F. Rooney, W.R. D. Sewell, M. Simons, and C. T. Smith

METHUEN & CO LTD

 First published in r969
First published as a University Paperback in r97r
© r969 Methuen & Co Ltd
Printed in Great Britain by
Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press), Ltd
Bungay, Suffolk
SBN 416 68830 6

This edition is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or
otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the. publisher's
prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed
on the subsequent purchaser.

Distributed in the USA

by Barnes and Noble Inc., New York

University Paperbacks are published by

METHUEN & CO LTD
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4
Contents

PREFACE lX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Xl

INTRODUCTION I
R. J. Chorley, Department of Geography, Cambridge University,
and R. W. Kates, Graduate School of Geography, Clark
University
1. 'Physical' and 'human' geography I
2. Water as a focus of geographical interest 3
References 6
I.II. WORLD WATER INVENTORY AND CONTROL 8
R. L. Nace, U.S. GeologicalSurvey
I. Significance of world inventory 8
2. Oceanic water IO
3. Water aloft IO
4. Rivers IO
A. Total discharge II
B. Channel storage 12
5. Wide places in rivers 13
6. Inland seas 14
7. Life fluid of the vegetable kingdom 14
8. Biological water 15
9. Unseen reservoirs 15
IO. Global refrigeration system 16
r 1. Possibilities for control 17
References 19
2.III. THE DRAINAGE BASIN AS AN HISTORICAL BASIS FOR
HUMAN ACTIVITY 20
C. T. Smith, Centre for Latin American Studies, Liverpool
University
1. The drainage basin as a unit of historical development 20
2. Irrigation and the unity of the drainage basin 26
References 29
[vi] CONTENTS

3.III. THE INTERACTION OF PRECIPITATION AND MAN 30

R. J. Chorley, Department of Geography, Cambridge Uni·versity,
and Rosemary J. More, Formerly of Department of Civil
Engineering, Imperial College, London University
I. Man's intervention in the hydrological cycle 30
2. Rain-making 32
3. Spray irrigation 36
4. Gambling with water 37
References 39

4.III(i). WATER AND CROPS 40

Rosemary J. More, Formerly of the Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, Imperial College, London University
I. Plants and water 40
2. Plants as crops 43
3. Irrigation 44
4. Drainage 46
5. Improvements in soil water quality 47
6. Interactions of irrigation, drainage, and water quality 50
References 51

4.m(ii). PRIMITIVE IRRIGATION 52

Anne V. Kirkby, Department of Geography, Bristol University
References 55
5.m. OVERLAND FLOW AND MAN 56
M. A. Morgan, Department of Geography, Bristol University
r. Soil erosion
2. Rural drainage
3. Large-scale drainage schemes
4. Urban drainage
References

6.III. HUMAN USE OF GROUND WATER 73

R. L. Nace, U.S. Geological Survey
r. The fountains of the deep 73
2. Climate and ground-water recharge 74
3. Inherited ground water 74
4. Cyclic ground water 75
5. Management of ground water 76
6. Artificial recharge 78
7. Pollution 79
References 81
 CONTENTS [ vii]

7.m(i). THE HUMAN USE OF OPEN CHANNELS 83

Robert P. Beckinsale, School of Geography, Oxford University
r. Flotability 83
2. Navigation 86
3. Domestic and industrial uses and the problem of open-
channel pollution 89
4. Open channels and freshwater fisheries 92
5. Open channels and the preservation of wild life 93
6. Social uses of open channels 94
References 95
7.III(ii). RIVERS AS POLITICAL BOUNDARIES 96
Robert P. Beckinsale, School of Geography, Oxford University
1. Rivers as internal administrative boundaries
2. Rivers as international boundaries
3. Problems of international river boundaries
4. International boundaries across river channels
References
8.nr. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SNOW
AND ICE 108
J. Rooney, Department of Geography, Southern Illinois University
r. Snow as a water-supply source 108
2. Recreation 109
3. The negative aspects of snow and ice rn
References rI9
9.III. HUMA:N" RESPONSE TO FLOODS I2I
W. R. Derrick Sewell, Department of Economics, University of
Victoria
r. Man's affinity for floodplain occupance 121
2. Possible adjustments to floods 122
A. Accepting the loss 123
B. Public relief 123
C. Emergency action and rescheduling 123
D. Structural changes 125
E. Flood proofing 126
F. Regulation of land use 126
G. Flood insurance 128
H. Flood control 128
3. Limitations to the range of choice 130
4. The Lower Fraser Valley: a case study 132
A. The 1948 flood 133
B. Evolution of adjustment to floods in the Lower Fraser
Valley 133
[viii] CONTENTS

C. The Fraser River Board's proposed scheme 135

D. The Fraser River experience in the wider context. 139
References 141

IO.III. HUMAN RESPONSES TO RIVER REGIMES 142

Robert P. Beckinsale, School of Geography, Oxford University
I. Flood control and streamfl.ow routing
2. Irrigation
3. Water-power
4. Regional and inter-regional water-resource schemes
5. Inter-basin water transferences
References

II.III. LONG-TERM TRENDS IN WATER USE 165

M. Simons, Department of Education, University of Adelaide
1. The growing need for water 165
2. Geographical engineering 166
3. Water purification 171
4. Conclusion 1 73
References 1 73

12.I. CHOICE IN WATER USE 175

T. O' Riordan, Department of Geography, Simon Fraser Univer-
sity, and Rosemary J. More, Formerly of the Department of Civil
Engineering, Imperial College,London University
I. Traditional allocation 175
2. The need for modern allocation techniques 176
3. Economic and spatial problems in allocation techniques 178
4. Allocation techniques, 181
A. Benefit-cost analysis 181
B. Systems analysis 186
5. Institutional aspects of water-resource allocation 191
6. Water-resource systems 194
References 200

Index 203
Dorothy M. Beckinsale
Preface to the Paperback Edition

This paperback originally formed part of a larger, composite volume entitled

Water, Earth, and Man (Methuen and Co Ltd, London, 1969, 588 pp.), the
purpose of which was to provide a synthesis of hydrology, geomorphology, and
socio-economic geography. The present book is one of a series of three paper-
backs, published simultaneously, which set out these themes separately under
the respective titles:
Introductionto Physical Hydrol,ogy
Introductionto Pluvial Processes
Introduction to GeographicalHydrorogy.
The link with the parent volume is maintained by the retention of the Intro-
duction, which gives the rationale for associating the three themes. The aim of
this paperback is primarily to make available in a cheap and handy form one of
these systematic themes. In doing so, however, it is hoped that the book will
provide a constant reminder of the advantages inherent in adopting a unified
view of the earth and social sciences, and, in particular, that the study of water
in the widest sense presents one of the most logical means of increasing our
understanding of the interlocking physical and social environments.
Acknowledgements

The editor and contributors would like to thank the following editors, publishers,
and individuals for permission to reproduce figures and tables:

Editors
Canadian Geographerfor fig. 7.m(ii).3; InternationalScienceand Technologyfor
fig. 6.m.2.

Publishers
Heinemann, London, for fig. 4.m(i).1 rom The Plant in Relation to Water by
R. 0. Knight; Macmillan, London, for fig. 12.1.5from Techniquesfor Designof
Water ResourceSystems by M. M. Hufschmidt and M. B. Fiering; The Mac-
millan Co., New York for fig. 4.m(i).5 from The Nature and Propertiesof Soil,s
by H. 0. Buckman and N. C. Brady; Princeton University Press for fig. I.II.I
from The Quaternary of the United States by H. E. Wright and D. G. Frey
(Eds.); University of Chicago Press for figs. 12.1.13and 12.1.4from Readingsin
ResourceManagement and Conservationby I. Burton and R. W. Kates (Eds.);
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, for fig. 4.m(i).3 from IrrigationPrinciples
and Practicesby 0. W. Israelson and V. E. Hansen, and fig. 4.m(i).4 from Soil
and Water ConservationEngineeringby G. 0. Schwab et al.

Individuals
Chief Engineer, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation for figs. 3.m.2 and 3.m.3; The
Controller, Her Majesty's Stationery Office (Crown Copyright Reserved) for
fig. 12.1.7; The Director, Irrigation Districts Association of California for fig.
12.1.8; The Director, Road Research Laboratory, Watford for fig. 5.m.5;
Ralph Parsons Co., New York, for fig. II.III.2 of the N.A.W.A.P.A. Scheme;
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office for fig.
7.m(i).1,

Finally, the following thanks are also due:

Members of the City Engineer's Department, Corporation of Bristol for valuable
assistance with Chapter 5.m; Mr R. W. Robertson of the University of Victoria
for drawing the figures for Chapter 9.m; Mr M. Young, Miss R. King, and
[xii] ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

M. J. Ampleford of the Drawing Office, Department of Geography, Cambridge

University, for drawing figures for Chapters 3.m, 4-m(i), and 12.1.

The Editor and Publishers would like to thank Mrs D. M. Beckinsale for her
painstaking and authoritative preparation of the Index, which has contributed
greatly to the value of this volume.
Introduction
R. J. CHORLEY and R. W. KATES
Department of Geography, Cambridge University and Graduate School of
Geography, Clark University

Who would not choose to follow the sound of running waters? Its attraction for the normal
man isof a natural sympathetic sort. For man is water's child, nine-tenths of our body
consists of it, and at a certain stage the foetus possessesgills. For my part I freely admit
that the sight of water in whatever form or shape is my most lively and immediate form
of natural enjoyment: yes, I would even say that only in contemplation of it do I
achieve true self-forgetfulness and feel my own limited individuality merge into the
universal.
(Thomas Mann: Man and his Dog)

:r. 'Physical' and 'human' geography

Perhaps it is of the nature of scholarship that all scholars should think themselves
to be living at a time of intellectual revolution. Judged on the basis of the re-
ferences which they have cited (Stoddart, 1967, pp. 12-13), geographers have
long had the impression that they were the immediate heirs of a surge of worth-
while and quotable research. There is good reason to suppose, however, that
geography has just passed through a major revolution (Burton, 1963), one of the
features of which has been profoundly to affect the traditional relationships
between 'physical' and 'human' geography.
Ever since the end of the Second World War drastic changes have been going
on in those disciplines which compose physical geography. This has been
especially apparent in geomorphology (Chorley, 1965a), where these changes
have had the general effect of focusing attention on the relationships between
process and form, as distinct from the development of landforms through time.
In the early 1950s geomorphologists, especially in Britain, were able to look
patronizingly at the social and economic branches of geography and dismiss
them as non-scientific, poorly organized, slowly developing, starved of research
facilities, dealing with subject matter not amenable to precise statement, and
denied the powerful tool of experimentation (Wooldridge and East, 1951, pp.
39-40). It is true that by this time most geographers had long rejected the
dictum that physical geography 'controlled' human geography, but most
orthodox practitioners at least paid lip service to the idea that there was a
physical basis to the subject. This view was retained even though traditional
geomorphology had little or nothing to contribute to the increasingly urban and
industrial preoccupations of human geographers (Chorley, 1965b, p. :35),and its
[2] INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY

place in the subject as a whole was maintained either as a conditioned reflex or

as increasingly embarrassing grafts on to new geographical shoots. American
geographers, who had largely abandoned geomorphology to the geologists even
before the war, tended to look more to climatology for their physical basis.
However, despite the important researches of Thornthwaite and of more recent
work exemplified by that of Curry [1952] and Hewes [1965], the proportion of
articles relating to weather and climate appearing in major American geo-
graphical journals fell more or less steadily from some 37% in 1916 to less than
5% in 1967 (Sewell, Kates, and Phillips, 1968). Even in the middle of the last
decade Leighly (1955, p. 317) was drawing attention to the paradox that in-
structors in physical geography might be required to teach material quite un-
related to their normal objects of research.
The problems of the relationships between physical and human geography
facing Leighly were small, however, compared with those which confront us
today. Little more than a decade has been sufficient to transform the leading edge
of human geography into a 'scientific subject', equipped with all the quantitative
and statistical tools the possession of which had previously given some physical
geographers such feelings of superiority. Today human geography is not directed
towards some unique areally-demarcated assemblage of information which can
be viewed either as a mystical gestalt expressive of some 'regional personality' or
simply as half-digested trivia, depending on one's viewpoint. In contrast, most
of the more attractive current work in human geography is aimed at more
limited and intellectually viable syntheses of the pattern of human activity over
space possessing physical inhomogeneities, leading to the disentangling of
universal generalizations from local 'noise' (Haggett, 1965). Today it is human
geography which seems to be moving ahead faster, to have the more stimulating
intellectual challenges, and to be directing the more imaginative quantitative
techniques to their solution.
One immediate result of this revolution has been the demonstration, if this
were further needed, that the whole of geomorphology and climatology is not
coincident with physical geography, and that the professional aims of the former
are quite distinct from those of the latter. This drawing apart of traditional
physical and human geography has permitted their needs and distinctions,
which had previously been obscure, to emerge more clearly. Perhaps the dis-
tinctions may have become too stark, as evidenced by current geographical
preoccupations with a rootless regional science and with socio-economic games
played out on featureless plains or within the urban sprawl. Perhaps this is what
the future holds for geography, but it is clear that without some dialogue
between man and the physical environment within a spatial context geography
will cease to exist as a discipline.
There is no doubt that the major branches of what was previously called
physical geography can exist, and in some cases already are existing, under the
umbrella of the earth sciences, quite happily outside geography, and that they
are probably the better for it. It is also possible that this will be better for geo-
graphy in the long run, despite the relevance to it of many of the data and certain
 INTRODUCTION [3]
of the techniques and philosophical attitudes of the earth sciences. In their place
a more meaningful and relevant physical geography may emerge as the product
of a new generation of physical geographers who are willing and able to face up
to the contemporary needs of the whole subject, and who are prepared to con-
centrate on the areas of physical reality which are especially relevant to the
modern man-oriented geography. It is in the extinction of the traditional
division between physical and human geography that new types of collaborative
synthesis can arise. Such collaborations will undoubtedly come about ·in a
number of ways, the existence of some of which is already a reality. One way is
to take a philosophical attitude implied by an integrated body of techniques or
models ( commonly spatially oriented) and demonstrate their analogous applica-
tion to both human and physical phenomena (Woldenberg and Berry, 1967;
Haggett and Chorley, In press). Another way is to assume that the stuff of the
physical world with which geographers are concerned are its resources -resources
in the widest sense; not just coal and iron, but water, ease of movement, and even
available space itself. In one sense the present volume represents both these
approaches to integration by its concentration on the physical resource of water
in all its spatial and temporal inequalities of occurrence, and by its conceptualiza-
tion of the many systems subsumed under the hydrological cycle (Kates, 1967).
In the development of water as a focus of geographical interest the evolution of a
human-oriented physical geography and an environmentally sensitive human
geography closely related to resource management is well under way.
2. Water as a focus of geographical interest
Water, Earth, and Man, both in organization and content, reflects the foregoing
attitudes by illustrating the advantages inherent in adopting a unified view of the
earth and social sciences. The theme of this book is that the study of water
provides a logical link between an understanding of physical and social environ-
ments. Each chapter develops this theme by proceeding from the many aspects
of water occurrence to a deeper understanding of natural environments and their
fusion with the activities of man in society. In this way water is viewed as a
highly variable and mobile resource in the widest sense. Not only is it a com-
modity which is directly used by man but it is often the mainspring for extensive
economic development, commonly an essential element in man's aesthetic
experience, and always a major formative factor of the physical and biological
environment which provides the stage for his activities. The reader of this
volume is thus confronted by one of the great systems of the natural world, the
hydrologic cycle, following water through its myriad paths and assessing its
impact on earth and man. The hydrologic cycle is a great natural system, but it
should become apparent that it is increasingly a technological and social system
as well. It has been estimated that Io¾ of the national wealth of the United
States is found in capital structures designed to alter the hydrologic cycle: to
collect, divert, and store about a quarter of the available surface water, distribute
it where needed, cleanse it, carry it away, and return it to the natural system.
The technical structures are omnipresent: dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, canals,
[4] INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY

tanks, and sewers, and they become increasingly sophisticated in the form of
reclamation plants, cooling towers, or nuclear desalinization plants. The social
and political system is also pervasive and equally complex, when one reflects on
the number of major decision makers involved in the allocation and use of the
water resources. White has estimated that for the United States the major
decision makers involved in the allocation and use of water include at least
3,700,000 farmers, and the managers of 8,700 irrigation districts, 8,400 drainage
districts, 1,600 hydroelectric power plants, 18,100 municipal water-supply
systems, 7,700 industrial water-supply systems, 11,400 municipal sewer systems,
and 6,600 industrial-waste disposal systems.
This coming together of natural potential and of human need and aspiration
provides a unique focus for geographic study. In no other major area of geo-
graphic concern has there been such a coalescence of physical and human geo-
graphy, nor has there developed a dialogue comparable to that which exists
between geographers and the many disciplines interested in water. How these
events developed is somewhat speculative. First, there is the hydrologic cycle
itself, a natural manifestation of great pervasiveness, power, and beauty, that
transcends man's territorial and intellectual boundaries. Equally important is
that in the human use of water there is clear acknowledgement of man's de-
pendence on environment. This theme, developed by many great teachers and
scholars, (e.g. Ackerman, Barrows, Brunhes, Davis, Gilbert, Lewis, Lvovich,
Marts, Powell, Thornthwaite, Tricart, and White), is still an important geo-
graphic concern, despite the counter trends previously described. Finally, there
is no gainsaying the universal appeal of water itself, arising partly from necessity,
but also from myth, symbol, and even primitive instinct.
The emergence of water as a field of study has been paralleled in other fields.
In the application of this knowledge to water-resource development, a growing
consensus emerges as to what constitutes a proper assessment of such develop-
ment: the estimation of physical potential, the determination of technical and
economic feasibility, and the evaluation of social desirability. For each of these
there exists a body of standard techniques, new methods of analysis still under-
going development, and a roster of difficult and unsolved problems. Geographers
have made varying contributions to these questions, and White reviewed them
in 1963. Five years later, what appear to be the major geographic concerns in
each area?
Under the heading of resource estimates, White cites two types of estimates
of physical potential with particular geographic significance. The first is 'the
generalized knowledge of distributions of major resources ... directly relevant
to engineering or social design'. While specific detailed work, he suggests, may
be in the province of the pedologist, geologist, or hydrologist, there is urgent
need for integrative measures of land and water potential capable of being
applied broadly over large areas. The need for such measures has not di-
minished, but rather would seem enhanced by developments in aerial and
satellite reconnaissance that provide new tools of observation, and by the wide-
spread use of computers that provide new capability for data storage and
 INTRODUCTION [5]
analysis. In the developing world the need is for low-cost appraisal specific to
region or project.
A second sort of estimate of potential that calls upon the skills of both the
physical and human geographer is to illuminate what White calls 'the problem
of the contrast between perception of environment by scientists ... (and) others
who make practical decisions in managing resources of land and water'. These
studies of environmental perception have grown rapidly in number, method, and
content. They suggest generally that the ways in which water and land resources
receive technical appraisal rarely coincide with the appraisals of resource users.
This contrast in perception is reflected in turn by the divergence between the
planners' or technicians' expectation for development and the actual course of
development. There are many concrete examples: the increase in flood damages
despite flood-control investment, the almost universal lag in the use of available
irrigation water, the widespread rejection of methods of soil conservation and
erosion control, and the waves of invasion and retreat into the margins of the
arid lands. Thus a geography that seeks to characterize environment as its in-
habitants see it provides valued insight for the understanding of resource use.
In r963 White differentiated between studies of the technology of water
management and studies of economic efficiency. Today one can suggest that,
increasingly, technical and economic feasibility are seen as related questions.
The distinction between these areas, one seen as the province of the engineer
and hydrologist, the other as belonging to the economist and economic geo-
grapher, is disappearing, encouraged by the impressive results of programmes
of collaborative teaching and research between engineering and economics (e.g.
at Stanford and Harvard Universities). In this view, the choice of technology
and of scale is seen as a problem of cost. The choice of dam site, construction
material, and height depends on a comparison of the incremental costs and of the
incremental benefits arising from a range of sites, materials, and heights. This
decision can be simultaneously related through systems analysis to the potential
outputs of the water-resource system.
The methodology for making such determinations has probably outrun our
understandings of the actual relationships. The costs and benefits of certain
technologies are not always apparent, nor are all the technologies yet known.
Geographic research on a broadened range of resource use and specific inquiry
into the spatial and ecological linkages (with ensuing costs) of various tech-
nologies appears to be required. Indeed, as the new technologies of weather fore-
casting and modification, desalinization, and cross-basin transport of water and
power expand, the need for such study takes on a special urgency.
Finally, there appears to be a growing recognition that much of what may be
socially important in assessing the desirability of water-resource development
will escape our present techniques of feasibility analysis for much time to come.
The need for a wider basis of choice to account for the social desirability of
water-resource development persists and deepens as the number of water-related
values increase and the means for achieving them multiply. A framework for
assessing social desirability still needs devising, but it could be hastened by
[6] INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY

careful assessment of what actually follows water-resource development. There

is much to be learned from the extensive developments planned or already
constructed. However, studies such as Wolman's [1967] attempt to measure the
impact of dam construction on downstream river morphology or the concerted
effort to assess the biological and social changes induced by the man-made lakes
in Africa are few and far between. Studies built on the tradition of geographic
field research but employing a rigorous research design over an extended period
of observation are required. Geographers, freed from the traditional distinction
between human and physical geography and with their special sensitivity to-
wards water, earth, and man, have in these both opportunity and challenge.

REFERENCES

ACKERMAN, E. A. [1965], The general relation of technology change to efficiency in

water development and water management; In Burton I. and Kates, R., Editors,
Readingsin ResourceManagementand Conservation(Chicago), pp. 450--67.
BURTON, I. [1963], The quantitative revolution and theoretical geography; The
Canadian Geographer,7, 151-62.
BURTON, I. and KATES, R. [1964], The perception of natural hazards in resource
management; Natural ResourcesJournal, 3, 412-41.
CHORLEY, R. J. [1965a], The application of quantitative methods to geomorphology; In
Chorley, R. J. and Haggett, P., Editors, Frontiers in GeographicalTeaching
(Methuen, London), pp. 147-63.
CHORLEY, R. J. [1965b], A re-evaluation of the geomorphic system of W. M. Davis;
In Chorley, R. J. and Haggett, P., Editors, Frontiers in GeographicalTeaching
(Methuen, London), pp. 21-38.
CURRY, L. [1952], Climate and economic life: A new approach with examples from the
United States; GeographicalReview, 42, 367-83.
HAGGETT, P. [1965], Locational Analysis in Human Geography(Arnold, London),
339 p.
HAGGETT, P. and CHORLEY, R. J. [1969], Network Models in Geography(Arnold,
London).
HEWES, L. [1965], Causes of wheat failure in the dry farming region, Central Great
Plains, 1939-57; EconomicGeography,41, 313-30.
HUFSCHMIDT, M. [1965], The methodology of water-resource system design; In
Burton, I. and Kates, R., Editors, Readingsin ResourceManagementand Con-
servation(Chicago), pp. 558--70.
KATES, R. w. [1967], Links between Physical and Human geography; In Introductory
Geography:Viewpointsand Themes(Washington), pp. 23-31.
LEIGHLY, J. [1955], What has happened to physical geography?; Annals of the
Associationof American Geographers,45, 309-18.
SEWELL, w. R. D., Editor [1966], Human Dimensions of Weather Modification;
Universityof Chicago,Departmentof Geography,ResearchPaper 105, 423 p.
SEWELL, w. R. D., KATES, R. w., and PHILLIPS, L. E. [1968], Human response to
weather and climate i GeographicalReview, 58, 262-80.
STODDART, D. R. [1967], Growth and structure of geography; Transactionsof the
Institute of British Geographers,No. 41, 1-19.
 INTRODUCTION [7]
WHITE, G. F, [1963], Contribution of geographical analysis to river basin development;
GeographicalJournal, 129, 412-36.
WHITE, G. F. [1968], Strategiesof American Water Management(Ann Arbor).
WOLDENBERG, M. J. and BERRY, B. J. L. [1967], Rivers and central places: Analogous
systems?; Journal of RegionalScience,7 (2), 129-39.
WOLMAN, M. G. [1967], Two problems involving river channel changes and back-
ground observations; In Garrison, W. L. and Marble, D. F., Editors, Quantitative
Geography:Part II Physicaland CartographicTopics(Northwestern University),
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WOOLDRIDGE, s. w. and EAST, w. G. [1951], The Spirit and Purposeof Geography
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1.11.World Water Inventory and Control 1

R. L.NACE
U.S. Geological Survey

The total amount of water in the earth system and its partition and movement
among major earth realms have been topics of speculation and investigation
during more than a century. Nevertheless, quantitative data are scarce, and the
hydrology of the earth as a complete system is still poorly known. Only approxi-
mate values can be assigned to most components of the system. Table I.II.I is a
summary estimate of water in the world exclusive of water of composition and
crystallization in rocks and of pore water in sediments beneath the floor of the
sea. Most of the water is salty, and much of the fresh water is frozen assets in the
cold-storage lockers of Antarctica and Greenland. Most studies of water concern
its occurrence and availability in specific areas. However, the global situation has
more than intellectual interest, and it is necessary to put local conditions in
perspective within that situation.
World globes usually are set up with a prominent land mass to the fore, so the
earth looks quite earthy. A more realistic orientation would have Jarvis Island-
one of the Line Islands in the Pacific Ocean - in the centre of the field of view.
In this perspective the earth is very watery indeed. The preponderance of water
area (71% of the earth's surface) and the great extent of the ice-caps are un-
fortunate in the eyes of people who would prefer more land to accommodate
more people (as though the world needed more people!). The effects of reduced
ocean area or of melted ice-caps, however, would be far-reaching and generally
unfavourable to man.

1. Significance of world inventory

In scientific parlance a system is any region in space together with the things and
processes that operate in that region. A closed system is self-contained- nothing
enters and nothing leaves. In many ways closed systems are preferable for study
to open systems, because once the parameters within the system have been
identified their interactions can be studied independently of outside phenomena.
No natural hydrological system is closed. Even the global system is open,
because radiant solar energy enters, and reflected and re-radiated energy leaves.
However, the solar constant is known more accurately than perhaps any other
factor in the hydrological cycle except the physical and chemical properties of
water itself. Solar energy is the main driving force of the hydrological cycle.
1 Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
 WORLD WATER INVENTORY AND CONTROL [9]

TABLE I.II.I World supply and volume of annually cycled water*

Area Volume % of total

Item (km2 X 10-3) (km3 X 10-3) water

Atmospheric vapour (water equivalent) 510,000 13 0·0001

(at sea-level)
World ocean 362,033 1,350,400 97·6
Water in land areas: 148,067t (124,000)!
Rivers (average channel storage) 1·7 0•0001
Fresh-water lakes 825 125 0·0094
Saline lakes; inland seas 700 105 0·0076
Soil moisture; vadose water 131,000 150 0·0108
Biological water 131,000 (Negligible)
Ground water 131,000 7,000 0·5060
Ice-caps and glaciers 17,000 26,000 1·9250

Total in land areas (rounded) 33,900 2 "459°

Total water, all realms (rounded) 1,384,000 100

Cyclic water:
Annual evaporation -§
From world ocean 445 0·0320
From land areas 71 0•0050

Total 516 0·0370

Annual precipitation -
On world ocean 412 0·0291
On land areas 104 0·0075

Total 516 0·0370

Annual outflow from land to sea -
River outflow 29·5 0•0021
Calving, melting, and deflation
from ice-caps 2·5 0·0002
Ground-water outflow,r 1·5 0·0001

Total 33•5 0•0024

• Values are approximations, computed on data from many sources which are not
mutually consistent. None of the values is precise. Data on evaporation and precipita-
tion modified from L'vovich [1945, p. 54].
t Total land area, including inland waters.
l Continental mass above sea-level.
§ Evaporation is a measure of total water participating annually in the water cycle.
,r Arbitrarily set equal to about 5% of runoff.
[10] INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL HYDROLOGY

Ocean basins, the atmosphere, and the outer crust of the earth form a single
gigantic plumbing system, all of whose parts communicate directly or indirectly
with all other parts. The occurrence and movement of water in one part of the
system are related to its occurrence and movement in all other parts. Further-
more, the whole is more than the sum of its parts, because it includes the inter-
actions of the parts. Therefore the complete system requires study and synoptic
observation before men can realistically hope to modify climate or increase water
supply predictably and safely. Further, man is the only species which is capable
of destroying the habitability of the world. Reckless exploitation of the earth has
brought many unwanted side effects that are clearly undesirable and often not
understood. It behooves us to understand the entire system in which we live.
No other is attainable.

z. Oceanic water
Ocean volume is equivalent to oceanic evaporation during about 3,000 years,
which might be taken as the average residence time of a water molecule in the
ocean. Some molecules reside only for an instant, however, and water in great
ocean deeps may be out of the water cycle during many thousands of years.
Oceanic waters comprise only about 0·023% of the earth's total mass. How-
ever, the hydrological cycle is largely an external phenomenon in which oceans
have the major role. The system ocean-atmosphere-continents is a great heat
engine that drives the water cycle, and oceans are the principal heat reservoir.

3. Water aloft
Evaporation from the huge oceanic reservoir is continual, but an average column
of atmosphere contains vapour equivalent only to about 25 mm of liquid water.
Estimates of annual precipitation averaged for the whole earth range from 700 to
more than r,ooo mm. About r,ooo mm is an acceptable value, equivalent to
about 2·7 mm da- 1 if precipitated uniformly in time and space. The apparent
average residence time of a water molecule in the atmosphere is about 10 days,
and in any case, water in the atmosphere obviously undergoes rapid flux and
reflux.
Strong variability of atmospheric vapour is worth noting. Estimates indicate,
for example, 0·6-r·5 mm (water equivalent) over Antarctica (Loewe, 1962, p.
5175) and 50-70 mm in typhoon air masses over Japan (Arakawa, 1959). Using
a conservatively rounded value of 50 km hr- 1 for the typhoon wind speed and
60 mm of water, vapour transport over Japan in a belt 1 km wide in this situation
would be equivalent to about 800 m 3 s- 1 . Considering that major moving air
masses are hundreds of kilometres in width, it is apparent that unseen rivers
aloft are equivalent to great rivers aground, as they must be to maintain the
water cycle.

4. Rivers
The Amazon, mightiest of all rivers, was first seen by Europeans in A.D. 1500.
Commanding four caravelles under the Spanish flag, Vicente Yafiez Pinzon
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