Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

MODULE 1
DEFINITION AND PROCESS OF REMOTE SENSING
INTRODUCTION
Now-a-days the field of Remote Sensing and GIS has become exciting and glamorous with
rapidly expanding opportunities. Many organizations spend large amounts of money on these
fields. Here the question arises why these fields are so important in recent years. Two main
reasons are there behind this. 1) Now-a-days scientists, researchers, students, and even common
people are showing great interest for better understanding of our environment. By environment
we mean the geographic space of their study area and the events that take place there. In other
words, we have come to realize that geographic space along with the data describing it, is part of
our everyday world; almost every decision we take is influenced or dictated by some fact of
geography. 2) Advancement in sophisticated space technology (which can provide large volume
of spatial data), along with declining costs of computer hardware and software (which can handle
these data) has made Remote Sensing and G.I.S. affordable to not only complex environmental /
spatial situation but also affordable to an increasingly wider audience.

REMOTE SENSING AND ITS COMPONENTS:

Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually
being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that information." In much of remote sensing, the process
involves an interaction between incident radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified
by the use of imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved. However that
remote sensing also involves the sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.-

Components of Remote Sensing

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphre (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record
the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular
problem.
HISTRY OF REMOTE SENSING:
1839 - first photograph
1858 - first photo from a balloon
1903 - first plane
1909 first photo from a plane
1903-4 -B/W WW I and WW II infrared film
1960 - space
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target
(unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target). This energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and behaves
in predictable ways according to the basics of wave theory.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which varies In magnitude in a
direction perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is traveling, and a magnetic field
(M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field. Both these fields travel along with the speed of
light(c). Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important to understand
remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) as an electromagnetic wave that travels through space at the
speed of light C which is 3x108 meters per second. Theoretical model of random media including
the anisotropic effects, random distribution discrete scatters, rough surface effects, have been
studied for remote sensing with electromagnetic waves.
Wavelength and frequency
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between
successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of meters such as nanometers (nm, 10-9
meters), micrometers (μm, 10-6 meters) (μm, 10-6 meters) or centimeters (cm, 10-2 metres).
Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per second, and various
multiples of hertz. Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. Shorter the wavelength higher the
frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. Understanding the characteristics
of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength and frequency is crucial in
understanding the information to be extracted from remote sensing data.
The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and x-
rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There are
several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote
sensing.

WAVELENGTH REGIONS IMPORTANT TO REMOTE SENSING:

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

1 Ultraviolet or UV
For the most purposes ultraviolet or UV of the spectrum shortest wavelengths are practical for
remote sensing. This wavelength beyond the violet portion of the visible wavelengths hence it
name. Some earth surface materials primarily rocks and materials are emit visible radiation when
illuminated by UV radiation.

2 Visible Spectrums
The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can detect is part of the visible spectrum. It is
important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There
is a lot of radiation around us which is “invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other
remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage. The visible wavelengths cover a range
from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is
violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colours from the visible portion
of the spectrum are listed below. It Is important to note that this is the only portion of the
spectrum we can associate with the concept of colors.
Violet: 0.4 -0.446 μm
Blue: 0.446 -0.500 μm
Green: 0.500 -0.578 μm
Yellow: 0.578 -0.592 μm
Orange: 0.592 -0.620 μm
Red: 0.620 -0.7 μm
Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible spectrum. They are
defined as such because no single primary colour can be created from the other two, but all other
colours can be formed by combining blue, green, and red in various proportions. Although we
see sunlight as a uniform or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of various wavelengths
of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared portions of the spectrum. The visible
portion of this radiation can be shown in its component colours when sunlight is passed through
a prism, which bends the light in differing amounts according to wavelength.

3 Infrared (IR)

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which covers the
wavelength range from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm more than 100 times as wide as the
visible portion. The infrared can be divided into 3 categories based on their radiation properties-
the reflected near- IR middle IR and thermal IR. The reflected near IR covers wavelengths from
approximately 0.7 μm to 1.3 μm is commonly used to expose black and white and color-infrared
sensitive film. The middle-infrared region includes energy with a wavelength of 1.3 to 3.0 μm.
The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy
is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in the form in the form of heat.
The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.

4 Microwave
This wavelength (or frequency) interval in the electromagnetic spectrum is commonly referred to
as a band, channel or region.The major subdivision The portion of the spectrum of more recent
interest to remote sensing is the microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the
longest wavelengths used for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have properties similar to
the thermal infrared region while the longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

radiobroadcast.

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through some
distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming
light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering and absorption.

Energy Interaction with Atmosphere

SCATTERING
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with
and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much
scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the
abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.
There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.

RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the
radiation. These could be articles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer
wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper
atmosphere.The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon.
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible
spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset
the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths
to penetrate the atmosphere.

Raleigh Scattering

ABSORPTION
Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with
the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to
absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor are the three
main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation. Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to
most living things) ultraviolet radiation for the sun. Without this protective layer in the
atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight. Carbon dioxide referred to as a
greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of
the spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the
atmosphere. Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming long wave infrared
and shortwave microwave radiation (between 22μm and 1m). The presence of water vapour in
the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location and at different times of the year.
For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little water vapour to absorb energy,
while the tropics would have high concentrations of water vapour (i.e. high humidity).

MIE SCATTERING

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the
radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which
tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering
occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant,
and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast. The final scattering mechanism of
importance is called nonselective scattering. This occurs when the particles are much larger
than the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type
of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are
scattered about equally. This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes
because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities
(blue+green+red light = white light).

ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS
While EMR is transmitted from the sun to the surface of the earth, it passes through the
atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and dust
particles. Besides the major atmospheric gaseous components like molecular nitrogen and
oxygen, other constituents like water vapour, methane, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen
compounds play important role in modifying electro magnetic radiation. This affects image
quality. Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the atmosphere is transparent are
called atmospheric windows. In other words, certain spectral regions of the electromagnetic
radiation pass through the atmosphere without much attenuation are called atmospheric
windows. The atmosphere is practically transparent in the visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum and therefore, many of the satellite based remote sensing sensors are designed to
collect data in this region. Some of the commonly used atmospheric windows are shown in the
figure.

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

Figure . They are: 0.38-0.72 microns (visible), 0.72-3.00 microns (near infra-red and middle
infra-red), and 8.00-14.00 microns (thermal infra-red).
Transmission100%UVVisibleInfraredEnergy Blocked0.3 Wavelength (microns)1101001 mm

SPECTRAL SIGNATURE CONCEPTS-TYPICAL SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE

CHARACTRISTICS OF WATER, VEGETATION AND SOIL:
A basic assumption made in remote sensing is that a specific target has an individual and
characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation. The manner of interaction is
described by the spectral response of the target. The spectral reflectance curves describe the
spectral response of a target in a particular wavelength region of electromagnetic spectrum,
which, in turn depends upon certain factors, namely, orientation of the sun (solar azimuth), the
height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle), the direction in which the sensor is pointing
relative to nadir (the look angle) and nature of the target, that is, state of health of vegetation.
Spectral Reflectivity
•Reflectivity is the fraction of incident radiation reflected by a surface

•The reflectance characteristics of Earth’s surface features may be quantified by measuring the
portion of incident energy that is reflected

•This is measured as a function of wavelength (λ) and is called spectral reflectance (rλ).

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE CURVE

Chlorophyll strongly absorbs energy in the wavelength bands centred at about

0.45μm(blue) and 0.67 μm(red)

Our eyes perceive healthy vegetation as green in colour because of the very high
reflection of green light

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

If a plant is subject to some form of stress, it may decrease chlorophyll production

resulting in less chlorophyll absorption in the blue and red bands

Often the red reflectance increases to the point that we see the plant turn yellow
(combination of green and red)

Spectral reflectance of Vegetation

• In the range from about 0.7 to 1.3 μma plant leaf typically reflects 40 -50% of the energy
incident upon it primarily due to the internal structure of plant leaves
• Because the internal structure of leaves are highly variable between plant species, reflectance
measurements in this range often permit us to discriminate between species (even if they look the
same in visible wavelengths)
• Many plant stresses alter the reflectance in this region, and sensors operating in this range are
often used for vegetation stress detection

Spectral reflectance of Vegetation

• Beyond 1.3 μm energy incident upon vegetation is essentially absorbed or reflected with little
to no transmittance of energy
• Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 μm because water in the leaf absorbs strongly at
these wavelengths (water absorption bands)
• Reflectance peaks occur at about 1.6μmand 2.2 μm, between the absorption bands

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

• Throughout the range beyond 1.3 μm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to the
total water present in a leaf which is a function of both the moisture content and the thickness of
a leaf

Spectral reflectance of Soil

•The factors that influence soil reflectance act over less specified spectral bands

•Factors affecting soil reflectance are moisture content, soil texture (proportion of sand, silt and
clay), surface roughness, presence of iron oxide and organic matter content

•The presence of moisture in soil will decrease its reflectance -this effect is greatest in the water
absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9, 2.2 and 2.7 μm

•Soil moisture content is strongly related to the soil texture.

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

Spectral reflectance of Water

•Water (in soil, vegetation or water bodies) absorbs radiation at near-IR wavelengths and beyond
(strong absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9and 2.7 μm)
•Reflectance from a water body can stem from an interaction with:
–the water’s surface (specularreflection),
–with material suspended in the water, or
–with the bottom of the water body

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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

ELEMENTS OF VISUAL INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES

A systematic study of aerial photographs and satellite imageries usually, involves several
characteristics of features shown on an image and it depend upon field of application.

Most of the application consider the following basic characteristics or variation in them
which aid the visual interpretation process of satellites imagery

Although there is a difference of opinion on the number of elements ,there is namely

tone, size, shape, texture, pattern, location, association, shadow and resolution

Tone:- refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Generally, tone is the
fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features. Variations in tone
also allows the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.

Shape:- refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape can be a
very distinctive clue for interpretation. Straight edge shapes typically represent urban or
agricultural (field) targets, while natural features, such as forest edges, are generally more
irregular in shape, except where man has created a road or clear cuts. Farm or crop land irrigated
by rotating sprinkler systems would appear as circular shapes.

Size:- of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a target
relative to other objects in a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of that
target. A quick approximation of target size can direct interpretation to an appropriate result
more quickly. For example, if an interpreter had to distinguish zones of land use, and had
identified an area with a number of buildings in it, large buildings such as factories or
warehouses would suggest commercial property, whereas small buildings would indicate
residential use
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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

Pattern:- refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects. Typically an orderly
repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a distinctive and ultimately recognizable
pattern. Orchards with evenly spaced trees, and urban streets with regularly spaced houses are
good examples of pattern.

Texture:- refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of an
image. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change abruptly in
a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation. Smooth textures are
most often the result of uniform, even surfaces, such as fields, asphalt, or grasslands. A target
with a rough surface and irregular structure, such as a forest canopy, results in a rough textured
appearance. Texture is one of the most important elements for distinguishing features in radar
imagery.

Shadow:- is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and relative
height of a target or targets which may make identification easier. However, shadows can also
reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area of influence, since targets within shadows are
much less (or not at all) discernible from their surroundings. Shadow is also useful for enhancing
or identifying topography and landforms, particularly in radar imagery.

Association:- takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or features
in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would expect to
associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification. In the example
given above, commercial properties may be associated with proximity to major transportation
routes, whereas residential areas would be associated with schools, playgrounds, and sports
fields. In our example, a lake is associated with boats, a marina, and adjacent recreational land.

Site:-refers to the vocational characteristic of object such as topography, soil, vegetation and
cultural features

FALSE COLOUR COMPOSITE

THE display OF colour assignment for any bands of a spectral image can be done entirely in the
orbitary manner in this case the colour of the target in the displayed image does not have any
resemblance to its actual colour this resulting product is called FCC. A very common FCCs
given for displaying a SPOT multispectral image is

R- near higher band

G- red bands » rivers

B- green bands

This false color composite beam allows vegetations to be detected in the image. In this type of
FCC images vegetations appears in different shapes of red depending on the types and conditions
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Remote sensing and GIS 15CV563

of the vegetations. Clear water appears as dark blue(higher green band reflectance ), while turbid
water appear cyan it means higher reflectance of red compared to clear water.

Bare soils roads and buildings may appear in various shapes of blue yellow depending on their
compositions.

RESOLUTION

Resolution is a term used to describe the number of dots or pixels used to display an image. High
resolution implies more pixels are used to create the image resulting in clear image, low
resolution will be having fewer pixels to create the image resulting in less clear image.

SPATIAL RESOLUTION:
It is a measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that
can be resolved by the sensor. The greater the sensor’s resolution, the greater the data
volume and smaller the area covered. In fact, the area coverage and resolution are
inter‐dependent data these factors determine the scale of the imagery.
Spatial resolution describes how much detail in a photographic image is visible to the
human eye. The ability to resolve or separate, small details of the earth surface features.
Spatial resolution is a complex concept which can, for the purpose of remote sensing of
Polar Regions, be defined as the smallest object that can be detected and distinguished
from a point.
The factors effecting spatial resolution; Atmosphere, smoke, low light, blurred sensor
system.

SPECTRAL RESOLUTION:
It refers to the dimension and number of specific wavelength intervals in the
electromagnetic spectrum to which a sensor is sensitive. In the other words sensitivity of
a sensor to respond to a specific spectral wave energy.
Narrow bandwidths in certain regions of the electromagnetic spectrum allow the
discrimination of various features more easily.
These waves include not only visible light but also non visible waves of electromagnetic
radiation energy. Spectral resolution depends on Number of spectral bands, width of each
band.
Based on the number of spectral band absorbing by sensor there are four types of spectral
resolution.
Panchromatic-1 band
Colour-3 band
Multispectral-4+ bands
Hyper spectral-hundreds of bands

TEMPORAL RESOLUTION:

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It refers to how often a given sensor obtains imagery of a particular area. Ideally, the sensor
obtains data repetitively to capture unique discriminating characteristics of the phenomena of
interest.

RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION:
It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance/ remittance from various
targets. This depends on the number of quantization levels within the spectral band. In
other words, the number of bits of digital data in the spectral band will decide the
Sensitivity of the sensor.
It is the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected in a given film analysis. It is
also the ability of a given sensing system to discriminate between density leve:s. In
general, the radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast, so that higher
Contrast film is able to resolve smaller differences in exposure.
Low contrast films have greater radiometric range while highest contrast films have
smaller exposure range and lower radiometric range.

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