Pilot Review Study On The Importance of Treated Agroindustrial Wastewater To Reuse For Irrigating Agriculture

ISSN: 2639-7455
Research Article Earth & Environmental Science Research & Reviews

Pilot Review Study on the Importance of Treated Agro-Industrial Wastewater to
Reuse for Irrigating Agriculture
Anbessie Debebe Aboye*
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Kulumsa Agricultur- *
Corresponding author
al Research Center, Ethiopia. Anbessie Debebe Aboye, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research,
Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, Natural Resource Management
Research Process, Integrated and Organic Soil Fertility & Health Re-
search program, Asella, Ethiopia
Submitted: 24 Jan 2022; Accepted: 01 Feb 2022; Published: 07 Mar 2022
Citation: Anbessie Debebe Aboye (2022) Pilot Review Study on the Importance of Treated Agro-Industrial Wastewater to Reuse for
Irrigating Agriculture, Eart & Envi Scie Res & Rev. 5(1): 01-26.
Abstract
The main purpose this review study is to present fundamentals of wastewater conservation and treatment method amid
at using it for irrigating agriculture in a manner understandable to those most concerned with such knowledge and also
to provide the wastewater users with an insight into the many ways in which they are dependent on soil and water for
survival. In most parts of Ethiopia, the water needed for crop production is provided mainly by rainfall. These days;
however, the effectiveness and sufficiency of rain fall, even in high rainfall receiving areas, is interrupted by its erratic
occurrence, uneven distribution, poor soil and water managements. There is also scarcity of water during dry seasons.
To achieve this, integrated participation and coordinated efforts of the different institutions is highly considered. After
introducing provisions and expressions of wastewater use, this study highlights their global drivers and significance
using examples from various parts of the developing world. It is useful in the discussion to differentiate between un-
planned use of wastewater resultant from deprived sanitation, and planned use which tries to address matters such as
economic or physical water scarcity. Both types of wastewater use can have significant socio-economic benefits but
also institutional challenges and risks which require various management approaches. Based on the laboratory test
results and the field experimental research activities conducted on cereal crops like wheat and barley as well as the
pulse crops of the field pea and Faba bean crops which planted in the agro-industrial wastewater of Asella Malt Fac-
tory have performed very well at 25%, 50% and 75% of fresh water and wastewater dilutions in favor of their intensive
growth rate performance of the seeds. There is a need for the consequent study to apply the principles of wastewater
management and treatment method to use it for irrigating agriculture. The author links wastewater and health to the
establishment and implementation of effective, affordable and efficient options for risk reduction. Under the conditions
applied in this study, the reuse of treated agro-industrial wastewater for irrigation can be considered an effective way
to cope with agricultural water shortage in the Mediterranean area. We can expect the entire information quantified in
this paper will influence further applied multidisciplinary research on wastewater use related risk and its alleviation.
Keywords: Agro-Industrial Wastewater, Crop Growth Performance & Yield Quality, Faecal Sludge & Wastewater Reuse.
Introduction has raised with population growth, urbanization, improved living
In many developing countries, agro-industrial wastewater is used conditions, and economic development. The effective usage of
for irrigating agriculture both with and without treatment; in the wastewater has also enlarged, as millions of small-scale farmers
final occurrence, it might be in diluted or undiluted form. While in urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries depend on
wastewater treatment and recycling for various purposes has been wastewater or wastewater contaminated water sources to irrigate
well documented, the agricultural use of raw and diluted waste- high-value edible crops for urban markets, often as they have no
water has only recently been brought to the foreground as a phe- another sources of irrigation water. Unwanted elements in waste-
nomenon that needs attention [1, 2, 3]. The capacity of wastewater water can hurt human well-being and the environment. Therefore,
produced by domestic, agro-industrial, and commercial sources wastewater irrigation is an issue of concern to public organizations
Eart & Envi Scie Res & Rev, 2022 www.opastonline.com Volume 5 | Issue 1 | 01
accountable for keeping public well-being and environmental es, to the intention not to make known the existing alternatives in
quality. For various reasons, many developing countries are still order to use the wastewater resources.
unable to implement comprehensive wastewater treatment pro-
grams. This may be done because either manufacturers fear difficulties
when trading their produce or some organizations do not want to
Thus in the near term, risk management and conditional solutions make a clean breast what appears to be negligence. For these rea-
are needed to avoid and prevent different impacts from wastewa- sons, this book will firstly introduce in boxes, some definitions
ter irrigation. The amalgamation of source control, and farm-level of terms that will be used throughout the entire report and will
and post-harvest measures can be used to protect farmworkers and secondly analyze existing information from different sources us-
consumers. The WHO rules revised in 2006 for wastewater use ing for the given reasons, non-standardized methods of reporting.
suggest measures beyond the traditional recommendations of pro- Despite these limitations, the descriptions presented are useful to
ducing only industrial or non-edible crops. As in many situations provide an idea of the wastewater treating method and the extent
it is impossible to enforce a change in the current cash crop pat- use of agro-industrial wastewater, extract and sludge for irrigation
tern, or provide alternative vegetable supply to urban markets ([2, and agricultural practices.
3]. There are quite a lot of opportunities for refining wastewater
management through enhanced policies, institutional discussions In the greatest parts of Ethiopia, the water required for crop pro-
and financial mechanisms, which would diminish the dangers in duction is provided mostly by rainfall. Nowadays; however, the
agriculture. efficiency and sufficiency of rainfall, even in high rainfall receiv-
ing areas, is interrupted by its erratic occurrence, uneven distribu-
Effluent standards combined with incentives or enforcement can tion, poor soil, and water management. There is also a scarcity of
motivate improvements in water management by household and water during dry seasons. As a result, it becomes an obligation to
industrial sectors discharging wastewater from point sources. The establish water conservation and irrigation systems to have it in
use of unprocessed wastewater or contaminated water in gener- Ethiopia. To achieve this, farmer participation and coordination of
al, boot-up torrential dangers to human health since it may have the efforts of different institutions is highly considered. According
extract-related pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, protozoan, to the United Nations Population Fund [6] and Central Statistical
multi-cellular parasites, skin irritants, and toxic chemicals like any Agency of Ethiopia [7] the world and Ethiopian population sur-
kind of substantial materials, morsels, hunk and paring metals, passed 7 billion and 73 million, respectively. Hence, it is becoming
pesticides and pesticide residues. When agro-industrial wastewa- very imperative to produce more than once per year apart from
ter is used in agriculture, pathogens and certain chemicals are the increasing yield per unit area to feed the increasing population.
primary dangers to human health by exposure through different
ways. These exposure ways mainly contact with wastewater to the When we were few in population and drought was not as frequent
farmers, field workers, and nearby communities as well as con- as it is now, rain fed agriculture could and did feed our population
sumption of wastewater-grown producers and consumers. [8]. But now rain fed cultivation alone in the highlands will no
longer support us, even in good years. So using our water resourc-
In addition, contamination may be due to poor post-harvest han- es in the form of irrigation is crucial to an extra rain fed cultiva-
dling that can also lead to cross-contamination of farm produce. tion, ensure sustainable agriculture and coop within the periods
The agricultural use of treated, partially treated, or untreated of inadequate rain fall. Among the mandates of Kulumsa Agricul-
wastewater or surface water contaminated with industrial wastes is tural Research Center (KARC), includes generating of improved
common. An estimated 20 million hectares worldwide are irrigated technologies along with the provision of preliminary materials for
with wastewater, more of it untreated than treated wastewater [4, technology multiplications (breeder and pre-basic seeds) are the
5]. This misbalance in favor of untreated wastewater will continue most important once.
to increase as long as the pollution of streams, by effluents from
growing urban populations is not matched by treatment facilities. So far the technology generation process was very lengthy; be-
cause of its entirely dependent on rain fed agriculture. Following
The increasing global scarcity of good-quality water will turn the current trait, shortening of technology release-period has been
wastewater irrigation from an undesirable phenomenon into a found very important. Besides, the gap between demand and sup-
necessity wherever agricultural water demand is not met by supply of new improved technologies need to be bridged. In line with
ply. This is not only the case in drier regions but anywhere where the fulfillment of its mandate, the KARC has already launched
farmers seek land and water to address market demand. Common a huge irrigation scheme development with financial support
examples are urban and peri-urban areas in most developing coun- from the EAAPP by making use of wastewater discharge which
tries where clean water sources are hardly sufficient even to meet released out from the nearby Asella Malt Factory. Previously, it
domestic demand. Describing the present use of wastewater, malt was released without any care and creating health, social and en-
barley washed-out extracts, and sludge in the agricultural practices vironmental problems to the surrounding environment, and with
of developing countries is not an easy task. On the one hand, there its existing natural water supply, which was diverted few years
is a lack of reliable and sufficient information and, on the other; ago to the research center as an additional water resource towards
the available information does not use uniform terms and units to increasing the capacity of the KARC’s formerly installed two res-
describe these practices. The public lack of important information ervoir ponds and the newly constructed one additional reservoir
about the use of agro-industrial wastewater is rather due to the pond.
informal nature of putting into practice or even, in some other cas-
Based on the results of a quality test conducted at the National landless people that rent small plots to produce income-generat-
Soil Testing Center, the barley washed-out wastewater has been ing crops such as vegetables that thrive when watered with nu-
proved environmentally friendly for agricultural purposes. Hence, trient-rich sewage. Across Asia, Africa and Latin America these
shortening of the technology generation process and significant wastewater micro-economies support countless poor people. Stop-
contribution towards the supply of starting materials for technol- ping or over-regulating these practices could remove the only in-
ogy multiplication are possible. Land application of wastewater, come many landless people have.
sludge and extract is a widespread practice with a long tradition in
many countries around the world. With the above apprehensions The Preeminent Opportunities of Wastewater Manage-
bearing in mind, this pilot review study has been carried out with ment
a pursuit to create the treated wastewater irrigation project all with Affluent countries regard wastewater treatment as vital to protect
depended on the malt-bailey washed out wastewater of the Asella human health and prevent the contamination of lakes and rivers.
malt factory and the existing freshwater supply of our research But for most developing countries this solution is prohibitively ex-
center, which was diverted to Kulumsa Agricultural Research pensive. In this case, applying wastewater to agricultural lands is
Center (KARC), before ancient years to use it as an extra water a more economical alternative and more ecologically sound than
capacity for the then water resource and it can also have a signifi- uncontrolled dumping of municipal and industrial effluents into
cant function in ever-rising the potential of the KARC’s formerly lakes and streams.
installed and the newly constructed ponds.
The Safer Extensive Farming Practice of Wastewater Ir-
Body of Discussion rigation
Reusing of Treated Industrial-Wastewater for Irrigating Ag- Obviously, the short-term benefits of wastewater irrigation could
riculture be offset by the health and environmental impacts. The first step
In rural and peri-urban areas of most developing countries, the is to scientifically evaluate these. Once the actual risks are clear,
use of sewage and wastewater for irrigation is a common prac- we can work to reduce them. This means, for example, finding
tice. Wastewater is often the only source of water for irrigation in affordable ways of monitoring the presence of harmful contami-
these areas. Even in areas where other water sources exist, small nants in wastewater, such as heavy metals that can accrue in soil
farmers often prefer wastewater because its high nutrient content and crops. It means looking at farming practices and crops grown
reduces or even eliminates the need for expensive chemical fertil- to find ways of minimizing risks of infection for farmers and con-
izers. Concern for human health and the environment are the most sumers. IWMI's research in Pakistan, Ghana, Vietnam and Mexico
important constraints in the reuse of wastewater. While the risks examine both positive and negative impacts of wastewater reuse
do need to be carefully considered, the importance of this practice for agriculture. This work will result in tools and concepts that can
for the livelihoods of countless smallholders must also be taken help policymakers and planners balance the needs of small farmers
into account. The aim of IWMI research on wastewater irrigation with the health of people and the environment.
is to maximize the benefits to the poor who depend on the resource
while minimizing the risks. 2.5. The soil characteristics of the Kulumsa Agricultural Research
Center’s irrigation project area.
Treated Wastewater Irrigation Offer an Extra Earnings According to the study results of [9] the soil Physico-chemical
for Farmers characteristics of the project area are summarized here underneath:
Many wastewater irrigators are not landowning farmers, but
Table 1. The Soil Characteristics of Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center
Physical properties Chemical properties

Soil Depth Particle Size (%) Soil Texture Available P pH in water (1:2.5) N% OC % OM %
Class (ppm)
Sand Silt Clay
0-30 27.46 24.22 48.32 Silty clay 2.574 6.69 0.11 1.88 3.25
loam
Note: P=Phosphorus, pH=Potential Hydrogen, N=Nitrogen, OC= Organic Carbon, OM=Organic Matter
Source: Anbessie D., Abebe M., and Dechassa H., (2020)
The type of soils in Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center are classified as Haplic Alisols (Abayneh et al., 2003). The soils are
known as, Haplic Alisols, Eutric Vertisols and Vertic Luvisols. deep to very deep (>100 cm) and clayey in texture. The agro-cli-
About 83.07% of the soil type at Kulumsa Research Center is clas- matic condition of the area is wet and receives the annual mean
sified as Vertic Luvisols and about 10.06% of the soil type is clas- rainfall of 809.15 mm from March to September; however, the
sified as Eutric Vertisols and about 6.87% of the soil type is also peak season is from July to August. The average annual maximum
and minimum mean temperatures are 23.08 and 9.9°C, respective- slope. In some places where the slope is very flat, flooding and wa-
ly (Jemal A. et al., 2015). The pH of the soils ranges from 6.593 ter logging had still some effects. The soil moisture establishment
to 6.786 and subsurface soils have higher pH values than surface can be classified as ustic and the soil temperature as Isothermic
soils (Abayneh et al., 2003). Kulumsa Research Center is located (Abayneh et al., 2003).
on very gently undulating topography with a gradient of 0 to 10%
Table 2. Some characteristics of countries using wastewater for irrigation

Use of wastewater for irriga- Total number of countries GDP per capita for 50% of the Sanitation coverage or 50% of
tion countries (in $US) the countries (in %)
Untreated 23 880 – 4800 15–65
Treated & untreated 20 1170 – 7800 41–91
Treated 20 4313 – 19800 87–100
Proper Usage of Agro-Industrial Wastewater for Irriga- with middle income are those using both types of water, indicating
tion a transition between unplanned and uncontrolled reuse to planned
In the literature, there is no comprehensive global inventory of the and controlled reuse. Countries using only treated water for irriga-
extent of non-treated wastewater used for irrigation; actually, none tion purposes have sanitation coverage of at least 87 per cent. Few
exists even for treated wastewater. Based on information from studies have quantified the aggregate contribution of wastewater
the countries providing data on irrigated areas, it is estimated that to food supply. In Pakistan, about 26 percent of national vegeta-
more than 4–6 million hectares are irrigated with wastewater or ble production is irrigated with wastewater [17], while in Hanoi,
polluted water [10, 3, 11]. A separate estimate indicates 20 million Vietnam, which is much wetter than Pakistan, about 80% of vege-
ha globally, an area that is nearly equivalent to 7% of the total irri- table production is from urban and peri-urban areas irrigated with
gated land in the world [12]. diluted wastewater (Lai, 2002). Across major cities in West Afri-
ca, between 50 and 90 per cent of vegetables consumed by urban
In contrast, the area reported to be irrigated with treated waste- dwellers are produced within or close to the city [18] where much
water amounts to only 10% of this value. In practice, due to the of the water used for irrigation is polluted. The use of grey-water
under-reporting of areas irrigated with polluted water, the differ- exclusively has not been extensively documented, partly because
ence may be much higher. Two decades ago, [13] estimated that it tends to be mixed together with black water.
the area using raw wastewater or polluted water was 3 million ha;
recent data suggest an area six times larger. It cannot be deter- In cases where it is used as such, it is commonly an in-house prac-
mined whether this difference refers to a de facto increase in the tice, which makes it difficult to assess, but it is being popularized
area or only in available data, but both might be the case, given in the Middle East for irrigation purposes. In some States in the
the increasing amounts of wastewater generated as well as urban USA, grey-water use is permitted for household irrigation and
food needs. The resulting agricultural activities are indeed most state legislation and guidelines exist. Australia, which has major
common in and around cities [14], but can also be seen in rural scarcity problems, commissioned studies on grey-water reuse but
communities located downstream of where cities discharge, unless no comprehensive information is available. In countries where this
treatment or self-purification processes take place. is permitted, there are instances of grey-water use for toilet flush-
ing after treatment.
Much of this use is not intentional and is the consequence of water
sources being polluted due to poor sanitation and waste-disposal Low- and middle-income countries such as India, Mali, Jordan,
practices in cities. [15] suggest from a survey across the devel- Palestine, South Africa, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Costa Rica and Malay-
oping world that wastewater without any significant treatment is sia are using grey-water for gardening and irrigation of non-edible
used for irrigation purposes in four out of five cities. In terms of crops such as fodder and olive trees [19]. In most cities of sub-Sa-
volume of wastewater used for various purposes, the quantity var- haran Africa, grey-water is channeled into drains where it often
ies considerably from one country to another. The majority of this gets mixed with storm-water, solid waste and extract from open
is reported to be used in developing countries, where 75 per cent defecation before it enters natural water bodies. As these drains
of the world’s irrigated land is located [16], with a small amount, or streams are often used for irrigation, it is difficult to distinguish
even if not expected, being used in some developed countries [4]. between grey-water and wastewater use [20, 18, 2].
In a new review integrating data from [4] and the 46 countries A recent survey in two Ghanaian cities showed that grey-water use
report the use of polluted water for irrigation purposes shows a for backyard irrigation is very low (International Water Manage-
clear increase in GDP and the percentage of improved sanitation ment Institute) [21], despite the fact that grey-water and black-wa-
from countries using untreated to treated wastewater. Countries ter have separate networks, and the proper use of grey-water could
be promoted. The situation can be different in drier areas where the population for disposal of black-water in densely populated
tap water is precious and natural water sources rare. Jordan is pi- cities. Fecal sludge collected from on-site sanitation installations
loting projects with a view to up-scaling grey-water use as, for is sometimes transported to treatment ponds but is more often
example, in the Jerash Refugee Camp, where grey-water is sepa- dumped in depressions, streams or the ocean, or reused untreated
rated and discharged from all houses into the environment through on farmland, discharged in lakes or fish ponds or disposed of with-
small ditches and open canals that serve farmers producing crops in the household compound. Assuming a per capita faecal sludge
(WHOIDRC, 2006). India is also using partially treated grey-water production of 1 liter/day [23], a truck-load of 5m3 dumped indis-
for kitchen-garden irrigation and sanitation [22] and it seems that criminately is equivalent to 5000 open defecations [24].
this practice is beginning to be widely applied in several regions.
Sewage Sludge Treatment and Disposal Method
The Productive and Destructive Effect of Fecal Sludge The residue that accumulates in sewage treatment plants is called
and Bio-Solids sludge or biosolids. Sewage sludge is the solid, semisolid, or slurry
The problem of fecal sludge management is compounded by the residual material that is produced as a by-product of wastewater
large number of on-site sanitation systems, such as latrines, un- treatment processes. This residue is commonly classified as prima-
sewered public toilets or septic tanks, used by the majority of ry and secondary sludge.
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2012

Figure 1: Hydrolysis Sludge-Sewage Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems
Primary sludge is generated from chemical precipitation, sedimen- Fortunately, the practice poses little health risk to consumers
tation, and other primary processes, whereas secondary sludge is where there is sufficient exposure to sun and a long dry season
the activated waste biomass resulting from biological treatments. which result in pathogen die-off, or where the crops grown are
Some sewage plants also receive septic tank solids from household cereals [26, 27] . Systems where the faecal sludge is first dried and
on-site wastewater treatment systems. Quite often the sludge’s are then mixed with solid waste for co-composting have been reported
combined together for further treatment and disposal. from experimental stations in Ghana and Nigeria.
These practices represent a significant risk to public health and Settled sludge from sludge treatment ponds has also been used to
have a high disease impact on workers emptying the tanks and ‘blend’ compost from solid waste, as observed in Accra, Ghana
trucks, their families, the households living in the immediate area [28, 24]. Use of extract is seldom made public, but is known to
and on vulnerable populations in latrine-based cities [25]. In Gha- have been practiced for centuries in Asia [25], in particular in Chi-
na, Mali and Benin, farmers are known to bribe septic truck drivers na (UNHSP, 2008) and Vietnam [29,30]. in both agriculture and
to dump the faecal matter in their fields. aquaculture. In China, use of extract in agriculture continues to
be common and this practice has led to a strong economic linkage a) Primary treatment for the separation of the solid and liquid
of urban dwellers and urban farmers. Thus, vegetables grown on parts, and
extract-conditioned soils yield higher sales prices. b) Sludge treatment, which is the final stage of treatment that is
generated from the primary treatment.
With increasing efforts to introduce urine-separating toilets, the
first data on urine reuse has emerged. In both developed and de- A decision matrix was prepared on the basis of primary and sludge
veloping countries, sludge disposal is an issue growing in line treatment technological options with respect to land requirement,
with the increase in the volume of wastewater treated. Historically, energy requirement, skill requirement, and capital cost operating
sewage sludge has been considered to be waste that is to be dis- cost and groundwater level. These parameters strongly influence
posed of at the least possible cost (UNHSP, 2008). As a result, it the decision-making about the selection of the FS treatment tech-
has traditionally been dumped in landfills, holes, any unoccupied nology. The selection of a FS treatment technology for a city also
surface and drainage systems [31]. However, fecal sludge, extract depends on the local conditions and priorities of the region with re-
and Bio-solids are increasingly being applied on land in low and gard to sanitation such as population coverage, environmental and
middle-income countries due to the high cost of modern landfills health benefits, elimination of open defecation, etc. Techno eco-
that meet all environmental requirements, the difficulty of finding nomic feasibility of different combinations of primary and sludge
suitable sites for landfills even in developed countries and the ben- treatment technologies was conducted to evaluate its viability. The
efit of recycling plant nutrients and enhancing soil characteristics. analysis was conducted across different classes of cities with vary-
ing population size.
Their main use worldwide greater than 60 percent is to fertilize ag-
ricultural fields or green areas. This practice solves a problem for The combination of primary treatment technologies with solar
municipalities, helps farmers to decrease their organic and mineral sludge oven emerged to be the most economically viable options
fertilizer costs and preserves or improves soil fertility. Another im- for FS treatments across different population size in developing
portant use of sludge is to improve degraded soils at mining sites, countries. On the bases of this operation program, the total waste-
construction sites and other disturbed areas (UNHSP, 2008). Fecal water discharge by the factory predicted to be about 415m3 within
sludge (FS) that is collected from septic tanks poses management 36hr's.
challenges in urban areas of developing countries. Currently, FS is
dumped into the urban and peri-urban environment, posing great This discontinuous wastewater flows out of the factory compound
risks to the soil, surface water and groundwater quality. FS treat- via the main get to be conveying by an open earth-ditch along the
ment technology usually consists of the following. roadsides. Finally, the Wastewater ultimately released by the fac-
tory flows into a downstream River named Kulumsa.
Figure 2: The KARC’s previous structure of irrigation water reservoir ponds.
Under the conditions applied in this project, the reuse of treat- between unplanned use of wastewater resultant from deprived
ed agro-industrial wastewater for irrigation can be considered as sanitation, and planned use which tries to address matters such as
an effective way to cope with agricultural water shortage in the economic or physical water scarcity.
Mediterranean area. It is useful in the discussion to differentiate
Figure 3: The current map structure of irrigation water reservoir ponds at Kulumsa Research Center
Opportunities and Benefits of Water Reuse and their seasonal variations can be challenging. Otherwise, exces-
In water-scarce countries and regions, the recycling of wastewater sive nutrients may cause plant damage and leach into groundwater.
provides one opportunity to substitute limited freshwater resourc- A decision matrix was prepared on the basis of primary and sludge
es with reclaimed water for purposes that do not require drinking treatment technological options with respect to land requirement,
water quality. Wastewater, which is usually continuous through- energy requirement, and skill requirement, capital cost, operating
out the year, can provide a reliable water source while freshwa- cost and groundwater level. These parameters strongly influence
ter availability may be characterized by high seasonal variations the decision-making about the selection of the FS treatment tech-
or extreme events. Since these patterns are becoming more likely nology. The combination of primary treatment technologies with
with climate change, interest has grown in water reuse opportuni- solar sludge oven emerged to be the most economically viable op-
ties and not only in arid countries. Potential water reuse applications for FS treatments across different population size in develop-
tions include agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial reuse, ing countries.
and groundwater recharge, applications for firefighting, and street
cleaning, as well as recreational and ecological uses [32, 33]. In Constraints of Faecal Sludge Treatment
Australia, the introduction of water reuse has facilitated an in- Treatment in Developing Countries Conversion of FS to valuable
crease in agricultural production, despite the limited availability of products without any foul odour, flies and pathogen transmission is
freshwater resources [32]. a challenging task in developing countries. The choice of FS treat-
ment methodology primarily depends on the sludge characteristics
In Tunisia, where wastewater reuse is a well-established practice, and their reuse option [e.g., land application, biogas production
reclaimed water for agricultural purposes consists of about 20% of or landfilling [37]. Sludge characteristics vary significantly de-
wastewater effluents, promoted by the state in order to save fresh- pending on the location, water content and storage. For example,
water for the drinking water supply and to protect receiving waters ammonium concentration in FS can vary from 300–3,000 mg/L,
[34, 35]. Irrigation with reclaimed water may also have benefits in while 60,000 Helminth Eggs can be present per liter of FS [38].
terms of providing nutrients to crops, thus potentially reducing the The FS characteristic determines the appropriate type of treatment
need for synthetic fertilizers in agriculture [36]. However, ensur- and reuse. The wide variety of FS characteristics requires consid-
ing a balance between adequate wastewater treatments and adapt- ering suitable options for primary treatment.
ing nutrient loads in reclaimed water to specific crop requirements
Primary treatment is used for dewatering or solid–liquid separa- observed on public health affects due to its stinky smell when the
tion or biochemical stabilization of FS. Technologies for dewater- discharge is going to be stored in the reservoir, mild stinky smell is
ing of FS have been reported previously [39]. Dewatered sludge expected in its vicinity. As a sustainable solution, experimentation
with low moisture content reduces transport loads and is easier will soon be launched to make use of effective microorganism,
to handle. Dewatering is also necessary prior to composting and which can remove or minimize the unwanted smell. Studies have
landfilling to reduce the leachate percolation to the groundwater. revealed that these microorganisms have been found very effective
The choice of FS treatment methodology also depends on the prac- with respect to avoiding such smells.
tice used for FSM. In developing countries, households mostly use
septic tanks, twin pits and manual emptying for FSM. The sludge If the wastewater is not properly treated, then the atmosphere and
collected from the septic tank and twin pit is biochemically more anthropological well-being can be harmfully impacted. These im-
stable due to longer storage periods as the sludge is emptied from pacts can include harm to fish and wildlife populations, oxygen de-
the septic tank and twin pits in 2–3 years. pletion, beach closures and other restrictions on recreational water
use, restrictions on fish and shellfish harvesting and contamination
The Destructive Impact of Wastewater Discharge and of drinking water. Some examples of pollutants that can be found
Remedial Measures in wastewater and the potentially harmful effects these substances
The expected negative impacts of the AMF discharges are being can have on ecosystems and human health:
Source: Shubhra Singh, Riya Rachel Mohan, Sujaya Rathi1 and N. Janardhana Raju, CSTEP, No 18 & 19, [40].
Figure 3: Overview technology options of faecal sludge management for developing countries
The selection of a FS treatment technology for a city also depends The Essential Uses of Agro-Industrial Wastewater for
on the local conditions and priorities of the region with regard to Agriculture
sanitation such as population coverage, environmental and health In developing countries, the limited financial and physical resourc-
benefits, elimination of open defecation, etc. The analysis was es to treat water, the socio- economic situation and the context of
conducted across different classes of cities with varying popula- urbanization create the conditions for unplanned and uncontrolled
tion size. wastewater use.
A study commissioned by the Comprehensive Assessment of Wa- • Direct use of untreated wastewater refers to the use of raw
ter Management in Agriculture showed that across 53 cities in the wastewater from a sewage outlet, directly disposed of on land
developing world the main drivers of wastewater use in irrigated where it is used for crop production.
agriculture are a combination of the following aspects [15]. Lim- • Indirect use of untreated wastewater refers to the abstraction
ited capacities of cities to treat their wastewater, causing pollution of usually diluted wastewater (or polluted stream water) for ir-
of soils, water bodies and traditional irrigation water sources; rigation. This is common downstream of urban centers where
• Lack of alternative cheaper, similarly reliable, available or treatment facilities are limited. Farmers might or might not be
safer water sources in the physical environment. aware of the water-quality challenge.
• Urban food demand and market incentives favoring food pro- • Direct use of treated wastewater refers to the use of reclaimed
duction in the proximity of cities, where water sources are water that has been transported from the point of treatment
usually polluted. or production to the point of use without an intervening dis-
charge to waters.
In addition, [41] pointed to the influence of socio-economic factors
at the household level, like poverty and low education in develop- Planned water reuse refers to the conscious and controlled use of
ing countries, where lack of job opportunities and a limited aware- wastewater either raw direct or diluted (indirect). However, most
ness for health risks coexist. In such circumstances, wastewater indirect use happens without planning, at least initially, for using
reuse can represent a promising opportunity for cash crop produc- low quality water. Direct use often takes place in dry climates
tion or to improve food supply. Once wastewater reuse is in place where water sources are scarce. Treated, untreated or partially
and its advantages have been gauged by the population, it is diffi- treated wastewater is used directly for irrigation without being
cult to alter behavior especially if changes have an associated cost mixed or diluted.
or are linked to historical water rights. This may be compounded
by reduced availability of freshwater resources, be it for economic Direct use of treated wastewater is most common as a planned
or physical reasons. process in developed countries including some larger parts of the
Middle East and North African region, but can also take place
The nutrient value of raw wastewater and sludge is inherently rec- unplanned, for example in dry seasons, when streams only carry
ognized by farmers, which is also a factor driving their use. In wastewater, as is the case for the Musi River in Hyderabad, India.
contrast, in more developed countries, water reuse and recycling However, the use of diluted wastewater for irrigation indirect use
are increasingly seen as a means to respond to physical water scar- is significantly more frequent than direct use and occurs even more
city including climate change and drought management, water re- in wetter climates. In this situation, untreated or partially/insuf-
allocations from agriculture to other uses and also as an economic ficiently treated wastewater from urban areas is discharged into
response to costly inter-basin transfers. drains, small streams and other tributaries of larger water bodies
where it is usually mixed with storm water and freshwater, result-
An additional factor influencing recycling is the stringent envi- ing in diluted wastewater or polluted surface water.
ronmental standards, which make land application of wastewater
and sludge both unavoidable and economically feasible. Drivers of It is then used by farmers, most of whom are traditional users of
agricultural reuse of sludge and extract are linked more to disposal these water sources. Lack of adequate sanitation and waste-dis-
issues than to the intention to reclaim components of them. How- posal infrastructure in cities is one of the direct causes of such pol-
ever, many farmers consider them to be a valuable resource similar lution and use [4, 15]. This situation is not limited to low-income
to farmyard manure. countries that have no capacity to collect and treat wastewater
comprehensively, but occurs also in fast-growing economies like
This beneficial use is increasingly gaining momentum, driven by China, Brazil, and some countries of the Middle East and North
the intention of closing nutrient loops to ensure that nutrients are Africa region.
returned to agricultural land to improve soil fertility. One of the
main differences observed between the use of wastewater and that For example, despite massive investments in wastewater treat-
of sludge and extract is a greater acceptance of wastewater use, as ment, the city of Beijing is only able to treat about half of the
sludge and extract have been historically considered, in most cul- wastewater generated and untreated wastewater is discharged into
tures, to be not only noxious but also an object of shame 8y waterways used downstream by farmers [42]. Also, in Lebanon
and Palestine most of the wastewater collected from sewered lo-
calities is discharged into nearby rivers, wadis, and the sea, and
Typology of Agro-Industrial Wastewater Uses on open land from where it infiltrates the ground with little or no
Various authors have attempted to provide typologies for waste- treatment [43]. In spite of strict European Union (EU) regulations,
water recycling and use. But none of these has been taken up uni- untreated wastewater is discharged into rivers which are used for
versally or been standardized. However, in describing wastewater irrigation in some countries such as Spain, Italy and Portugal, es-
reuse, the terms direct, indirect, planned and unplanned recur fre- pecially in summer when there is little or no river flow (Juanico
quently. These are explained here with examples: and Salgot, 2008).
However, this practice is being reduced due to efforts made by takes place in a separate industrial wastewater treatment plant, or
countries to increase the level of wastewater treatment to meet EU in a sewage treatment plant (usually after some form of pre-treat-
legislation. In Turkey, an enormous amount of domestic waste- ment). Further types of wastewater treatment plants include agri-
water is discharged into rivers and used for irrigation because of cultural wastewater treatment plants and leachate treatment plants.
insufficient sewerage facilities and lack of satisfactory treatment
[10]. Some areas, irrigation infrastructure originally built to trans- Processes commonly used include phase separation such as sedi-
port freshwater, surface or groundwater is now used for wastewa- mentation, biological and chemical processes such as oxidation or
ter during certain periods. polishing. The main by-product from wastewater treatment plants
is a type of sludge which is usually treated in the same or another
The Engineering Works Done to Divert and Harvest the wastewater treatment plant (Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2003). Biogas
Wastewater can be another by-product if anaerobic treatment processes are
The engineering works done to divert and harvest the wastewater used. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as re-
incudes canals, manholes, settling basis, mixing chambers, ponds, claimed water. The main purpose of wastewater treatment is for
pump house, sprinkler and drip irrigations systems, etc. Pictures the treated wastewater to be able to be disposed or reused safe-
showing the existing structures on the ground have been showed ly. However, before it is treated, the options for disposal or reuse
hereunder and, their purpose described well. Wastewater engi- must be considered so the correct treatment process is used on the
neering is a profession that is extremely experiment-based, and wastewater. The term "wastewater treatment" is in the literature
therefore it has always had the need to develop and standardise often used to mean "sewage treatment". Strictly speaking, waste-
methods. This seemingly simple activity is strongly hampered by water treatment is broader than sewage treatment. The pictures
two factors, namely: showing the KARC’s existing structural feature on the ground
a) Wastewater engineering is a typical interdisciplinary activity have been presented and their purposes described as well hereun-
where chemical engineers, civil engineers, microbiologists and der (Figure 4).
chemists interact to develop and understand the processes; the
challenge here is to integrate methods and approaches from these Treated Wastewater Usage at Kulumsa Agricultural Re-
disciplines, and, search Center
(b) In addition, wastewater and its treatment processes are by their The reusing of agro-industrial wastewater for irrigating agriculture
nature difficult to define with exactitude. It is for instance virtu- is a large-scale irrigation project that launched ten years ago at Ku-
ally impossible to measure all the individual compounds in the lumsa Agricultural Research Center. The reusing of agro-indus-
wastewater itself. Identifying all the relevant microorganisms in trial wastewater for irrigating agriculture is an issue of concern to
the processes has long been impossible and is still a complicated relevant organizations accountable for keeping public comfort and
challenge. eco-friendly quality. For various reasons, many irrigation organi-
zation in the country are still unable to implement comprehensive
The Importance of Wastewater Treatment wastewater treatment programs. Thus in the near term, risk man-
The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of agement and conditional solutions are needed to avoid and prevent
the suspended solids as possible before the remaining water, called different impacts from wastewater irrigation.
effluent, is discharged back to the environment. As solid material
decays, it uses up oxygen, which is needed by the plants and an- The present wastewater irrigation system in Kulumsa Agricultural
imals living in the water. Primary treatment" removes about 60 Research Center relates to reusing of agro-industrial wastewater
percent of suspended solids from wastewater. This treatment also of Asella Malt Factory for irrigating agriculture, by developing the
involves aerating or stirring up the wastewater, to put oxygen back wastewater treatment system that removes biodegradable pungent
in. Secondary treatment removes more than 90 percent of suspend- smells, organic contaminants, over saturated nutrients, pathogens
ed solids. Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove con- and the like from the wastewater discharges of residential homes,
taminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can commercial businesses, industrial facilities, municipal facilities,
be returned to the water cycle. agricultural facilities and the like. In order to protect the environ-
ment and promote public health, communities typically there is a
Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable need to make the wastewater treatment activities. The discharge of
impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes called untreated wastewater is not suitable, since it gives rise to numer-
water reclamation (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020). The treatment ous environmental concerns, such as the pollution of surface and
process takes place in a wastewater treatment plant. There are sev- groundwater resources.
eral kinds of wastewater which are treated at the appropriate type of
wastewater treatment plant. For domestic wastewater (also called Untreated wastewater contains organic matter and nutrients that,
municipal wastewater or sewage), the treatment plant is called a if left untreated and not removed from the waste stream, can re-
sewage treatment plant. For industrial wastewater, treatment either sult in environmental pollution. Thus, when untreated wastewater
is released into either aboveground bodies of water or subsurface As noted above, discharge of this untreated wastewater into the
drain fields, the level of dissolved oxygen in the receiving waters river will endanger and harms resident populations and aquatic
begins to deplete, which endangers the water bodies themselves, life in the river. Untreated wastewater also contains a number of
along with the resident plant and aquatic life. disease pathogens that are extremely harmful to humans. For in-
stance, untreated wastewater is one of the most important causes
Furthermore, in our country, where potable water is scarce, it is of dysentery, which can be life threatening. Thus, if a significant
often desirable to recover as much reclaimable water as possible amount of untreated wastewater is discharged into a river, that riv-
from wastewater, rather than disposing of both the wastewater and er will become unavailable for human consumption.
the contaminants. To treat and use wastewater, communities in
highly populated areas commonly collect wastewater and trans- On the other hand, if the treatment plant processes the larg-
port it through a series of underground pipes to a large centralized er-than-normal amounts of untreated wastewater, instead of divert-
wastewater mixing chamber. However, there are several problems ing a portion into a body of water, the influx of untreated waste-
associated with large, centralized treatment chamber. water would wash away the bacteria populations or biomass used
by the mixing chamber to treat the untreated wastewater, which
Centralized wastewater treatment chamber is designed and rated would disrupt the entire biological treatment process of the mixing
for processing a specific flow rate of treated wastewater per hour, chamber.
typically expressed as the rated capacity of the mixing chamber,
and all treatment pump house have a paramount flow rate capac- Further, as noted above, wastewater treatment is particularly
ity. As a result, if a centralized treatment chamber receives more needed in our areas with the above concerns bearing in mind. The
wastewater on a particular hour than what the mixing chamber was irrigation development project has been generated based on the
designed to handle, problems are encountered. agro-industrial wastewater which comes out from Asella malt fac-
tory and with our existing wastewater source, which was diverted
For example, when a mixing chamber receives larger-than-normal before long ago years to Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center
amounts of untreated raw wastewater, treatment performance de- aimed to use it as an additional water capacity for the then irriga-
creases and partially treated or untreated wastewater is released tion water resource and it can also has an important role in increas-
into a body of water, such as a river, in order not to exceed the ing the capability of the KARC’s newly constructed ponds, and
amount of wastewater the method of wastewater treatment for irri- such large-scale treatment plants may not be available.
gation purposes was designed to handle.
Figure 4: The KARC’s Drawing Structure of the Wastewater Treatment Method for Irrigation Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K.,
& Samuel Lindi M., (2022).
The Brief Descriptions of The Ponds Project Structure However, at the tail end of irrigation systems or throughout in the
No. 1 is a source of the wastewater coming out from the Asella dry season, wastewater may be the only water flowing in the ca-
Malt Factory. nals in areas such as Haroonabad in Pakistan and Hyderabad in
No. 2 and No. 3 are a 24 inch cemented concrete pipe-outlet for the India [17, 44]. In Jordan, the As-Samra wastewater treatment plant
wastewater of the Asella Malt Factory mainly treats the domestic wastewater of the capital Amman. On
No. 4 is the 24 inch cemented concrete pipe which takes out the its course to the Jordan Valley, the reclaimed water is mixed with
wastewater from the No. 2 and No. 3 outlet pipes to go out through surface run-off from wadis before it is temporarily stored in the
the diversion manhole of the No. 5. country’s largest reservoir, the King Talal Reservoir (KTR) (which
No. 5 is a diversion manhole structure of the barley washed-out has a storage capacity of 75 million cubic metres). The deten-
wastewater which coming out from the Asella Malt Factory to the tion time of the water in the reservoir, which used to be about ten
Kulumsa Research Center through under the highway asphalt road months, has been reduced to a few months with the increase of the
from Addis Ababa to Asella town. wastewater flow. About 20km downstream from the KTR outlet,
No. 6 to 6.10 are the manhole structures to use them for silt trap- Zarqa Carriers divert part of the KTR water directly to fields in the
ping purpose with the un inclusive distance of 100 meters amongst Jordan Valley. The rest of the reclaimed water is finally released
the open concrete ditch. into the King Abdullah Canal which brings freshwater in the north
No. 11 is the get valve control system of the wastewater outlet to the Jordan Valley.
canal to the silt trap basin structures.
No. 12 is a diversion manhole structure of the barley washed-out Productive and destructive effects of reusing wastewater
wastewater which coming out from the No. 10 manhole structure and faecal sludge for irrigation
to the silt traps basin structures. While the drivers for the use of wastewater, sludge and extract in
No. 13 is the get valve control system of the wastewater outlet agriculture differ between regions, their use – be it directly, indi-
canal to the avoidable drainage passage. rectly, diluted or not – has a number of advantages along-side the
No. 14 to 17 are a silt trap basin structures for the purpose of min- well-known risks [13, 25, 5]. For centuries, wastewater has been
imizing the unnecessary sediments which can gradually accumu- improperly used in irrigating agriculture, presenting potential risks
lated in the ponds due to the long term effects. to public health and the environment. In the context of scientific
No. 18 is a wastewater pond development, and confronted by an increasing water crisis, waste-
No. 19 is a freshwater pond. water reuse qualities concern because the practice helps decrease
No. 20 is a 6 inch outlet pipe of the fresh water to the mixing water use pressure and moderates water pollution. Thus, this book
chamber. presents a literature review that addresses the effects, both con-
No. 21 is the get valve control system of the freshwater inlet pipe structive and destructive, of wastewater use in irrigating agricul-
to freshwater pond. ture, highlighting the special effects on the soil environment.
No. 22 is a 6 inch freshwater outlet pipe to the mixing chamber
No. 23 is the get valve control of the freshwater outlet pipe to the The literature review discloses that, up to the 1990s, research stud-
mixing chamber ies encouraged the use of wastewater for irrigation resolutions
No. 24 is a 6 inch wastewater outlet pipe to the mixing chamber. from the wastewater treatment method, while proposing “end of
No. 25 is the get valve control of the wastewater outlet pipe to the pipe” derivative solutions. However, more recent research studies
mixing chamber from 2012–2016 reveal that agricultural reuse significantly affects
No. 26 is the mixing chamber. soil texture properties, while also causing possible alterations of
No. 27 is the 12 inch outlet pipe of the treated wastewater from the the biomass and micro-biota. In addition, research in this period
mixing chamber to the pump house has been oriented to the quantitative evaluation of microbiological
No. 28 is the get valve control structure for the treated wastewater risk.
outlet pipe from the mixing chamber to pump house.
No. 29 is a pump house to be connected with the sprinkler struc- Productive Benefits of Reusing Treated Wastewater for
ture on the farm lands. Irrigation
No. 30 is the avoidable drainage outlet canal to the Shorima gorge. As a consequence of the high global food demand, it is not surpris-
No. 31 is a wastewater pond ing that, worldwide, the biggest user of wastewater (treated or not)
No. 32 is a source of the freshwater is agriculture [4]. An important factor which makes wastewater
No. 33 is the get valve control of the wastewater outlet pipe to valuable is that it is a reliable source of water, as it is available all
the reservoir pond year round, unlike pluvial precipitation or seasonal streams. Con-
Wastewater is pumped into irrigation canals to supplement fresh sequently, it permits higher crop yields, year-round production,
irrigation water. For instance, in Vietnam, wastewater from Hanoi and increases the range of crops that can be irrigated, particularly
and other cities along the Red River Delta is pumped into irriga- in arid but not limited to arid and semi-arid areas [3]. Studies con-
tion canals at certain times of the year to supplement irrigation ducted in Hubli-Dharwad showed that wastewater allowed farm-
water (Trang et al., 2007a and b). ing to be done in the dry season when farmers could sell their pro-
duce at three to five times the kharif monsoon season prices [45]. Excessive concentrations of some trace elements may also cause
Wastewater reliability also allows for multiple cultivation cycles plant toxicity and sometimes become a health risk for crop con-
and flexibility of crops planted [15]. sumers. Few studies have quantified the economic gains from
nutrients in wastewater under actual field conditions. In Guana-
Similar situations have been reported for Haroonabad, Pakistan; juato, Mexico, the estimated saving arising from using wastewa-
Accra, Ghana; and Dakar, Senegal [46, 47]. The increased pro- ter to supply the required nitrogen and phosphorus for crops was
ductivity and related income/food supply gains allow farmers a US$135 per hectare [3]. A study comparing vegetable production
more reliable livelihood with indirect benefits of using the income using freshwater and untreated wastewater in Haroonabad, Paki-
for education and improving health conditions. Where vegetables stan, found that the gross margins were significantly higher for
are the main commodity produced with wastewater, there can be a wastewater (US$150 per hectare), because farmers spent less on
significant aggregate benefit for the society in terms of a more bal- chemical fertilizer and achieved higher yields [54]. In a cost–ben-
anced diet. In the case of Accra, for example, more than 200,000 efit analysis of grey-water reuse systems constructed in residential
people eat vegetables produced with wastewater every day [48]. schools in India, the internal and external benefits far outweighed
On the other hand, this is also the group potentially at risk as the the costs [55].
possible adverse health effects to farmers and consumers are well
established [25]. Although studies conducted to quantify economic returns are still
few and lack a uniform methodological approach, they consistent-
As part of the urban food-production systems, urban livestock con- ly report significant gains among farmers with access to waste-
tributes to cities’ food security by providing meat and dairy prod- water. The annual income reported in such studies performed in
ucts [49, 50]. In semi-arid countries, livestock production relies India, Ghana, Senegal, Kenya and Mexico varied from US$420 to
mainly on natural pasture, which is often limited or decreasing due $2800 per hectare per year [3]. According to studies in Ghana, the
to low precipitation. In Sahelian countries (i.e. Burkina Faso, Mali, greatest factor influencing farmers’ profits is not so much the yield
Senegal), forage biodiversity has decreased over time and plant obtained, but the ability to produce crops that are in high demand
species with lower nutritive value and palatability are becoming and low supply, at the right time, the result being that they can be
predominant [49, 51] Food and Agriculture Organization of the consistently sold at above average.
United Nations (FAO), 2006; [52]. At the same time, however,
the demand for dairy in cities is increasing with urbanization and The profitability of the business is also reflected in farmers’ de-
changing diets. For example in Asian countries, the demand for cisions to pay more for, especially nutrient-rich wastewater than
dairy products is growing by a factor of 3.5 per year [53]. normal water. In Quetta, Pakistan, farmers paid 2.5 times more
for wastewater than for freshwater [17]. While farmers and their
Reusing wastewater or faecal sludge for fodder production appears families are direct beneficiaries, there are also indirect beneficia-
an important and comparatively low-risk avenue which can con- ries along the supply chain including farm laborers, transporters,
tribute to enhancing the resilience to climate changes and food in- vendors, processors, input suppliers and consumers [56]. With low
security especially of small and middle-sized cities in developing investments and quick returns, this practice is lucrative and en-
countries. Another well-established advantage of wastewater and ables many farmers to leap over the poverty line [57]. In many
sludge reuse is their nutrient content. Even when treated, wastewa- West African countries, it is especially attractive to poor migrants
ter recycles organic matter and a larger diversity of nutrients than looking for jobs in the city [5]. The land application of wastewa-
any commercial fertilizer can provide. Bio-solids, sludge and ex- ter, sludge and extract for agricultural use constitutes a low-cost
tract in particular, provide numerous micronutrients such as cobalt, disposal method and a land-treatment system that uses the soil to
copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc, which are essen- attenuate contaminants.
tial for optimal plant growth. It is estimated that 1000 cubic meters
of municipal wastewater used to irrigate one hectare can contribute If carried out under controlled conditions, it can also be safe.
16–62kg total nitrogen, 4–24kg phosphorus, 2–69kg potassium, Wastewater use can also recharge aquifers through infiltration or
18–208kg calcium, 9–110kg magnesium, and 27–182kg sodium reduce the impact on surface-water bodies, as wastewater is ‘treat-
[2]. ed’ in the vadose before reaching them [41]. Several wastewater
constituents are subject to processes that remove them or signifi-
It therefore can reduce the demand for chemical fertilizers espe- cantly reduce their concentration. Reduced costs to society are also
cially where the wastewater is not diluted, i.e. make crop nutri- noteworthy, in view of reducing the use of fossil fuels to produce
ents more accessible to poor farmers. In the light of the global fertilizer.
phosphorus crisis, extract and wastewater can be critical sources of
phosphorus (Rosemarin, 2004). On the other hand, excessive con- 3.8. Destructive drawbacks of using wastewater for irri-
centrations of nitrogen in wastewater can lead to over-fertilization gation
and cause excessive vegetative growth, delayed or uneven crop Among the disadvantages of using untreated or partially treated
maturity and reduced quality [41, 2]. wastewater, sludge or extract, the most obvious are the health risks
from pathogens. These have been discussed extensively elsewhere agro-industrial waste products that are not acting as pollutants but,
[25] and are also the subject of several chapters in this book. Some conversely, are beneficial.
references will be provided here in order to give an idea of the
magnitude of the problem. Firstly, it should be stated that diseases Therefore, in practice, there has to be a trade-off between the ad-
are linked to the nature of the pathogen in the wastewater and thus vantages and disadvantages and the best solution for each situa-
vary locally following the local public-health pattern. tion should be sought, even if this is considered unconventional,
especially from a developed country perspective. From a technical
Secondly, risks are not limited to farmers, but can be observed in point of view, the solution will basically consist of finding a way
four groups: agricultural workers and their families; crop handlers; to supply soils and crops with water, nutrients and organic matter.
consumers of crops or meat and milk coming from cattle graz- This should take advantage of the assimilation capacity of the soil,
ing on polluted fields; and those living on or near the areas where so that pathogens or heavy metals do not cause harm, while putting
wastewater, sludge or extract is used. Within these groups the most in place additional measures to deliver safe food to consumers.
vulnerable sections of the population are children and the elderly. These and other alternative options for health-risk reduction are
Thirdly, observed responses may vary considerably between de- supported by the Guidelines of WHO (2006) where conventional
veloping and developed countries. This is because pathogen distri- wastewater treatment fails for whatever reason.
butions and concentrations, to which these groups are exposed, are
very different, as are the living conditions and the level of resis- 3.9. Providing treated wastewater to meet quality irriga-
tance to disease between developing and developed countries [58]. tion water
Furthermore, the statistics on food safety are unreliable because Policies to control the unplanned reuse of wastewater where it is
laboratory standards are so low in most developing countries. an ongoing practice are not only hard to implement but are even
difficult to develop [61] because governments are faced with the
Pathogens contaminate crops mainly via direct contact, though trade-off between public-health protection and the ethical question
some cases of uptake by plants have been recorded [59]. Beside of whether to prevent wastewater farmers from cultivating with
pathogens, wastewater and sludge can also be a source of high the only source of water that is accessible to them [62].
levels of heavy metals and organic toxic compounds [59, 60].
Contamination can occur, in the case of metals and some organic The WHO, to assist in this decision-making process, has in recent
chemicals, through absorption from the soil, which strongly de- years been giving consideration both to the limitations faced by
pends on the location that possible contamination sources, the en- developing countries in providing sufficient wastewater treatment
vironmental conditions particularly the soil, bio-availability in the to meet water-quality standards and the increasingly important
case of some contaminants, type of plant and agricultural practices livelihood dimension of wastewater use. This is reflected in the
quantity of water applied and irrigation method (Jiménez, 2006). 2006 WHO Guidelines. If a government concludes that the prac-
tice must be stopped, then it has to put in place a complex process
There is relatively good knowledge concerning the allowable for control, with few successful examples in practice.
amounts of heavy metals that crops and soil can be exposed to
when wastewater, sludge or bio-solids are applied to soil (Page In almost all countries legislation exists, dating back several years
and Chang, 1994; UNHSP, 2008; WHO, 2006). Moreover, for both or decades and referring directly or indirectly to the use of pol-
developed and developing countries, the content of heavy metals luted water or wastewater for irrigation, which is always forbid-
in wastewater, extract and sludge from domestic sources is gener- den. Many countries have irrigation water-quality guidelines, but
ally low enough to allow their use for crop fertilization (Jiménez they do not always consider microbiological standards, and where
and Wang, 2006; UNHSP, 2008; WHO, 2006). However, there are wastewater use is permitted, the legislation requires that certain
always cases where care has to be taken, for example, close to quality conditions are met. Such conditions usually follow the pre-
tanneries or mining areas [60]. The risk from organic components vious WHO Guidelines (1989) which recommended water-quality
derived via wastewater is in general much lower than via direct thresholds. Such regulations are not followed in practice for the
pesticide application. In comparison with pathogenic health risks, many reasons mentioned above. A further factor is that wastewater
pesticide levels on vegetables, even if elevated, were considered to irrigation usually takes place outside the officially recognized for-
be of secondary importance in the context of a developing country mal irrigation sector.
[14]. As described above, the use of wastewater, bio-solids and
extract implies benefits but also risks. As a result, most governments ignore the situation or have no other
means than to adopt a laissez-faire attitude (Drechsel et al., 2006).
Frequently, experts recommend simply banning this unsafe prac- Joint efforts by WHO, FAO and United Nations Environment Pro-
tice and ‘properly’ treating wastewater, sludge and extract. Such gram (UNEP) to respond to this global situation, and to encourage
recommendations, besides being nearly impossible to implement resource recovery, resulted in an enforceable and achievable reg-
in most developing countries for both economic and social rea- ulatory framework to support worldwide the reuse of wastewater,
sons, would also result in the removal of components from these grey-water and extract in agriculture and aquaculture [4].
These new Guidelines build on previous ones but are in their 2006 provide users with the flexibility to develop suitable management
version much more supportive of the difficult sanitation conditions practices for using sewage sludge [66]. In contrast, the EU has
in most developing countries and have suggested a multiple-bar- adopted a precautionary or a no-net-degradation approach (UN-
rier approach for the long-term achievement of a universal health- HSP, 2008). This approach prevents pollutant accumulation into
based target. Furthermore, World Health Organization suggests bio-solids-receiving soils. As a result of this, the EU is well ahead
local adaptation of the Guidelines with incremental achievements of the USA in researching and phasing out chemicals of concern
towards this target. in personal care and commercial products, resulting in more costly
control programs. Both approaches address pathogen reduction,
This flexibility means that authorities require support to under- the potential for accumulation of persistent pollutants in soils
stand and apply the new approach. The previous WHO Guidelines (heavy metals and persistent chemicals) and the application of ap-
(1989) are often considered more straightforward, especially for propriate amounts of nutrients.
countries that already have comprehensive wastewater collection
and treatment in place. The resulting bias towards countries at the One notable difference is that the EU Directive has stringent upper
lower part of the sanitation ladder caused discomfort among those limits for pollutants and generally limits rates of applications of
countries further up which have few problems in enforcing and bio-solids to lower amounts than are allowed in USA. The cost
monitoring crop or water-quality thresholds. These countries pre- of implementation of the directive is also higher, as wastewater
fer to use, for example, standards similar to the California [63]. treatment plants need to employ advanced wastewater treatment
Such fixed standards are indeed most useful where they can ac- technologies to minimize the pollutant levels in the reclaimed
tually be met by treatment, and wastewater use is a planned and wastewater and sewage sludge.
controlled activity.
Regulatory structures in other countries that may not have the same
However, they are difficult to apply where treatment is rudimen- level of resources available for wastewater sludge management are
tary or lacking and when thousands of farmers already use pollut- less precautionary. Balancing the need for strong regulations and
ed water sources because they have no alternative. Here, different enforcement with what is practical and achievable is the challenge.
strategies for health-risk reduction are needed. Similar regulations [67], for example, has pointed out that in South Africa an initial
based on local needs and capabilities had been developed before set of bio-solids management regulations that were consistent with
the 2006 WHO Guidelines were released, e.g. in Australia [64, some of the stricter regulations in Europe made management of
65]. The advantage of the WHO Guidelines is that all the devel- wastewater sludge nearly impossible. Newer, more appropriate
oping countries that have ignored previous guidelines, because regulations are now helping move the country’s wastewater sludge
the water-quality thresholds were too high, are now challenged to management programs towards higher levels of recycling and
control the health risks as far as possible, rather than continuing to greater sustainability.
disregard the problem. The same applies to extract management
which the WHO (2006) is also addressing. Examples of sludge management policies implemented in devel-
oping countries are still rare as the existence of properly function-
Treated and Untreated Agro-Industrial Wastewater ing wastewater treatment plants is still an evolving phenomenon.
Sludge One notable example occurs in the state of Paraná in Brazil where
Sludge management is mostly an issue for developed countries practical, successful, full-scale programs can be found [68]. In
where wastewater treatment facilities allow sludge generation, Tunisia, standards have been established for maximum allowable
separation, storage, transport and reuse. Considerable experience concentrations of chemical and biological components in soil and
concerning the development of policies and regulations to promote sewage sludge. Pollutant concentration limits for land application
the beneficial use of municipal sludge and bio-solids in soil ex- of sewage sludge were derived from the existing regulations, while
ists in the EU and the USA. These regions have comprehensively specific management practices for land application and disposal of
analyzed the risks and benefits of the different use and disposal sewage sludge have been included in the national standards.
options. Many other countries have built their understanding and
policies from this foundation of knowledge and experience, but Water Scarcity and Wastewater Reuse in Irrigating Ag-
integrate local needs and conditions into their policies, laws and riculture
regulations. Taking into account the development of different agro-industries
and human activities that contribute to the increase in climate
In general, the USA has adopted the concept of risk assessment in change has become a reality that humanity faces every day. Cli-
their environmental regulations contained in the 40 CFR Part 503 mate change has significant undesirable effects on the quality and
sludge regulation dating from the early 1990s. The approach takes availability of water resources, food security and human health all
maximum advantage of the soil’s capacity to assimilate, attenu- over the world. Reliable with the global panel on Climate Change,
ate and detoxify pollutants. Land application guidelines based on in 2017, universal warming due to human activities reached an av-
this approach set the maximum permissible pollutant loading and erage of 10C above the pre-industrial levels [69]. By 2100, world-
wide mean temperature could rise by 3.50C compared to the same A presumed 1.2 billion people live in river basins facing physical
period mentioned above [70]. with regional average variations of water scarcity, and another 1.6 billion live in water-deficient areas,
global temperatures between 1.4–5.8 0C [71]. where affordable water supply works are not available Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2020). The
It is predicted that climate change will account for about 20% of intensity of water scarcity, either in a region or at the country level,
the global expansion in water scarcity Food and Agriculture Or- is assessed as the water stress index, which is estimated as the ratio
ganization of the United Nations (FAO). (Food and Agriculture between the annual water withdrawal from ground and surface wa-
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Ethiopia 2020), and ter to the total renewable freshwater resources [74].
this would affect the development and functioning of communities
worldwide, both in social and economic terms. Earth contains ap- Worldwide, 40% of the total land area is arid, semi-arid and dry
proximately 1351 million km3 of water [72], of which only 3% is sub-humid. Half of the European countries are facing water stress,
available freshwater resources suitable for drinking and irrigation. as stated by [75], No. 4, and a survey by [76]. classified the Mem-
In the ideal situation when all available water on Earth would have ber States into four categories of risk according to the water stress
been evenly distributed to a uniformly distributed population, a index, highlighting that about 10% of the European territory and
report by FAO mentions that each person would have had access to 14% of the population were subjected to water scarcity.
5000–6000 m3 of freshwater/year. Since experts claim that people
experience water scarcity below a threshold of 1700m3 /person, A report by (FAO 2018) enlightens that a country experiences wa-
the ideal situation would have meant access to abundant freshwater stress when it extracts over 25% of its renewable freshwater
ter resources for each person. In reality, however, neither freshwa- resources, physical water scarcity occurs at over 60% extractions
ter resources nor the population is evenly distributed globally. The and severe physical water scarcity occurs at over 75% extractions.
scarcity of freshwater resources is predisposed, among others, by Thus, countries exposed to extremely high-water stress about less
the growth of population, urbanization, consumption per person, than 80% are Libya, Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Turkmen-
water pollution and climate change. Water scarcity is a significant istan and Uzbekistan, while high water stress about 40–80% affects
indicator of health, and an issue of poverty, which mostly disturbs China, India, Afghanistan and South Africa. The United States and
the people in rural areas, where high inhabitant’s densities are Kazakhstan have low–moderate water stress about 10–20 percent,
prevalent [73]. and South America, Canada and Russia respectively, experience
low water stress about less than10%.
Source: Adopted from World Resources Institute Aqueduct Country Rankings. [77].
Figure 5: Global water withdrawals by sector, between the years 1960–2014
In a sustainable reality, however, neither freshwater resources nor ly high in 17 countries, high in 27 countries, medium-high in 24
the population is evenly distributed globally. Inconstant densities countries, low-medium in 32 countries and low in 63 countries.
of human societies and irregular distribution of water resources, Nowadays, one-third of major cities are subjected to high or ex-
are factors that manage the indicator of water scarcity at numerous tremely high-water stress (World Resources Institute, Aqueduct
levels of risk. An analysis of data collected in 2019 by Aqueduct, Country Rankings 2020) and at least 11% of the European popula-
a tool developed by World Resources Institute, was conducted by tion experiences water deficit [79].
Hofste R.; Reig, P.; [78] and found that water stress is extreme-
Source: (Adopted from Bixio, d.; thoeye, c.; de koning, j.; et al., 2006) [75]
Figure 5: World countries ranked according to their water stress index green, yellow & red horizontal lines represent the thresholds for
low, moderate & high-water stress, respectively
Taking 2025 as a reference year, it was estimated that approxi- It is well known that wastewater, depending on its source, is loaded
mately 3.5 million people worldwide could experience water scar- with pollutants such as organic matter, suspended solids, nutrients,
city while in developing countries 1.2 million people with a risk mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, heavy metals, emerging contam-
of increase to 1.8 million will live in water-scarce areas due to the inants with antibiotics, hormones, personal care products, pesti-
absence of unreliable policies or convenient management strate- cides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds,
gies for reusing treated wastewater in crop production (Food and volatile organic compounds, antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020) [80]. and pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, protozoans
and parasitic worms Agro-industrial wastewater has an important
Water consumption registers a significant increase from year to content of nutrients.
year. A report released in 2017 by the European Environment
Agency shows that in Europe, agriculture consumes 36% of total Therefore high potential to be used in agricultural irrigation be-
water. Public water demand consumes 32%, service sector 11% cause it supplies organic carbon, nutrients (NPK) and inorganic
and other needs 21% (European Environment Agency. 2017). micronutrients to the crops [84]. Many studies emphasize the
Based on the evolution of freshwater withdrawals between 1960 usefulness of wastewater and especially of treated water for crop
and 2014 (World Resources Institute. irrigation, in terms of benefits expressed by increased crop produc-
tivity [83, 85]. due to the high content of nutrients in these waters.
[77] Aqueduct Country Rankings, it is concluded that agriculture Jang, T.; M. and Lee, et al., (2013) reported a 15% increase in
is the largest global user of freshwater about 70% for crop cultiva- rice productivity and [86] obtained a 114.9% increase in tomato
tion and animal husbandry, registering an increase of 100% in the irrigated with wastewater. A recent study of [87] showed that due
last century; the industry consumes 19%, meaning that industrial to the nutrient content, the reuse of treated municipal wastewa-
water demand increased three-fold in the last century; since the ter in countries like Brazil, Poland and Saudi Arabia would cover
1960s, the population grew by more than 4 billion and the with- 100% of both phosphorus and potassium requirements for maize
drawals for domestic consumption increased by about 600% as crops. Wastewater reuse for irrigation of agricultural crops is a
shown on (No. 2). market-driven action based on the requirements of the agricultural
sector and can contribute to the promotion of the circular econo-
4. Wastewater reuse in irrigating agriculture of sustain- my by recovering nutrients from the reclaimed water and applying
able practice them to crops by different fertigation methods.
Huge volumes of wastewater are generated daily in households,
industries and agriculture. The volume of wastewater accounts for Wastewater reuse in irrigating agriculture is often practiced in
50–80% of the domestic household water uses [81] and the global low-income, arid and semi-arid countries[88] where evapotranspi-
wastewater discharge was estimated at 400 billion m3/year, pol- ration outpaces precipitations for most of the year [89]. The avail-
luting approximately 5500 billion m3 of water/year, as reported ability of treatable wastewater in nearby communities’ and large
previously [82]. Wastewater usually consists of 99% water and 1% farm owners as well as state organizations working on small and
suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids [83]. large farm lands increases the selection of crops that farmers or
producers can grow. Due to its multiple benefits, this practice is antibiotics, growth hormones and other hazardous substances into
gaining wider acceptance in many parts of the world. Although the soil; low hydraulic conductivity due to clogging of soil pores
the younger population, which has access to education and sources with suspended solids from wastewater; decreased quality of agri-
of information on the benefits of reusing wastewater as irrigation cultural crops, because they will accumulate the pollutants trans-
water, has a positive attitude towards this practice, the older pop- ferred from wastewater to the soil, etc.
ulation is still reluctant in accepting to consume food from crops
irrigated with wastewater [90]. Field Experiment & Laboratory Test Results of Waste-
water on Crop Growth Performance
Some of the advantages offered by the capitalization of wastewater The field experiments including the laboratory analysis activities
treated, partially treated or diluted in agriculture are the follow- has been carried out to verify the quality of the wastewater. Pursu-
ing: availability of large quantities of water throughout the year ant to the field experiments and laboratory test results of the veg-
without being affected by climatic conditions, high nutrient con- etative growth tests on numerous field crops in order to verify the
tent that can reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, increasing the required quality of the wastewater has been found to be nontoxic
productivity on less fertile soils, reducing the damage to freshwa- and safe to use it for irrigating agriculture (Anbessie Debebe A.,
ter ecosystems associated with eutrophication and algal blooms, Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., 2021). The study results of
etc [91]. Although the benefits of wastewater use in agriculture pot experiments on the performance of wheat, barley, field pea and
are multiple, there are also various disadvantages of this practice, faba bean watered with the wastewater brought from Asella Malt
including various diseases in farmers and consumers of food from Factory as shown on (Figures 7-10).
wastewater irrigated crops; accumulation of heavy metals, salts,
Source: Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., [92].
Figure 7: The effect of treated wastewater on the performance of barley seedling length (cm)
On the other hand, this is the result of environmental control water soaked malt barley wastewater discharge is applicable with
growth chamber of the glass pot experiment to prove the reliable proper percentage of freshwater dilution to use it for irrigating ag-
quality of the wastewater and tiled observation has proved that the riculture tasks.
Source: Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., (2022).
Figure 8: The effect of treated wastewater on performance of barley seedling biomass (gm)
Now that the research center itself and the downstream dwellers dwellers have begun producing at least twice a year and increasing
have begun using the treated wastewater for irrigation purposes. It their production per unit area per year.
is due to the research findings that the KARC and the downstream
Source: Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., (2022).
Figure 9: The effect of treated wastewater on the performance of barley root length (cm)
On the basis of the wastewater diversion to Kulumsa Agricultur- Those sediments, which steadily gathered from manhole and open
al Research Center for irrigation, the eroded gullies being formed ditch are used as natural compost or predominantly it can be uti-
alongside of the main asphalt has been rehabilitated. Apart from lized as an organic fertilizer. Thus, from now on, there are no any
this, there is a 100 m of an open concrete ditch with four silt trap possibilities of industrial wastewater resources depletion poten-
basin structures, so as to minimize the gradually accumulated sed- tials (Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M.,
iments of the ponds. 2021).
Source: Anbessie Debebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., (2022) [92].
Figure 10: The effect of treated wastewater on the performance of barley root biomass.
According to the results of quality tests conducted at the Nation-

al Soil Testing Center, the AMF’s wastewater (barley washed-out The reusing of wastewater has been rapidly grown because of
discharge) is environmentally friendly for agricultural production irrigation water scarcity, increasing of population and industries
activities. Therefore, shortening of the technology generation pro- as well as the urban extension. The main physiognomies used for
cess and significant contribution towards the supply of prelimi- wastewater characterization are organic matter, measured as bio-
nary materials for technology development are possible. Reusing chemical oxygen demand (BOD). Suspended solids, nutrients (N,
of wastewater for irrigating agriculture in accordance with the re- P), fecal coliforms bacteria, and toxic substances. Industrial waste-
search findings, instead of discarding the wastewater as unwanted waters are usual! Biologically degradable. Some contain high
waste, the research center and the downstream dwellers have be- BOD (1000-20.000 bod/mJ). However, the quantity and quality of
gun using it for irrigating their farm lands. It is due to the research wastewaters diverge widely from industry to industry. High BOD
findings that the KARC and the downstream dwellers have begun concentration is not accepted for discharge into watercourses. It
producing at least twice a year and increasing their production per is not recommended to discharge wastewater in to river or some
unit area of the whole years. other natural watercourses.
On the basis of the wastewater diversion to the KARC for irriga- Generally, there are two options of disposing industrial wastewa-
tion functions and the eroded gullies being formed alongside of the ters. The first is to discharge the wastewater into a sewer system
main asphalt have also rehabilitated. Apart from this there is a 100 - where applicable - while the other method is to industrial waste
111 of an open concrete ditch with four silt trap basin structures, so alone. If the agro-industrial wastes consist of strengths of charac-
as to minimize the gradually accumulated sediments of the ponds. teristics that are significantly different from sanitary wastewater,
Those sediments, which steadily gathered from manhole and open pretreatment should be considered at the industrial site.
ditch are used as natural compost or predominantly it can be uti-
lized as an organic fertilizer. Thus, there are no any possibilities of Since the wastewater coming out from Asella Malt Factory has
industrial resources depletion. been diverted to Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, it will no
more causing health problems and predicament to the upstream
According to the results of quality tests conducted at the National dwellers as to the previous times. Reusing barley washed-out
Soil Testing Center, the industrial wastewater is environmental- water for irrigation was creating soil erosion in the form of gully
ly pleasant for irrigating agricultural production purposes. Hence, structure while passing through its previous course (Anbessie De-
shortening of the technology generating process and it has sig- bebe A., Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., 2021). The gully
nificant contribution towards the supply of preliminary materials was at its active stage and increasing in both depth and width.
for technology development is possible. In accordance with the
above-mentioned research findings for proper utilization of the The Productive Effects of Agro-Industrial Wastewater
wastewater, there is a need to mix the freshwater with the barley Discharges
washed-out wastewater in order to get a suitable dilution at 25%, Brief discussions concerning the productive contributions of re-
50%, and 75% depending on the actual size of the field crops and using the agro-industrial wastewater discharges by treating with
vegetables all with using of the newly developed the freshwater a proportional percent of freshwater dilution now that initially
and wastewater mixing chamber. Agro-industrial wastewater can taking place at the irrigation project of Kulumsa Agricultural Re-
be considered as both as a resource supply and a means of the search Center and at the surrounding society have been discussed
problem. here underneath.
Reusing of treated wastewater for crop irrigation has a great pro- • The fresh water control plots have revealed that the cereal
ductive effects and can also contribute to diminish water stresses. crops such as barley and wheat as well as the pulse crops of
The use of domesticated agro-industrial wastewater for irrigation field pea and faba-bean seeds which were socked in the fresh
purpose was demonstrated by numerous studies and full-scale in- water have seen to be distorted and have given an poor growth
stallations. On the other hand, reuse of industrial wastewater in performance of the seedlings due to the deficiency of some
irrigating agricultural is scarce and the awareness in this field is more important nutrients such as biochemical features of ex-
limited. This work aims at cherishing the suitability of agro-in- tracts showed that it represents PH range from 4.5-6.0, which
dustrial wastewater to reuse it for irrigation (Anbessie Debebe A., contains 0.6 % of dry substances, 2.6 % of nitrogen, 1.4 % of
Kassu Tadesse K., & Samuel Lindi M., 2021). Phosphorous, and 2.1 % of Calcium.
• In the agro-industrial wastewater, we can find groups of vi-
Conclusion tamins such as B-thiamin, pridioxine, nicotinic acid inositol,
The complete outcomes of this review study shows the tendencies biotin, ferments of the breathing and oxidizing-restoration
along with clear gaps in our understanding of wastewater use in complex-catalase, peroxides, polyphenol oxidize, dehydroge-
irrigated agriculture, backing results from case studies commis- nase, ascorbictoxidase, hydrolytic ferments-amylase, phopha-
sioned by the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management tase, phytohormons- gibberellins, auxins, cytokenins; nucleic
in Agriculture and the past studies conducted by the International acids- DNA and RNA; amino acid, organic acid carbohydrate,
Water Management Institute and other institutions, and current lit- and other junctions.
erature. The study shows that the main drivers of wastewater use • It has been observed that a poor growth performance and a
in irrigated agriculture are the arrangement of three factors in most distorted structure of the shoots and the roots part of the plants
cases: at 0% of a non-diluted fresh water control plots of seedling
• Increasing irrigation water demand and related return flow of development due to the deficiency of nutrients which could
used but seldom treated wastewater into the environment and be obtained from the malt barley washed-out extracts.
its water bodies, causing pollution of traditional irrigation wa- • The cereal crops such as barley and wheat as well as the pulse
ter sources. crops of the field pea and faba bean seeds which planted in the
• Lack of alternative, cheaper, similarly reliable or safer water treated barley washed-out extract of the Asella Malt Factory
sources which restricts the handling capability of irrigation have performed very well at 25% and 50% dilutions in favor
water. of their intensive growth rate performance of the seeds.
• The key underlying factor in most cases is insufficiency which • The cereal crops such as barley and wheat as well as the pulse
limits the managing capacity of irrigation water with compre- crops of the field pea and faba bean seeds which planted in the
hensive wastewater treatment. The study also establishes the treated barley washed-out extract of the Asella Malt Factory
following characteristics of wastewater use. have performed a somewhat well at 75% dilution, however it
In our case, the wastewater treatment method for irrigation func- has some germination effects on their normal growth rate of
tions comprising: the seeds.
a wastewater source coming out from the Asella Malt Factory to • The cereal crops such as barley and wheat as well as the pulse
the reservoir ponds which have covered with a sealed geomember- crops of the field pea and faba bean seeds which planted in the
ane sheets; the sludge discharging manholes and the wastewater treated barley washed-out extract of the Asella Malt Factory
treating chamber in a pipeline connection with the treated waste- have shown unfavorable growth performance at 100% dilu-
water handling units located at a lower elevation than the waste- tion and most of the seeds are not germinated due to the over
water and freshwater storage ponds; and also a diluted water pump saturated diffusion of the nutrients.
capable of transporting the treated wastewater dilutions from the • Under field management conditions, it has been observed that
mixing chamber to the irrigation farm lands. a poor growth performance and a distorted structure of plants
• The wastewater treatment structure, further comprising: a at 0% of a non-diluted wastewater control plots of seedling
sprinkler irrigation system located around the downstream development due to the deficiency of nutrients which could be
farm lands of which are connected with the treated wastewater obtained from the immersed malt barley washed-out extracts.
lagoons and in moveable pipeline connecters. • Based on the laboratory test findings, the barley washed-out
• As a result, some different field crops of seeds which were im- wastewater extracts coming out from the Asella Malt Facto-
mersed in the wastewater extract have shown different growth ry has been tested under field management conditions on 13
performance due to various dilution percentages of the waste- different field crops for their good performance to be used as
water concentrations. a wastewater on the large scale farms and experimental plots.
• The emerged seedlings of cereal crops such as barley and • The vegetable seeds tested with the barley washed-out extract
wheat, pulse crops such as field pea and faba bean seeds that have performed very well at 25% fresh water and 75% bar-
were socked in the different percentage of dilutions of the ley washed-out extracts of the Asella Malt Factory in favor of
wastewater and fresh water have performed very well than the their exhaustive growth rate of the plants.
non-treated fresh water control plots. • Depending on their extensive scope of the cereal crops which
have tested in the treated wastewater of the Asella Malt Facto- P, (2007) ‘Agricultural use of marginal-quality water – oppor-
ry have been performed very well at 25% to 50% fresh water tunities and challenges’, in D. Molden (ed) Water for Food,
dilutions in favor of their intensive growth rate of the plants. Water for Life. A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Man-
Because of their unique nature and their very dissimilar size agement in Agriculture, Earthscan, London, and International
of the Oil crop seeds they have not need much more nutrients Water Management Institute, Colombo, 425-457.
for their full growth of periods to be irrigated under the field 3. Keraita B, Jiménez B, Drechsel P (2008) ‘Extent and impli-
management conditions with the treated barley washed-out cations of agricultural reuse of untreated, partly treated and
wastewater of the Asella Malt Factory have been performed diluted wastewater in developing countries’, Agriculture, Vet-
very well at the 75% fresh water and 25% barley washed-out erinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, 3: 1-15.
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To sum up, countries must address the need to develop policies and Needs, IWA Publishing, London, 648.
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benefits for food supply and livelihoods while reducing health and al. (2004) ‘Untreated wastewater reuse in market gardens: A
environmental risks. Successful establishment of treated wastewa- case study of Dakar, Senegal’, in Wastewater Use in Irrigated
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structures are very essential so as, to keep away from any probable are and production of crops (private peasant holdings, meher
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by undefended overflows and unprotected water loggings. 8. Mulugeta Demelash, Karl Stahr (2002) Assessment of inte-
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At present, the accessible wastewater can irrigate a minimum of erties in South Gonder, North-Western Highlands of Ethiopia.
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Agricultural Research Center and for neighbor peasant association Population on Growth, Yields and Quality of Bread Wheat
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Acknowledgement 11. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2008) in R.
This study would not have been possible without the support of LeBlanc, P. Matthews and P. Roland (eds) Global Atlas of Ex-
the following organizations and projects namely, Ethiopian Insti- tract, Wastewater Sludge, and Bio-solids Management: Mov-
tute Agricultural Research (EIAR), National Soil Research Center ing Forward the Sustainable and Welcome Uses of a Global
(NSRC), Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center (KARC) and nu- Resource, UN-Habitat, Nairobi, 632.
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Research Article Earth & Environmental Science Research & Reviews

Submitted: 24 Jan 2022; Accepted: 01 Feb 2022; Published: 07 Mar 2022

Table 1. The Soil Characteristics of Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center

Physical properties Chemical properties

Table 2. Some characteristics of countries using wastewater for irrigation

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2012

Figure 2: The KARC’s previous structure of irrigation water reservoir ponds.

Figure 5: Global water withdrawals by sector, between the years 1960–2014

According to the results of quality tests conducted at the Nation-

Copyright: ©2022 Anbessie Debebe Aboye. This is an open-access

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