Fundamentals of Translation

Unit I: Nature and Scope of Translation

Translation
Translation refers to carrying the meaning of a text from one language to another. This
process involves interpretation of meaning of the text and producing the same meaning in
another language. ...
Different languages give different ways to look at the world but translation provides us the
opportunity to explore and interact with these different views of the world. Translation refers
to carrying the meaning of a text from one language to another. This process involves
interpretation of meaning of the text and producing the same meaning in another language.
Translation as an activity is actually as old as written language or text itself. However as a
discipline of study it is comparatively new.
Since all word of one language may or may not have a corresponding word in the other
language, Linguistic study becomes crucial for the purpose of translation. Linguistics pertains
to scientific study of language. Linguistic approach to translation focuses primarily on the
issues of meaning and equivalence (same meaning conveyed by a different expression).
Linguistics thus tries to discover ‘what’ the language actually means. It is then the work of
the philosophy of linguistics to understand ‘how’ the language means.
Language has certain features like meaning, reference, truth, verification, speech acts, logical
necessity etc. it is through these feature that the linguists try to understand the ‘what’ and the
‘how’ of the text. Any language uses a particular set of signs and symbols to convey a
particular meaning or idea. These signs and symbols are ‘signifiers’. The meaning or idea that
is being conveyed by these ‘signifiers’ is called ‘signified’. All languages are used in a
particular social and cultural context. So the ‘signified’ for a particular ‘signifier’ may change
from culture to culture and society to society. For example, for signifier ‘yellow’ in America,
the signified is cowardice (“yellow bellied”- a popular saying) for Japan yellow signifies
courage whereas for Indians it signifies joy. Thus the translator has to understand what the
author of the original text actually wants to convey.
Beyond doubts language is the most vital component in translation. Translation can actually
be understood as transferring the meaning or the idea from one language to another. It thus
becomes imperative for a translator to understand the meaning of the source text (text to be
translated) in the context in which they are said or written.
Language is formed of grammar, words, syntax etc. this form the structure of the language
and pertains to structural linguistics. However beyond the structural approach the context also
becomes important as said before. This aspect of linguistics approach is termed as functional
linguistics.
There has been a historical debate in the field of translation between ‘word to word’ (literal)
and ‘sense to sense’ (free) translation. Linguistic approach can enter both these aspects of
translation. However the ‘sense to sense’ translation is understood to actually carry to the
same meaning as of the source text. So the translator is expected to maintain a linguistic
equivalence between the source and the target text. Doing so involves an understanding of
grammar, convention, idioms, etc in the social, political, economic and cultural context in
which the text is written.

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Thus it can be concluded that a Linguistic approach to translation covers all forms of
translation. It is the right way to move forward towards better language translation.
Translation is a mental activity in which a meaning of given linguistic discourse is rendered
from one language to another. It is the act of transferring the linguistic entities from one
language in to their equivalents in to another language. Translation is an act through which
the content of a text is transferred from the source language in to the target language (Foster,
1958). The language to be translated is called the source language (SL), whereas the language
to be translated into or arrived at is called the target language (TL). The translator needs to
have good knowledge of both the source and the target language, in addition to a high
linguistic sensitivity as he should transmit the writer's intention, original thoughts and
opinions in the translated version as precisely and faithfully as possible.

Due to its prominence, translation has been viewed differently. According to Ghazala (1995),
"translation is generally used to refer to all the process and methods used to convey the
meaning of the source language in to the target language" (P.1. Ghazala's definition focuses
on the notion of meaning as an essential element in translation. That is, when translating,
understanding the meaning of source text is vital to have the appropriate equivalent in the
target text thus, it is meaning that is translated in relation to grammar, style and sounds
(Ghazala, 1995).

Translation is a process and a product. According to Catford (1995), translation is the

replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another
language (TL) ", (p 20). This definition shows that translation is a process in the sense that is
an activity. Performed by people through time, when expressions are translated in to simpler
ones in the same language (Rewording and para-phrasing). It can be done also from one
language into another different language. Translation is, on the other hand, a product since it
provides us with other different cultures, to ancient societies and civilization life when the
translated texts reaches us (Yowell and Mutfah, 1999).

Transliteration:
Unlike a translation, which tells you the meaning of a word that's written in another language,
a transliteration only gives you an idea of how the word is pronounced, by putting it in a
familiar alphabet. It changes the letters from the word's original alphabet to similar-sounding
letters in a different one. In Hebrew, the Jewish winter holiday is ‫חנוכה‬. Its English
transliteration is Hanukkah or Chanukah.
Transliteration is not primarily concerned with representing the sounds of the original but
rather with representing the characters, ideally accurately and unambiguously. Thus, in the
above example, λλ is transliterated as 'll', but pronounced /l/; Δ is transliterated as 'D', but
pronounced /ð/; and η is transliterated as 'ē', though it is pronounced /i/ (exactly like ι) and is
not long.
Transcription
Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of language in written
form. The source can either be utterances or preexisting text in another writing system
Transcription should not be confused with translation, which means representing the meaning
of a source-language text in a target language (e.g. Los Angeles into City of Angels) or with
transliteration which means representing the spelling of a text from one script to another (e.g.
Jalapeño, which preserves the Ñ from Spanish despite the diacritic having no use in English).

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In the academic discipline of linguistics, transcription is an essential part of the
methodologies of (among others) phonetics, conversation analysis, dialectology and
sociolinguistics. It also plays an important role for several subfields of speech technology.
Common examples for transcriptions outside academia are the proceedings of a court hearing
such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter) or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical
transcription). This article focuses on transcription in linguistics.
Transcription systems are sets of rules which define how spoken language is to be
represented in written symbols. Most phonetic transcription systems are based on the
International Phonetic Alphabet or, especially in speech technology, on its derivative
SAMPA
Translation and Interpretation
Interpreting and translation are two closely related linguistic disciplines. Yet they are rarely
performed by the same people. The difference in skills, training, aptitude and even language
knowledge are so substantial that few people can do both successfully on a professional level.

On the surface, the difference between interpreting and translation is only the difference in
the medium: the interpreter translates orally, while a translator interprets written text. Both
interpreting and translation presuppose a certain love of language and deep knowledge of
more than one language.

The Skill Profile of Technical Translators

The differences in skills are arguably greater than their similarities. The key skills of the
translator are the ability to understand the source language and the culture of the country
where the text originated, then using a good library of dictionaries and reference materials, to
render that material clearly and accurately into the target language. In other words, while
linguistic and cultural skills are still critical, the most important mark of a good translator is
the ability to write well in the target language.

Even bilingual individuals can rarely express themselves in a given subject equally well in
both languages, and many excellent translators are not fully bilingual to begin with. Knowing
this limitation, a good translator will only translate documents into his or her native language.
This is why we at Language Scientific absolutely require our technical translators only
translate into their native language, in addition to their subject matter expertise.

An interpreter, on the other hand, must be able to translate in both directions on the spot,
without using dictionaries or other supplemental reference materials. Interpreters must have
extraordinary listening abilities, especially for simultaneous interpreting. Simultaneous
interpreters need to process and memorize the words that the source-language speaker is
saying now, while simultaneously outputting in the target language the translation of words
the speaker said 5-10 seconds ago. Interpreters must also posess excellent public speaking
skills and the intellectual capacity to instantly transform idioms, colloquialisms and other
culturally-specific references into analogous statements the target audience will understand.

Interpreter Qualifications
Interpreting, just like translation, is fundamentally the art of paraphrasing—the interpreter
listens to a speaker in one language, grasps the content of what is being said, and then
paraphrases his or her understanding of the meaning using the tools of the target language.
However, just as you can not explain a thought to someone if you did not fully understand

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 that thought, neither can you translate or interpret something without mastery of the subject
matter being relayed.

It simply cannot be overstated: when choosing an interpreter, his or her expert knowledge
of the subject matter is equally as important as their interpreting experience

• Thorough knowledge of the general subject to be interpreted

• Intimate familiarity with both cultures
• Extensive vocabulary in both languages
• Ability to express thoughts clearly and concisely in both languages
• Excellent note-taking techniques for consecutive interpreting
• At least 2-3 years of booth experience for simultaneous interpreting
Linguistics and Translation
Linguistics plays an important role in the translation of a document from one
language to another. Translating information includes more than just changing
each word from the original language to another. One must also decode and
decipher all the facets and functions of the original language into the new
language. This is where the study and understanding of linguistics comes into
play in translation
The study of linguistics is essentially the study of human language. It can be
broken down into several sub-categories.

• Grammar: the study of language structure and the system of rules it uses. It
includes several fields as follows.
• Morphology: the study of the formation of words.
• Syntax: the study of the formation and composition of these words into phrase s
and sentences.
• Phonology: the study of sound systems. (Phonetics is a related field concerned
with the properties, production, and perception of speech and non -speech
sounds.)

Semantics: the study of word meaning.

• Historical linguistics: the study of language evolution over time.

• Sociolinguistics: the study of how language is used in society.
• Psycholinguistics: the study of language is processed within the mind.
• Neurolinguistics: the study of the actual encoding of language in the brain.
• Computational linguistics: the study of natural linguistics by using the
techniques of computer science.
Accurate translation of one language to another requires addressing all the
functions of linguistics. One must determine the grammar being used, the
meaning of the words as individual components, as well as the phrases and
sentences they create, how those phrases are placed in time and history, and so
forth.
Each language differs in its linguistic functions but there are commonalities
among languages as well. An accurate translation must determine where the
similarities and differences lie. Relying on only one area, grammar for example,

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will not produce an optimal translation. It may, in fact, be lacking in vital
information if the other functions are not fully real ized.
A careful use of the tools provided by linguistic study will improve the quality
and accuracy of a translated document.

Unit II
Source Language and Target Language in Translation:
In translation, the source language is the original language, and the target language is the
language the text is translated into. The “source” text is the text that needs translating, and the
“target” text the one in which the translation shall be delivered. It is a common understanding
that the target language should be the translator’s native language.
Linguistic Structure Related Languages and Unrelated Languages in Translation

Various Notions of Language Relatedness

● Genetic relation → Language Families
● Contact relation → Sprachbund (Linguistic Area)
● Linguistic typology → Linguistic Universal
● Orthography → Sharing a script
Language Families
● Group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-
language of that family
Sanskrit Greek Latin
Father Pitah pater pater
foot Pad pod ped
blood Krura creas cruor
three Trayah treis tres

Examples of Cognates
English Vedic Sanskrit Hindi Punjabi Gujarati Marathi Odia Bengali
bread rotika chapātī, roṭī roṭi paũ, roṭlā,chapāti, poli, bhākarī pauruṭi (pau-)ruṭi
fish matsya machhlī machhī māchhli māsa mācha machh
hunger bubuksha, kshudhā bhūkh pukh bhukh bhūkh bhoka khide
language bhāshā, vāNī bhāshā, zabān boli, zabān, pasha bhāshā bhāshā bhāsā bhasha
ten dasha das das, daha das dahā dasa dôsh

● Regularity of sound change is the basis of studying genetic relationships

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Linguistic Area (Sparchbund)
● To the layperson, Dravidian & Indo-Aryan languages would seem closer to each other than
English & Indo-Aryan ● Linguistic Area: A group of languages (at least 3) that have
common structural features due to geographical proximity and language contact (Thomason
2000) ● Not all features may be shared by all languages in the linguistic area
Consequences of language contact
● Borrowing of vocabulary
Sanskrit, Indo-Aryan words in Dravidian languages
○ Most classical languages borrow heavily from Sanskrit ○ Anecdotal wisdom: Malayalam
has the highest percentage of Sanskrit origin words, Tamil the lowest
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Examples Sanskrit word Dravidian Language
Loanword in Dravidian Language
English
cakram Tamil cakkaram wheel matsyah Telugu matsyalu fish ashvah Kannada ashva horse
jalam Malayalam jala.m water
Borrowing of Vocabulary (3)
●English words in Indian languages ● Indian language words in English ○ Through colonial
& modern exchanges as well as ancient trade relations
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Examples
● yoga ● guru ● mango ● sugar ● thug ● juggernaut ● cash

Orthography → Sharing a script

Writing Systems (Daniels & Bright, 1995)

● Logographic: symbols representing both sound and meaning ○ Chinese, Japanese Kanji ●
Abjads: independent letters for consonants, vowels optional ○ Arabic, Hebrew ●
Alphabet: letters representing both consonants and vowels ○ Roman, Cyrillic, Greek ●
Syllabic: symbols representing syllables ○ Korean Hangul, Japanese Hiragana & Katakana ●
Abugida: consonant-vowel sequence as a unit, with vowel as secondary notation ○ Indic
Scripts

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Unit III
Types of Translation

Jakobson’s On Linguistic Aspects of Translation (1959, 2000) describes three kinds of

translation: intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase), interlingual
(between two languages), and intersemiotic (between sign systems).
Meanwhile, Catford (1965:21-22) proposes 3 broad types or categories of translation in terms
of the extent, levels, and ranks.

1. Extent – full vs. partial translation. In a full translation, the entire text is submitted to the
translation process, that is very part of the ST is replaced by the TT material. In
a partial translation, some part or parts of the ST are left untranslated: they are simply
transferred to and incorporated in the TT (Catford, 1965: 21).
2. Level – Total vs. Restricted translation. This distinction relates to the levels of language
involved in translation. By totaltranslation we mean what is most usually meant by
‘translation’; that is, translation in which all levels of the ST are replaced by the TT material.
Strictly speaking, ‘total’ translation is a misleading term, since though total replacement is
involved it is not replacement by equivalents at all levels. Total Translation may best defined
as: replacement of ST grammar and lexis by equivalent TT grammar and lexis with
consequential replacement of SL phonology/graphology by (non-equivalent) TT
phonology/graphology. By restricted translation we mean: replacement of ST material by
equivalent TT material at only one level. That is translation performed only at the
phonological or at the graphological level, or at one of the two levels of grammar and lexis
(Catford, 1965: 22).
3. Ranks – Ranks of Translation. It relates to the rank in a grammatical (or phonological)
hierarchy at which translation equivalence is established (Catford, 1965: 24-25).
Larson (1998) explains that there are two main kinds of translations. One is form-based
which attempts to follow the form of the source language and are known as literal
translations. The other one is meaning-based translation which makes every effort to
communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor
language, also called idiomatic translation. Larson (1998) says ’it is not easy to consistently
translate idiomatically. A translator may express some parts of his translation in very natural
form and then in other parts fall back into a literal form. Translations fall on a continuum
from very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, and then may even move to
be unduly free’ (Larson, 1998: 19).

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Nation Building”
Translation has always been linked to national has also become an essential tool for
keeping pace with the integration and the creation of national identity. For a processes
of globalization and localization. country like India, it is a very delicate and challenging
matter to deal with a national identity that derives its strength from its multiple layers
of social, political, religious, economic, The six decades since the end of the Second
World War have cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity. However, the seen an
explosion of (intra) national development, as nation communication gap which
inevitably arises out of such a after nation gained independence or restructured their
diversity of boundaries is constantly being bridged by the societies and (re)defined their
identities. Paralleling this has people themselves, whose day to day reality is, for the
been equally dramatic development at the international level, majority, living in a
multi-cultural society and interacting in a with the growth of supra national identities:
the European multilingual manner.Union immediately after the war and, later, trade
blocks such as NAFTA, SAFTA, MERCOSUR, SICA, ANDEAN We should not forget
that the concept of the nation-state is PACT, ASEAN, BRIC, IBSA. not an ancient or
indigenous one but a notion imported relatively recently from Europe in the 18
and 19 centuries. Most observers take for granted the translator's crucial role The
United Kingdom only became “united” through the Act of at the (intra) national level
but are less aware of their Union in 1702 when England (and Wales) and Scotland
merged equally pivotal place as mediators at the international and, politically. We
should acknowledge that when America potentially, in the creation of the even larger
and famously declared independence from Britain in 1776, this comprehensive global
supra national identities which seem fledgling state initially contained only a tiny
fraction of the destined to follow in the future. area it has today. Similarly, Italy and
Germany were not
th
unified until the middle of the 19 century. Moreover, it has become almost
mandatory for content producers to translate their text into different languages in In
India, the impact of this colonial myth has been that many order to both globalize and
localize their reach. Whether it educated people accept that the idea of India as a nation
is a is a matter of bilateral relations or multilateral relations British creation. However,
a detailed study of linguistic between countries or a matter related to international
history reveals that Bhartiyata (Indianness) is not by any means a recent phenomenon;
it is deeply rooted in its citizens conferences, buyer-seller meets, corporate mergers,
across the country since ancient times. buyouts, technology transfers or joint ventures,
translation is always a necessity without which such communication would It was, we
might argue, the existence and subsequent fail.translation of the great Indian classics
that acted as a catalyst in creating a pan-Indian ethos. Epics especially the In a rapidly
changing world, the demands on the translator Ramayana and the Mahabharata - have
been translated into are also changing. Translators can no longer rest on their almost all
regional languages. Cutting across religious beliefs, laurels but, like any other service
provider, must continuously the legends of Rama and Krishna have stirred the minds of
upgrade themselves by coming to terms with an ever Indians living in almost all corners
of India. These myths, developing technology (including IT resources such as CAT
whose nature is patently nationalistic, were made available to tools) and adapting to
increasingly stringent professional the Indian population through translation, without
which it is demands involving good commercial practice and the inconceivable that the
deeply entrenched cultural and implementation of quality standards.linguistic
boundaries within India could have been bridged. Translators have always played a

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pivotal role in social and It follows that there is an urgent need to regularize cultural
change in society and they continue to play a major translation by professionalizing its
providers and according role in dissemination of the ever expanding knowledge and
them an appropriate status which will further the information available today. The role
of translation becomes developmental opportunities of the country as a whole. more
important in the Indian context as this new knowledge spreads to all corners of Indian
society with their mosaic of In this, India can (and should) follow the lead of many
nations sub-cultures and sub identities spread across different including Australia,
Canada, China, and South Africa which linguistic regions, their literature and their
lifestyles. have already set up regulatory systems. Until the eighties, scholars and
translators were more This, inevitably, depends on action by the government,
educational institutions, and professional bodies and it is now focused on the translation
of literature and administrative the task of the emerging profession to unite and take
texts which were mainly aimed at national and regional measures to develop and
institutionalize translation as a consumers. Ever since the communication explosion of
the professional activity and grow it as an Industry.

National Integration and Translation

Nation Building” has always been linked to national integration and the creation of national
identity. For a country like India, it is a very delicate and challenging matter to deal with the
national identity that derives its strength from multiple layers of social, political, religious,
economic, cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity. However, the communication gap which
inevitably arises out of such a diversity of boundaries is constantly being bridged by the
people themselves, whose day to day reality is, for the majority, living in a multi-cultural
society and interacting in a multilingual manner.
We should not forget that the concept of the nation-state is not an ancient or indigenous one
but a notion imported relatively recently from Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. The
United Kingdom only became “united” through the Act of Union in 1702 when England
(and Wales) and Scotland merged politically. We should acknowledge that when
America famously declared independence from Britain in 1776, this fledgling state
initially contained only a tiny fraction of the area it has today. Similarly, Italy and
Germany were not unified until the middle of the 19th century.
In India, the impact of this colonial myth has been that many educated people accept that the
idea of India as a nation is a British creation. However, a detailed study of linguistic history
reveals that Bhartiyata (Indianness) is not by any means a recent phenomenon; it is deeply
rooted in its citizens across the country since ancient times.
It was, we might argue, the existence and subsequent translation of the great Indian classics
that acted as a catalyst in creating a pan-Indian ethos. Epics – especially the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata - have been translated into almost all regional languages. Cutting across
religious beliefs, the legends of Rama and Krishna have stirred the minds of Indians living in
almost all corners of India. These myths, whose nature is patently nationalistic, were made
available to the Indian population through translation, without which it is inconceivable that
the deeply entrenched cultural and linguistic boundaries within India could have been
bridged.
It is very difficult to ascertain the dates of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, most of the
historians seem to have concluded that Ramayana existed before Mahabharata. Historians
and experts believe that verses of Ramayana existed in India in various layers and spans

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which passed from one generation to another for thousands of years through oral traditions,
and that it was Maharishi Valmiki who compiled seven volumes of it consisting of 24,000
verses in Sanskrit that tell the story of Rama (an incarnation of the Hindu God Vishnu),
whose wife Sita was abducted by the demon King of Lanka, Ravana.
Thematically, the epic explores the tenets of human existence and the concept of dharma. It
contains the teachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them in narrative allegories with
philosophical and devotional elements interspersed. The characters like Rama, Sita,
Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness
of India, i.e. the epic became so popular and universal that it crossed over the boundaries of
Brahminical temples and got embedded in the psyche of Indian population cutting across all
strata and layers of caste system that even today remain deeply rooted in India.
It is very important to note that in the ancient period the purpose of translation was totally
different than what we perceive today. In most of the times Sanskrit text used to be changed
in the form (rupantar) into several languages (bhashantar) or they were called anuvad
(coming after or following after). This meant less emphasis on maintaining originality of
source text, therefore, a translator may not be faithful to the original text at all.
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. Ramayana has also
inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably the Kambaramayanam by
the Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, the Telugu-language Molla Ramayana, 14th
century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayan, Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the 14th
century poet Madhava Kandali and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi
Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version (near Hindi), Ramacharitamanas,
written by Tulsidas. Similarly, Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the
17th century. Other versions include Oriya version by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in
Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, etc.
It is very interesting to note that Ramayana narrated in North India differs in important
aspects from the one preserved in South India and the rest of South-East Asia. There is an
extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia,
Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, the author of
Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.
There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of
Ahi Ravana / Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman
in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the
Ahi/Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave to be
sacrificed to Goddess Kali.
Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and
Lakshadweep—has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These
songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the
next orally. In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of
a Sultan and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama
which is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the
Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.
The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented
in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story
of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the
globe within the Indian Diaspora.
Parallel with Ramayana, Mahabharata is another equally important great epic first written in
Sanskrit by Ved Vyas that has reached almost all corners and veins of India. Besides its epic
narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, the
Mahabharata contains much philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of

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the four "goals of life" or purusharthas. The latter are enumerated as dharma (right action),
artha (purpose), kama (pleasure) and moksha (liberation). Mahabharata has enjoyed
references on a continuous basis both in literary and popular culture of India, since ancient
times. Several stories within the Mahabharata have been debated so intensely that they have
taken separate identities of their own. For instance, Abhijñānashākuntala by the renowned
Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (ca. 400 CE), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is
based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahabharata.
Bhagavad Gita, the integral part of Mahabharta needs a special mention for its message to the
mankind. The message of Bhagavad Gita is that either you can perform your actions with
attachment thinking that you are the doer or you can perform the same without attachment by
thinking that God/Nature is performing the actions. This unattached performance of actions
has been called Yagya or Karma Yog in the Gita. Those who perform their actions for the
sake of Yagya or by way of Karma Yog will be freed from the bonds of actions. They will be
freed from the attributes of Sattav, Rajas and Tamas (purity, passion and delusion) and attain
the supreme Bhava of God, which will make them imperishable beings. They will be freed
from sorrow, old age and death and will attain immortality. This unattached performance of
actions is the true Karma which will not only fulfill all desires but will also transform us and
make us one with God. This thought that perhaps originated 5000 years before has relevance
even in today’s modern world, and that is the reason why its universality has been maintained
through various ages and in various languages.
At a much later stage when Jainism and Buddhism started flourishing in India, say around
600 B.C. onwards, the religious texts and teachings first reached in different corners of India
in Pali-Sanskrit which was simultaneously translated and appropriated in various Indian
languages (bhasha).
In 230 B.C. during Maurya rule, Buddhism received a great impetus when King Ashoka after
having won various wars underwent untold sufferings, especially after his victory over
Kalinga, and then embraced Buddhism after renouncing war forever. Ashoka’s patronage of
Buddhism played a great role in having a profound influence on the Indian subcontinent and
beyond. It began with his practical approach towards the humane ideals. In his zeal to
propagate peace, he dispatched Buddhist emissaries to Burma, Ceylon, Afghanistan, Nepal,
Mesopotamia, Syria, China, Tibet, Egypt, Persia and Macedonia. Moreover, he is said to have
sent his son Mahindra’s daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon to spread Buddhism. During this
period, the Buddhist scriptures were widely translated into Indian Bhashas and languages of
neighbouring countries as well. The popularity of Buddhism under the Mauryas led to the
establishment of many Buddhist centres at places like the present day Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Varanasi, Orissa, Mysore and Karnataka.
Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma, which encapsulated all the moral and social virtues for the
common good and his direct patronage were responsible for the widespread popularity of
Buddhism. Assuming the title “Devanampriya” (Beloved of the Gods), several rock and
pillar edicts of his Dhamma or the law of piety issued by Ashoka were erected. These
included the co-existence and toleration of all walks of life and also very clear indication of
nationhood and national identity. Also, the spread of Buddhism under this Mauryan Emperor
is believed to have greatly influenced the religious history of South-east Asia. The spread of
Buddhism beyond the borders of Indian subcontinent during the Mauryan period ensured its
survival even after Buddhism lost hold after the Muslim conquest and the revival of
Hinduism.
Whatever may be the purpose or practice of translation, call it rupantar, bhashantar or
anuvad, it is important to note that this activity has been going on in India since ages and that
it has always helped the Indian population to maintain unity in diversity. Indianness may not
only be looked through unity of geographical locations which already exists in the Indian

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subcontinent by default, it may also be looked through the spiritual space that has been
binding it as a nation where geographical locations work as body and the spiritual space as
soul.
To understand this unity that may be equated with nationhood or supra-nationhood in the
Indian case, if we take into account the details given by foreign travellers of that time, who
were translators and the real ambassadors who helped in translation and dissemination of
information from one language to another, one culture to another, one nation to another; it
becomes easier to understand that today’s Indian sub-continent was already united as one
nation consisting of several mini nations.
Megasthenese (c. 350 BC-290 BC) was a Greek traveler and geographer, a friend and
companion of Seleucus Nicator, the Greek Monarch who sent him as an ambassador to
Sandracottus (Chandragupta), King of Prasii, whose capital was Palibothra (Patataliptra), a
town near the confluence of Ganges and Sone in the neighbourhood of the modern Patna.
Megasthenese was the first westerner to provide an eyewitness description of the Gangetic
plains and the people of India, the time when Chandragupta’s power was at its zenith, and
much later whose grandson Ashoka expanded the Mauryan empire to a much larger area than
before.
Fa-Hien (c.399–414 AD), a Chinese Buddhist monk who initiated relations with India in 399
AD, eager to learn about his religion at its source, spent a decade visiting the major Buddhist
shrines and seats of learning, especially sites in eastern India, including Kapilavastu, Bodh
Gaya, and Pataliputra. He deepened his knowledge by conversing with monks and gathered
sacred texts that had not yet been translated into Chinese. He returned to China by sea in 412,
after spending two years in Sri Lanka. His Record of Buddhist Kingdoms contains valuable
information about Indian Buddhism as well as Indian political and cultural scenario of this
era.
Huen–Tsang (c.602–664), was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and
translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period.
Like Fa-Hien, he too was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the
Buddhist scriptures that reached China. He decided to go west to India, the cradle and
thriving center of Buddhism itself where he spent 17 years traveling, visiting places
associated with the Buddha's life, learning Sanskrit and studying with Buddhist masters, most
notably at the famous Nalanda University. He gathered hundreds of Sanskrit texts (sutras) in
order to bring them back with him. Many of them got destroyed en route but he still managed
to bring back 657 books. Upon his return and for the remaining 19 years of his life, Huen–
Tsang worked with a team of linguist monks to translate many of the 657 books and wrote a
commentary on them. He also published an account of his travels which is now a precious
historical record and which provided the inspiration for the epic novel Journey to the West.
The map in the next paragraph explains the extent of 03 great empires of Indian span into
three different time zones. The Mauryan empire at around 250 B.C, the Gupta Empire at
around 400 AD, and the Mughal empire from 1600 to 1700 AD.
In medieval period specially during the Mughal Period which was established in north India
in the 16th century brought about tremendous literary activity. Languages like Persian,
Sanskrit, Hindi and Urdu saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages.
The contributions of the Mughals can be divided into three categories: historical works,
translations, poetry and novels. The important historical works written in this time were Ain-
i-Akbari, and Akbarnama by Abul Fazl, the Ta'rikh-i-'Alfi by Mulla Daud. Akbar,
though not educated in any formal educational institution, could contribute much to
literature. Jehangir possessed a keen interest in literature, and his autobiography is one of the
finest amongst the Mughal emperors. During his reign, important historical works like
Ma'asir-i-Jahangir, Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri and Zubud-ut-Tawaikh were written. Many

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important works in translation were also written during this period, with the translation of the
epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana taking place. Many of the Vedas were also
translated and several previous historical books were also translated. All this translation
added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience.
This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social
reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really
said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed. One of the fine
Hindu works composed during this time was Ramcharitmanasa (the life of Rama) by
Tulsidasa, which was a simplified version of the Ramayana.
Travellers who generally used to travel in the quest of knowledge from one corner to another
corner of country have contributed a lot to translation activities. Many times they used to
cross boundaries of their country (or linguistic regions) to learn new language(s) and used to
contribute towards democratization of information through translation. Out of many such
travellers, Ibn Battuta is one of the world's greatest travelers, traveled an enormous distance
of 75,000 miles after having left Tangier, Morocco with the intention of performing Hajj (the
pilgrimage) to Mecca only to return thirty years later at the court of Sultan Abu 'Inan and
dictated accounts of his journeys, known as the famous Travels (Rihla) of Ibn Battuta
covering several adventures in African deserts, Indian countries (states) and islands in far east
and China. He spent seven years at the court of Mohammed Bin Tughluk as a judge and
finally as ambassador to China. He has given a wonderful record of socio-religious life of the
places he visited which includes coastal Karnataka and southern part of India.
Ibn Battuta was the only medieval traveler who is known to have visited the lands of every
Muslim ruler of his time. He also traveled to Ceylon (present Sri Lanka), China and
Byzantium and South Russia. The mere extent of his travels is estimated at no less than
75,000 miles, a figure which is not likely to have been surpassed before the age of steam.
Some of the non religious books have also played major role in creating common psyche of
the masses. The book Panchtantra is one of them which is known for its universal
message. It was originally written in Sanskrit, probably in Kashmir, sometime in the 4th
century A.D. Two hundred years later, a Persian Shah got it translated into Pehlavi, a form of
Old Persian and liked it so much that he enshrined the translation in a special room of his
palace. Three hundred years later, after the Muslim conquest of Persia and the Near East, a
Persian convert to Islam named Ibn al-Mukaffa’ chanced upon the Pehlavi version and
translated it into Arabic as Kalila wa Dimna in a style so lucid that it is still considered a
model of Arabic prose. It was so entertaining, however, that it proved popular with all
classes, entered the folklore of the Muslim world and was carried by the Arabs to Spain.
There it was translated into Old Spanish in the 13th century. In Italy, it was one of the first
books to appear after the invention of printing. Later, it was also translated into Greek and
then into Latin, Old Church Slavic, German and other languages. The Arabic version was
translated into Ethiopic, Syriac, Persian, Turkish, Malay, Javanese, Laotian and Siamese. In
the 19th century it was translated into Hindustani, thus completing the circle that began 1,700
years before in Kashmir. Not all versions were simple translations. The book was expanded,
abridged, versified, disfigured and enhanced by a seemingly endless series of translators.
Bhakti movement in India also played important role in creating oneness. The Bhakti
movement in India took place as an effort to inculcate loving devotion and belief in God. It
aimed at the principle of monotheism, i.e. existence of one God. It started in the south of
India and slowly spread to north India during the later half of the medieval period in the
history of India (800-1700 A.D). The real essence of Bhakti is found in great epics like
Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Vedic scriptures also talk about the concept of pure
devotion of God. Many saints and devotional preachers led the Bhakti movement in different
parts of the country. They believed in the fact that true knowledge can be achieved only

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through selfless devotion and worship of the Supreme Power. The Bhakti movement of the
Vaishnavaites and that of the Shaiva were simultaneous and started almost together.
The Bhakti movements started then, have left an indelible mark in human beliefs and faiths.
This movement started the trend of elaborate rituals in worship places. Devotional hymns in
Temples, Qawalli in Mosques, Gurbani in Gurudwaras, etc. all came from the Bhakti
movement. Chanting or taking the name of God was considered essential by many saints
including the great Adi Shankaracharya. The significance of Bhakti movement was that it
could be accessed by anyone, since all it needed was to remember God with full devotion and
love. The esteemed philosophical schools only changed the thoughts, but the Bhakti
movement changed the entire perspective of a human being. It went beyond artificial beliefs
and rituals and encouraged people to have complete faith in the Almighty. The Bhakti
movement in India produced a rich collection of literature based on devotion, spirituality,
faith and incorporated numerous devotional hymns and chants.
As per the thoughts of R.S Pathak “the poets of the Bhakti period in India were translators in
a different and loose sense, as they strove to translate Indian knowledge and wisdom
manifested in different treatises through Sanskrit by appropriating it in various Indian
Bhashas". In words of G.N. Devy medieval translation aimed at liberating the society. (Devy,
1993)
The post Bhakti Movement of Indian literature took a sharp turn in the latter Mughal era in
India classified as ‘Reeti Kaal” or a style-oriented period in which poets and laurels put much
emphasis on style of expression than on the purity of content. Naturally, this also impacted
the trend of translation. Krishna and Radha became the centre of romantic and, sometimes
even sensual, poesy and expressions. Such literature even reached South India and further
countries like Iran and Afghanistan through Persian translations.
The dying Mughal empire could not add much to maintain oneness of national geographical
boundaries, however, the translators and intellectuals continued to play crucial role in
maintaining religious beliefs, and universal legends and ethos whose nature was always
nationalistic.
Upon arrival of British in India, the role of literature and translation took a U turn. The
British period took away even the ‘stylish’ approach of translation and made it a tool for
administration and imperialism. English language was introduced to bring ideas and thoughts
from west, and it was imposed as language of the administrative class. The concept of
ruptantar or bhastantar slowly faded into administrative translation that served the British
interests. New legal terms and administrative glossaries evolved which became part and
parcel of the British law and order. The British period was also the period of the great
Industrial Revolution that started from England and soon enveloped the entire globe. New
machines were made and it was the beginning of an age that we term today as
‘globalization’. The markets spread, consumer-oriented services bloomed and the language
had to assume a new role – to cater to the socio-economic needs of multitudes of people.

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