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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 955

Francisco Rebelo
Marcelo M. Soares Editors

Advances in
Ergonomics in
Design
Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International
Conference on Ergonomics in Design,
July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 955

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science & Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment,
healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern
intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft comput-
ing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion
of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuro-
science, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems,
Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and
adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics
including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning para-
digms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent
agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust
management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are
primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They
cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and
applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short
publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad
dissemination of research results.

** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings,

EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Francisco Rebelo Marcelo M. Soares
•

Editors

Advances in Ergonomics
in Design
Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International
Conference on Ergonomics in Design,
July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA

123
Editors
Francisco Rebelo Marcelo M. Soares
Faculdade de Arquitetura School of Design
Universidade de Lisboa Hunan University
Lisbon, Portugal Changsha, Hunan, China

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-20226-2 ISBN 978-3-030-20227-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20227-9
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2019

AHFE 2019 Series Editors

Tareq Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

10th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the
Affiliated Conferences

Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design,

held on July 24–28, 2019, in Washington D.C., USA

Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Shuichi Fukuda

Advances in Neuroergonomics Hasan Ayaz
and Cognitive Engineering
Advances in Design for Inclusion Giuseppe Di Bucchianico
Advances in Ergonomics in Design Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M. Soares
Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, Ronald L. Boring
and Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Nancy J. Lightner and Jay Kalra
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Human Factors and Simulation Daniel N. Cassenti
Advances in Human Factors and Systems Isabel L. Nunes
Interaction
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Tareq Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski
Advances in Human Factors, Business Jussi Ilari Kantola and Salman Nazir
Management and Leadership
Advances in Human Factors in Robots Jessie Chen
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Training, Waldemar Karwowski, Tareq Ahram
Education, and Learning Sciences and Salman Nazir
Advances in Human Factors of Transportation Neville Stanton
(continued)

v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2019

(continued)
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software Tareq Ahram
and Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne
Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Falcão
Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Ravindra S. Goonetilleke and Waldemar
Factors Karwowski
Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Cliff Sungsoo Shin
Design
Advances in Safety Management and Human Pedro M. Arezes
Factors
Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Richard H. M. Goossens and Atsuo
Murata
Advances in Manufacturing, Production Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan
Management and Process Control Trzcielinski and Beata Mrugalska
Advances in Usability and User Experience Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão
Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Tareq Ahram
Technologies and Game Design
Advances in Human Factors in Communication Amic G. Ho
of Design
Advances in Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Massimo Di Nicolantonio, Emilio Rossi
Systems and 3D Prototyping and Thomas Alexander
Preface

Successful interaction with products, tools and technologies depends on usable

designs and accommodating the needs of potential users without requiring costly
training. In this context, this book is concerned with emerging ergonomics in design
concepts, theories and applications of human factors knowledge focusing on the
discovery, design and understanding of human interaction and usability issues with
products and systems for their improvement.
This book will be of special value to a large variety of professionals, researchers
and students in the broad field of human modeling and performance who are
interested in feedback of devices’ interfaces (visual and haptic), virtual reality,
user-centered design, design for special populations, particularly the elderly and
assistive technology. We hope this book is informative, but even more that it is
thought provoking. We hope it inspires, leading the reader to contemplate other
questions, applications and potential solutions in creating good designs for all.
The book is organized into seven sections focusing on the following subject
matters: design methods, user interfaces and interaction design, information,
design and visualization virtual reality and digital environments in design, cultural
aspects in design and city planning
In the sections that cover design methods, user interfaces and interaction design,
the focus goes to the limits and capabilities. Generally, the effect of changes in force
and kinematics, physiology, cognitive performance, design of consumer products,
tools and workplaces is discussed. The sections that cover virtual reality and digital
environment, product and design evaluation and sustainable design employ a
variety of research methods and user-centered evaluation approaches, for
developing products that can improve safety and human performance and at the
same time the efficiency of the system. Usability evaluations are reported for dif-
ferent kinds of products and technologies.
Section 1 Design methods, user interfaces and interaction design
Section 2 Design and user involvement
Section 3 Information, design and visualization
Section 4 Virtual reality

vii
viii Preface

Section 5 Product and system design

Section 6 Cultural aspects in design and city planning
Section 7 Design applications
This book will be of special value to a large variety of professionals, researchers
and students in the broad field of human performance who are interested in feed-
back of devices’ interfaces (visual and haptic), user-centered design and design for
special populations, particularly the elderly. We hope this book is informative, but
even more that it is thought provoking. We hope it inspires, leading the reader to
contemplate other questions, applications and potential solutions in creating good
designs for all.
We would like to thank Editorial Board Members for their contributions.

Pedro Arezes, Portugal

Amilton Arruda, Brazil
Erminia Attaianese, Italy
Eric Brangier, France
Ralph Bruder, Germany
Marcelo Cairrão, Brazil
José Juan Canãs, Spain
Miguel Carvalho, Portugal
F. M. da Silva, Portugal
J. C. P. da Silva, Brazil
Emilia Duarte, Portugal
José Pinto Duarte, Portugal
E. Filgueiras, Portugal
M. Goebel, South Africa
Sougata Karmakar, India
L. B. Macedo, Brazil
Daniel Raposo Martins, Portugal
Beata Mrugalska, Poland
Mitsuo Nagamachi, Japan
Andre Neves, Brazil
P. Noriega, Portugal
M. L. L. R. Okimoto, Brazil
L. Paschoarelli, Brazil
L. Prado, Mexico
Pradip Kumar Ray, India
Sarbjit Singh, India
Peeyush Soni, Thailand
Steve Summerskill, UK
Ming Sun, USA
Preface ix

Patel Thaneswer, India

Bruce Thomas, the Netherlands
Steve Ward, Australia
T. Yamaoka, Japan

July 2019 Francisco Rebelo

Marcelo M. Soares
Contents

Design Methods, User Interfaces and Interaction Design

The Role of Design in Technology Driven Ergonomics
Product Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Byungsoo Kim and Sharon Joines
Teenagers Postural Effects Through Videogames
Therapeutic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ernesto Filgueiras, Gustavo Desouzart, and Ana Silva
Eye-Tracking Examination of the Anthropological Race, Gender
and Verbal-Pictorial Relative Positions on Ergonomics
of Visual Information Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Rafał Michalski and Joanna Koszela-Kulińska
How to Read Red: Red in Western Culture (Part II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Leonor Ferrão
Contribution of Visual Ergonomics to a Holistic View of the Symbols
Applied in Touristic and Cultural Signage: The Portuguese Case . . . . . 48
João Neves, Fernando Moreira da Silva, Daniel Raposo, and José Silva
Design, Objects and Memory: A Sustainability-Oriented
Project Itinerary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Myrla Lopes Torres, Paulo Maldonado, and Leonor Ferrão
Effectiveness of Coach Marks or Instructional Overlay in Smartphone
Apps Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Paulo Noriega, Diana Carvalho, Igor Correia, Jose Luís Alves,
Tiago Oliveira, and Francisco Rebelo
Communication Design as Tool for Social Transformation:
A Co-design Project with the Residents of the Rego Neighborhood,
in Lisbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Teresa Olazabal Cabral and Inês Farmhouse Coimbra

xi
xii Contents

The Brand Mark Competitors Map as Visual Research Tool. Using

Graphic and Symbolic Data in the Brand Visual Identity Project . . . . . 91
Daniel Raposo, Rogério Ribeiro, Mariana Amaral,
Fernando Moreira da Silva, and Juan Ramón Martin Sanromán
Boundary Dimension Design of Graphical Symbols
Based on User Preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Zhongting Wang, Ling Luo, Linghua Ran, and Liang Zhang
An Ergonomic Assessment on the Detectability Design of the New
Generation Currency (NGC) Coin Series and Bangko Sentral ng
Pilipinas (BSP) Coin Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Diane Denise Francisco, Patricia Michaela C. Gregorio,
Ninna Ysabel G. Layug, and Nikole Andrei B. Mallare
Research on Optimization of Information Coding for Car
Dashboard Based on Eye Movement Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Guilei Sun, Qin Li, Yanhua Meng, and Linghua Ran
Brand Identity in Motion. Structural Models of Brand Identity
on TV Opening Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
João Brandão, Ricardo Maia Pestana, and Daniel Raposo
Human Factors Engineering Research on Folding Umbrellas Design . . . 147
Xiaohan Zhou and Xiaoping Hu
Effects of Screen Brightness on Visual Performance Under
Different Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Qi Tian, Linghua Ran, Cancan Zhao, Zihan Zhou, and Haimei Wu
Study on the Effect of Key-to-Key Distance on Touch-Sensitive
Key Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Xiaoli Fan, Huimin Hu, Chaoyi Zhao, and Wei Zhang
Research on Standardization of Public Information Guidance Systems
for Railway Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Chuan-yu Zou, Yongquan Chen, and Ziding Chen
Methodology of Analysis of Brand Visual Identity of Food Products:
Comprehension and Valuation of Graphic Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Daniel Raposo, Catarina Laginha, João Neves, José Silva,
and Fernando Moreira da Silva

Design and User Involvement

Evaluation of the Concept of a Smart City Gamification
from a User Centered Design Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Francisco Rebelo, Paulo Noriega, and Tiago Oliveira
Contents xiii

Natural Human-Computer Interfaces’ Paradigm

and Cognitive Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Victor M. Almeida, Sónia Rafael, and Marco Neves
Grains of Memory: User Experience in the SandBox
Interactive Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Adriana Moreno, Arminda Guerra Lopes, and Mónica Mendes
Measure of the Lived and Functional Effects of Gamification:
An Experimental Study in a Professional Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Eric Brangier and Cathie Marache-Francisco
Comparative Analysis of Body Measurement and Morphology
Between Subjects with Different Body Mass Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Caelen Teger da Silva, Maria Lúcia Leite Ribeiro Okimoto,
Dominique Leite Adam, and Kelli C. A. S. Smythe
A New Tool for Cognitive Workload Assessment in System
Design Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Pedro Mendonça and Manuel Adler Abreu
Research on Human-Computer Interaction Design of Bed
Rehabilitation Equipment for the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Zhijuan Zhu, Wenzhen Pan, Xin Ai, and Renjun Zhen
Visual Storytelling - Creative Strategy of Visual Clues Promoted
by Archetypal Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Jose Silva, Daniel Raposo, João Neves, and Fernando Moreira da Silva
Review of the Research on Car Seating Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Xiaoli Fan, Chaoyi Zhao, Xuemei Chen, Yuwei Jiang, Yongjia Shen,
and Tong Shen
Ergonomics Assessment Criteria as a Way to Improve the Quality
and Safety of People’s Transport in Underground Coal Mines . . . . . . . 305
Jarosław Tokarczyk, Dariusz Michalak, Magdalena Rozmus,
Kamil Szewerda, Leszek Żyrek, and Gregor Železnik
Development of an Ergonomically Designed Backpacks for Junior
High School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Emmanuel Oliver D. C. Porciuncula, Leonard T. Aquino,
Daniel G. Araneta, Jeremiah V. Austria, Briant Angelo M. Censon,
John Michael A. Cruz, Patrick Henry S. Fernandez,
Kent Xaivery L. Moreno, Joshua M. Ng, Genhino Glenn D. C. Reyes,
Aroma M. Santillan, and Wendel Jimver De Guia
xiv Contents

A Study on the Correlation of Head and Face Data

of Chinese Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Linghua Ran, Chaoyi Zhao, Hong Luo, Xin Zhang, Taijie Liu, Huimin Hu,
Zhongting Wang, Nicole Sator, Erika Siebert-Cole, and Peter Straßer
Directions Towards Sustainability Through Higher Education . . . . . . . 334
Theresa Lobo

Information, Design and Visualization

Water Museums and Digital Media: Two Case Studies
on Digital Media in Water Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Joana Lessa
A Human-Computer Interaction Framework for Interface Analysis
and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Sónia Rafael, Victor M. Almeida, and Marco Neves
Collaboration: Critical Roles of Academia-Business Partnerships
and Challenges the Workforce Must Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Sara Antunes and Rita Almendra
The ‘Place’ that Shows the Title of a TV Series:
What to Name It and How It Has Evolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Ricardo Maia Pestana and João Brandão
Communication Design and Medical Procedures: Inform Citizens
to Act in Emergency Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Marco Neves and Ana Rafaela Poças
Color and Interaction in Journalistic Infographics:
The Case of Online Portuguese Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Salomé Esteves and Marco Neves
Information Design in Presentation, Interpretation and Dissemination
of Natural and Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Cristina Santos, Maria João Pereira Neto, and Marco Neves

Virtual Reality
Evaluation of Behavioral Compliance with Safety Warnings
at Different Levels of Cognitive Load in Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Ana Almeida, Francisco Rebelo, and Paulo Noriega
Locomotion-in-Place and Teleport: Which Is the Best Technique
to Be Used in Human Behavior Research Using Virtual Reality? . . . . . 436
Inês Galrão, Francisco Rebelo, and Paulo Noriega
Contents xv

Openness Feeling on Height Direction in High Ceiling Room

and Bending Pattern of Leading Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Takuya Sugiyama and Yohsuke Yoshioka
Exploratory Study to Investigate the Influence of a Third Person
on an Individual Emergency Wayfinding Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Elisângela Vilar, Paulo Noriega, Francisco Rebelo, Inês Galrão,
Daniel Semedo, and Nuno Graça
How Deep Is a Virtual Reality Experience? Virtual Environments,
Emotions and Physiological Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Tiago Oliveira, Paulo Noriega, José Carvalhais, Francisco Rebelo,
and Vanessa Lameira
Emotion Through Narrative: Validation for User Engagement
in Game Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Yanick Trindade, Francisco Rebelo, and Paulo Noriega

Product and System Design

The Importance of Ergonomics in the Development of Sustainable
Materials Applied to Footwear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Ana Margarida Fernandes
Effect of Body Weight of Wheelchair Care Recipient on Physical
Activity Intensity of Assistant Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Haruka Sugiyama, Yohsuke Yoshioka, Masaki Takahashi, Cheng Jiayu,
Mitsuaki Shiraishi, Fumitake Hakozaki, Satoshi Kameno,
Yoshihide Tokuda, and Ken Nunota
Research on Body Pressure Distribution of Mattress
for Different Genders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Huimin Hu, Mengjing Cai, Pu Hong, Yinxia Li, Ling Luo, and Haimei Wu
Universal Design for Enhancing Accessibility of the Visually Impaired
in Touristic Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Carlos Arce-Lopera, Juan Jimenez Garcia, Camilo Montoya,
and Jose Giraldo
Toothbrush Innovation Design Based on Man-Machine
Engineering Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Peng Han
Study on the Influence of BMI Difference on Pressure Distribution
of Mattress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Huimin Hu, Pu Hong, Mengjing Cai, Yinxia Li, Hong Luo,
and Haimei Wu
xvi Contents

A JACK-Based Ergonomic Analysis and Design of the Cockpit

of Agricultural Material Handling Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Sen Gu, Sheng Su, Cheng Huang, Zhiqiang Song, and Shasha Yuan
Research on Comfort of Mattresses with Different Hardness
Based on Body Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Huimin Hu, Pu Hong, Mengjing Cai, Hong Luo, and Haimei Wu

Cultural Aspects in Design and City Planning

Built Environment Preservation: A Process of Ergonomic Design . . . . . 563
Conceição Trigueiros and Mario Saleiro Filho
Lighting Design at Workplaces: What Should Be the Concerns
for an Architect? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Sandra Preto
Design for the Model of Shared Office Space Based on the Logic
of Behavior: A Case Study of Chinese Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Zhang Ping, Yang Simeng, Liu Tingyu, and Zhang Liang
The Italic Style: Understanding the Shape Through History . . . . . . . . . 597
João Aranda Brandão and Catarina Machado Almeida
Graphic Design and Cinema: Portuguese Movie Posters
from the Nouvelle Vague Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Elisabete Rolo and Maria do Carmo Kattau Lopes
At Hand, the Brain of Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Luis Miguel Ginja
Exploring Design Requirements of Outdoor Fitness Equipment
for Young People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Aylin Karadeniz, Melis Dursun, and Gülşen Töre-Yargın
Design Ergonomics for Human Beings and Wild Animals in Densely
Populated Cities: A Design Case in Hong Kong Country Parks . . . . . . . 640
Kin Wai Michael Siu, Yi Lin Wong, and Chi Hang Lo
Research on Guiding Sign Ergonomic Setting Based on Visual
Sensitivity in Long and Narrow Passageway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Ling Luo, Zhongting Wang, Linghua Ran, Chuanyu Zou, and Haimei Wu
The Application of Ergonomics of the Built Environment
in Architectural Projects as a Benefit for the Hearing Impaired . . . . . . 656
Aline da Silva Oliveira, Renata de Assunção Neves,
and Marcelo M. Soares
Contents xvii

Design Applications
A Synthesis of Sociotechnical Principles for System Design . . . . . . . . . . 665
Amangul A. Imanghaliyeva, Pauline Thompson, Paul Salmon,
and Neville A. Stanton
Cut Me Off: An Exploratory Study About How the User Perceives
the Information of Clothes Textile Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Maria Aurileide Ferreira Alves and Gonçalo Falcão
Ergonomic Research in Civil Aircraft External Service Design . . . . . . . 683
Yu Chen
Design for Children - Ergonomics in a Ceramic Tile’s Project . . . . . . . 692
Cristina Salvador
Graphic-Semantic Expressions Map: A New Tool
on Design Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Cátia Rijo
Research on Ergonomic Design and Evaluation of Office
Backrest Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Yumeng Zhang, Ling Luo, Jie Wang, Huimin Hu, and Chaoyi Zhao
Assessment of Portuguese Firefighters’ Needs:
Preliminary Results of a Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Anna S. P. Moraes, Miguel A. F. Carvalho, Rachel S. Boldt,
Fernando B. N. Ferreira, Linsey Griffin, and Susan P. Ashdown
“Possible But Improbable Spaces”: From Interior Design
Experience to Jewellery Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Mónica Romãozinho
Service Mapping: Case Study of University Waste
Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Flávia Azevedo and Luciana Cruz
Current Theoretical Developments and Applications
of Fitts’ Law: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Rong Jiang and Zhenyu Gu
On Girls Bra Design for the Demand of User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
Ding-Bang Luh and Yu-Lin Zhao
Effects of Playing Surface on Physiological Responses
and Performance Variables of Hockey Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
Ajita D. Singh and Ajay Deswal
Role of Postural Control Exercises and Pelvic Floor Strengthening
Exercises on Chronic Low Back Pain of Women with Sitting Jobs . . . . 775
Ajita Dsingh and Amanpreet Kaur
xviii Contents

The Role of Organizational Factors in Development and Progression

of Wrist Disorders: Psychosocial Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Arunita Paul and Urmi R. Salve
Developing a Framework that Can Assist Designers to Identify
and Incorporate Notable Cultural Elements into Products
Designed for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
Wanrisa Bok Kharkongor and Debkumar Chakrabarti
Design Interventions of an Exergame for Fall Problem in Indian
Older Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Nilakshi Yein and Swati Pal
A Re-look into the Information in Multimedia Design and Animation
Theme Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Manoj Majhi and Debkumar Chakrabarti
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Design Methods, User Interfaces
and Interaction Design
 The Role of Design in Technology Driven
Ergonomics Product Development

Byungsoo Kim and Sharon Joines(&)

NC State University, 50 Pullen Road, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA

{bkim18,sharon_joines}@ncsu.edu

Abstract. Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) have been considered in

New Product Development (NPD) to develop solutions that are useable and
useful while maintaining productivity. The importance of technology and design
has increased at the intersection between NPD and HFE. Developing a new
product driven by technology is known as a technology driven approach which
can be infused into existing ergonomic product development processes and may
result in the development of effective, new and innovative products. The pur-
pose of this study is to instigate design methods and tools that can be applicable
to the technology driven NPD process. The literature regarding existing design
methods and tools used and potentially utilized in technology driven NPD
process has been reviewed in this study. Also, the role of HFE experts in a
technology driven NPD process is addressed in the discussion section. In
addition, when to use the design methods and tools found in the literature in the
front end of the technology driven NPD process is suggested in this paper to
help develop new and innovative products.

Keywords: New product development
Design thinking methods

Design thinking tools
Technology-driven approach
Innovation

Ergonomic products

1 Introduction

Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) are traditionally considered in New Product
Development (NPD) to anticipate users’ activities in order to develop solutions that are
useable and useful while maintaining productivity [1]. For instance, ergonomics has been
closely related to a User-Centered Design process (UCD) [2] while the UCD approach
has been helping to develop new products that have high customer value [3–6]. At the
intersection between NPD and HFE, the importance of technology and design has
increased [7]. For instance, new or emerging technologies, such as using wearable
computer system for users, opened the possibility of improving users’ work postures [8].
In addition, adopting advanced technology helped reducing the perceived physical
workload in bricklaying [9]. Also, the decreases in the cost of technologies enable the
design and development of affordable, ergonomic consumer products such as height
adjustable desks. Developing a new product driven by technology is called technology
driven approach [6]. Since the technology driven approach is associated with developing
discontinuous (innovative) products [10], a technology driven approach infused into

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

F. Rebelo and M. M. Soares (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 955, pp. 3–14, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20227-9_1
4 B. Kim and S. Joines

product development processes coupled with ergonomics may result in the development
of effective, new and innovative products.
The technology development process and the application of technology in NPD are
two different concept [11]. While technology development focuses on developing state
of the art technology, the application of technology into the NPD process focuses on
developing a competitive and innovative product [11]. The transition from technology
to product development is known as technology transfer which happens at the front end
of the NPD process [11]. Since innovation grows from technology and related tech-
nological research that forms the basis of product evolution [12], successful technology
transfer would help developing competitive and innovative products. Since design
thinking plays an important role during the early phase of NPD [7], design thinking
may be able to aid in technology transfer. While there are many methods and tools to
support the customer driven approach to NPD [6], there are relatively few studies
regarding methods and tools to support the technology driven NPD process and to aid
technology transfer.
The purpose of this study is to investigate design methods and tools that may be
applicable to the technology driven NPD process. This paper includes a review of
literature across three areas: studies using established design methods and tools; studies
documenting the development of methods and tools; and studies documenting the
evaluation of methods and tools (in the NPD process or an educational setting). Finally,
this paper suggests possible design methods and tools for the technology driven NPD
process to help develop new and innovative ergonomic products.

2 Methodology

A systematic literature review [13] was conducted to answer the following research
questions: (1) what is the role of design in technology driven NPD? and (2) what are
the existing the design methods and tools used at the front end of technology-driven
NPD process?
To find the literature that is relative, recent, and valid, the inclusion criteria was set
prior to conducting the search (see Table 1).

Table 1. Criteria for literature inclusion

Type Inclusion criteria
Topic Literature must relate directly to one of the research questions
Recency Literature should have been published between 1998 to 2019
Study target Literature should relate to higher educational settings (university
students) or in practice (professional designers and other experts (e.g.
engineers) involved in technology driven NPD process)
(continued)
 The Role of Design in Technology Driven Ergonomics Product Development 5

Table 1. (continued)
Type Inclusion criteria
Research base Literature must be based on:
• Empirical research (findings based on actual experience, either
qualitative or quantitative) about the existing methods and tools
or
• Suggestions of methods and tools including:
– Case study
– Theoretical research
– Literature review
Transparency The study methodology should be well defined (e.g. procedure, sample
sizes, instruments, and analysis)
Reliability/validity The findings from the literature must be valid and reliable (e.g. the
finding and conclusion should be based on the results of the study,
cases, and/or other related literature)

Initially online databases were used to find relevant literature in key journals related
to design, technology, education. A second phase of the literature review consisted of
reviewing the initial articles references, author searches based on the initial journals’
author list, and informal searching of internet by topic. The second phase revealed
additional related journal articles, conference proceedings and book chapters. The types
of literature and sources searched are summarized in Table 2 while search terms are
presented in Table 3.

Table 2. Types of literature and sources searched.

Type of literature Source searched or search tool
Key journal articles Online databases:
• Web of Science
• Science Direct
Scanning the contents of key journals:
• Ergonomics
• Design studies
• International Journal of Technology and
Design Education
• Design and Technology Education
• International Journal of Design
• Thinking Skills and Creativity
Additional journal articles, conference • Google Scholar
proceedings, and book chapters • Google
• Researchgate
6 B. Kim and S. Joines

Table 3. Search terms

Terms
Included Technology driven new product development design; technology forces;
technology centric; technology transfer; technology; technology adoption; design
process; user centered design; customer experience; tools; methods; higher
education; capstone; creativity; innovation skills; innovation; product innovation;
breakthrough innovation; radical innovations; front-end innovation; technology
integration; inspiration tool; project based curriculum; brainstorming; fuzzy front
end; engineering; engineers; new product development; capstone; innovation
skills
Excluded Children; middle school; primary school; elementary school; high school;
educational technology; technology education; mathematics; driver

3 Findings

Approximately a thousand journal articles between 1998–2019 were found using the
aforementioned search terms. After reviewing the *1000 journal papers based on the
inclusion criteria (described in Table 1), only 25 journal articles were found to be
related to the research questions. The second phase of the literature review produced 2
conference proceedings, and 2 book chapter. The relevant literature included 22
empirical studies, 6 literature reviews and a case studies for developing framework,
methods, and tools. The empirical studies documented several different research
methods including: (1) testing the existing methods and tools using surveys and
interviews of students during and/or after coursework or workshops, (2) observing the
methods and tools being utilized over a long period of time in companies, (3) inter-
views with domain experts, such as experienced designers and engineers. The literature
review (including case studies) covered previous studies or cases which emphasized the
role of design and design methods and tools in technology driven NPD. From this,
conceptual frameworks were developed while methods and tools to aid or possibly to
be utilized to aid technology driven NPD were identified.
The 25 studies were categorized into the following themes: (1) the role of design in
technology driven new product development and innovation, (2) the methods and tools
to support user involvement at the front end of technology driven new product devel-
opment, and (3) the methods and tools for innovative idea generation from technology.

3.1 The Role of Design in Technology Driven New Product Development

and Innovation
Design helps companies differentiates their products from competitors’ products by
improving performance and attractiveness during product development [14].
Technological advances and design have been key enablers for electronic product
development [15]. Recent technology based service projects, which includes tangible
artifacts, have an emphasis on design [14]. The designer’s role in a technology driven
NPD process is to design product features and systems to enhance the user experience
of a product, to facilitate discussions regarding how to rapidly generate ideas for
 The Role of Design in Technology Driven Ergonomics Product Development 7

solutions, and to develop the form of the products considering aesthetics and ergo-
nomics [16–19]. Industrial designers interact with engineers to implement the devel-
oped design concept into feasible products [20].
Design has supported product innovation in recent years [21]. Design has aided new
technology development [21] and product development [22] to achieve product inno-
vation [23, 24]. Open innovation, sharing information in a creative environment with
user involvement, has been receiving attention in industry [12]. Designers, with a human
centered design emphasis, are well suited to the open innovation approach because of
their focus on understanding users/customers’ needs; the connection between customers
and the design process has been highlighted in the study of innovation [12].

3.2 Methods and Tools to Support User Involvement at the Front End
of Technology Driven NPD
Customer involvement in NPD process has been a helpful approach to obtain infor-
mation from users [3, 4, 22, 25]. Inadequate understanding of customer needs results in
the misperception of “engineers’ wishes” as “customers’ needs” when applying tech-
nology in to the front end of product development; this has been revealed as a major
factor in the failure of innovations [26]. The strong engagement of customers in the
early stages of NPD has been emphasized in order to capture the customers’ knowledge
and to understand user needs [22].
Philips’ approach to NPD emphasizes user involvement across three different
aspects of product development including Technology Objectives (TO), Design
Objectives (DO) and Strategic Marketing Objectives (SO) [5]. Philips developed their
TO: DO: SO approach which includes core tools, such as personas, Experience Targets
and Slice of Life Experience Prototypes [5].
While there were no studies in the found journals articles regarding design methods
and tools to involve customers at the front end of technology driven NPD, there are
methods and tools that enable customer involvement in the early phase of NPD. User-
centered design methods and tools help develop end-user centered products which have
high customer value [3–5, 9]. Focus groups [4, 22], interviews [22, 27, 28], cognitive
walkthroughs [4, 22], think-aloud protocols [4, 22], and observation [4, 28, 29] have
been used to understand the customers’ needs. Since companies prefer less-time-
consuming approaches during the early stages of NPD [30], focusing on interacting
with open-minded users, lead users who represent the target group, and/or care givers
(instead of the elderly) allow for effective, efficient understanding of the customers’
needs [4, 22]. Web-based visual customer communication [3] and co-creation (cus-
tomer involvement in NPD) [3] methods have been utilized to connect designers,
engineers, and marketers to customer knowledge. The use of user personas [31] during
user/developer workshops [28] have been noted to aid empathy in design education [4].
Attribute listing and story boarding have supported user involvement during brain-
storming [22]. User-feedback [5], focus group sessions [22], express processing (re-
ceiving frequent feedback from customers) [3], storytelling [29], and constructive
interaction (interaction between two people with the product and capturing the com-
munication between them) [22] have been suggested to optimize and to improve a
second round of ideas from a set of initially generated ideas which involves the users.
8 B. Kim and S. Joines

3.3 The Methods and Tools for Innovative Idea Generation

from Technology
To aid technology transfer in the early phase of NPD, there are methods and tools to
generate innovative ideas inspired by technology. Considering technology as a design
material helps designers to focus on generating conceptual ideas [32]. The verbal
knowledge from patent analysis for design inspiration was investigated [33]. Use of
“Target verb extraction” and “related verb mining” from related product patents to inspire
innovative ideas had positive effects for university students for idea generation [33].
Tangible tools, such as card format, to focus on the potential of touch-points in innovation
has been addressed in a previous study [34]. One recent study developed cards as
inspiration tools for innovative ideas that provide a “magic effect” to encapsulate tech-
nical information for novice designers [35].
While relatively small number of studies were found which explicitly described
methods and tools aiding the technology driven NPD process, there were many studies
using well-established methods which are potentially applicable for innovative idea
generation in the context of technology driven NPD. Different brainstorming methods
have been widely used in the creative idea generation phase [4, 21]. The goal of brain-
storming is to generate as many ideas as possible [36]. Three different types of brain-
storming have been used in idea generation: (1) traditional brainstorming (engagement in
dialogue and idea sharing), (2) nominal brainstorming (idea generation individually
without communicating with others), and (3) electronic brainstorming (use of online
resources to facilitate idea generation) [37]. Mind maps, analogies, and round table
discussions have been effectively used for in person (classroom) discussions for idea
generation [38]. C-Sketch (adding ideas to the ideas generated by others in round table
format) [39], Principles from Historical Innovators (capturing the principles of previously
designed innovative products and apply these principles to the concept generation pro-
cess) [39], and analogy [40] have been utilized for idea generation methods with design
students [35]. Design Heuristics, a tool to help generate more ideas, was suggested to be
used after exhausting the initial idea generation phase [41]. The additional ideas gener-
ated, after the initial idea generation phase, were rated as higher in novelty, specificity and
relevance [41]. Morphological analysis (exploration of possible solutions using matrix
model) [22, 42], value engineering (an function examination to improve the value of
products) [22], rapid prototyping [22], use cases and pluralistic walkthrough (idea
development with a demonstration of prototype based on user action sequence) [22], role-
playing [22], and what-if scenario building [29] have been suggested to optimize and to
improve a second round of ideas from a set of initially generated ideas.

4 Results

The discontinuous (innovative) NPD Process Model, which shows technology driven
approach [10], and the HCD process model, which is closely related to ergonomics [43],
are presented adjacent to each other to suggest how the HCD process model may help the
front end of technology driven NPD process in Fig. 1. Figure 1 also captures the methods
and tools documented in the literature. The visualization of the methods and tools found in
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Thus the good seed sown in Western Europe during the
preceding century brought forth its fruit. England could not long
remain a stranger to the march of events. But, slow as usual and
averse from hasty experiments, she pondered while others
performed. Besides, she had been spared the volcanic eruption of
the Continent which, while destroying much that was venerable and
valuable, had cleared the ground for the reception of new things.
There is every reason to believe that the ordinary Englishman’s
view of the Jews during the first half of the nineteenth century
differed in no respect from the view entertained by the ordinary
American of the same period, as described by Oliver Wendell
139
Holmes. The ordinary Englishman, like his transatlantic cousin,
grew up inheriting the traditional Protestant idea that the Jews were
a race lying under a curse for their obstinacy in refusing the Gospel.
The great historical Church of Christendom was presented to him as
Bunyan depicted it. In the nurseries of old-fashioned English
Orthodoxy there was one religion in the world—one religion and a
multitude of detestable, literally damnable impositions, believed in by
countless millions, who were doomed to perdition for so believing.
The Jews were the believers in one of these false religions. It had
been true once, but now was a pernicious and abominable lie. The
principal use of the Jews seemed to be to lend money and to fulfil
the predictions of the old prophets of their race. No doubt, the
individual sons of Abraham whom the ordinary Englishman found in
the ill-flavoured streets of East London were apt to be unpleasing
specimens of the race and to confirm the prevailing view of it.
The first unambiguous indication of a changing attitude towards
the Jew appears in Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe. Scott in that work
gives utterance to the feeling of toleration which had gradually been
growing up in the country. It was in 1819, during the severest season
of the novelist’s illness, that Mr. Skene of Rubislaw, his friend, “sitting
by his bedside, and trying to amuse him as well as he could,” spoke
about the Jews, as he had known them years before in Germany,
“still locked up at night in their own quarter by great gates,” and
suggested that a group of Jews would be an interesting figure in a
 140
novel. The suggestion did not fall on stony ground. Scott’s eye
seized on the artistic possibilities of the subject, and the result was
the group of Jews which we have in Ivanhoe. Although the author in
introducing the characters seems to have been innocent of any
deliberate aim at propagandism, his treatment of them is a sufficient
proof of his own sympathy, and no doubt served the purpose of
kindling sympathy in many thousands of readers.
Not that the work attempts any revolutionary subversion of
preconceived ideas. The difference between Isaac of York and
Nathan the Wise is the same as the difference between Scott and
Lessing and their respective countries. The British writer does not try
to persuade us that the person whom we abhorred a few generations
before as an incarnation of all that is diabolical, and whom we still
regard with considerable suspicion, is really an angel. Whether it be
that there was no need for a revolt against the Elizabethan tradition,
or Scott was not equal to the task, his portrait of the Jew does not
depart too abruptly from the convention sanctioned by his great
predecessors. His Isaac is not a Barabas or Shylock transformed,
but only reformed. Though in many respects an improvement on
both, Scott’s Jew possesses all the typical attributes of his
progenitors: wealth, avarice, cowardice, rapacity, cunning, affection
for his kith and kin, hatred for the Gentile. But, whereas in both
Barabas and Shylock we find love for the ducats taking precedence
of love for the daughter, in Isaac the terms are reversed. It is with
exquisite reluctance that he parts with his shekels in order to save
his life. Ransom is an extreme measure, resorted to only on an
emergency such as forces the master of a ship to cast his
merchandise into the sea. But on hearing that his captor, Front-de-
Bœuf, has given his daughter to be a handmaiden to Sir Brian de
Bois-Guilbert, Isaac throws himself at the knight’s feet, imploring him
to take all he possesses and deliver up the maiden. Whereupon the
Norman, surprised, exclaims: “I thought your race had loved nothing
save their money-bags.”
“Think not so vilely of us,” answers the Jew. “Jews though we be,
the hunted fox, the tortured wildcat, loves its young—the despised
and persecuted race of Abraham love their children.”
 On being told that his daughter’s doom is irrevocable, Isaac
changes his attitude. Outraged affection makes a hero of the Jew,
and for his child’s sake he dares to face tortures, to escape from
which he had just promised to part even with one thousand silver
pounds:
“Do thy worst,” he cries out. “My daughter is my flesh and blood,
dearer to me a thousand times than those limbs which thy cruelty
threatens.”
While emphasising the good qualities of the Jew, the author
takes care to excuse the bad ones. Isaac is despoiled and spurned
as much as Barabas or Shylock. But there is an all-important
difference in Scott’s manner of presenting these facts. He describes
Isaac as a victim rather than as a villain, as an object of compassion
rather than of ridicule. “Dog of a Jew,” “unbelieving Jew,”
“unbelieving dog” are the usual modes of address employed by the
mediaeval Christian towards the Jew; just as they are the usual
modes of address employed by the modern Turk towards the
Christian rayah. The Jews are “a nation of stiff-necked unbelievers,”
the Christian “scorns to hold intercourse with a Jew,” his propinquity,
nay his mere presence, is considered as bringing pollution—
sentiments which far exceed in bitterness those entertained by the
Turk towards the Christian. Under such circumstances Isaac makes
his appearance: a grey-haired and grey-bearded Hebrew “with
features keen and regular, an aquiline nose and piercing black eyes,”
wearing “a high, square, yellow cap of a peculiar fashion, assigned
to his nation to distinguish them from the Christians.” Thus attired,
“he is introduced with little ceremony, and, advancing with fear and
hesitation, and many a bow of deep humility,” he takes his seat at
the lower end of the table, “where, however, no one offers to make
room for him.” “The attendants of the Abbot crossed themselves,
with looks of pious horror,” fearing the contamination from “this son
of a rejected people,” “an outcast in the present society, like his
people among the nations, looking in vain for welcome or resting
place.”
Isaac has scarcely taken his seat, when he is addressed, with
brutal frankness, as a creature whose vocation it is “to gnaw the
bowels of our nobles with usury, and to gull women and boys with
gauds and toys.” So treated, the Jew realises that “there is but one
road to the favour of a Christian”—money. Hence his avarice.
Furthermore, the impression of a craven and cruel miser, that might
perhaps be derived from the above presentation, is softened by the
author, who hastens to declare that any mean and unamiable traits
that there may be in the Jew’s character are due “to the prejudices of
the credulous vulgar and the persecutions by the greedy and
rapacious nobility.”
Scott endeavours to engage the reader’s sympathy for his Jew
by dwelling at great length on these causes of moral degradation:
“except perhaps the flying fish, there was no race existing on the
earth, in the air, or the waters, who were the object of such an
unremitting, general, and relentless persecution as the Jews of this
period.” “The obstinacy and avarice of the Jews being thus in a
measure placed in opposition to the fanaticism and tyranny of those
under whom they lived, seemed to increase in proportion to the
persecution with which they were visited.” “On these terms they
lived; and their character, influenced accordingly, was watchful,
suspicious, and timid—yet obstinate, uncomplying, and skilful in
evading the dangers to which they were exposed.” Thus we are led
to the conclusion that the Jew’s vices have grown, thanks to his
treatment, his virtues in spite of it. For Isaac is not altogether
impervious to gratitude and pity. He handsomely rewards the
Christian who saves his life, and he himself saves a Christian’s life
by receiving him into his house and allowing his daughter to doctor
him.
But, just as he is to the father, Scott is more than just to the
141
daughter. While Isaac is at the best a reformed Barabas or
Shylock, Rebecca is the jewel of the story. The author exhausts his
conventional colours in painting her beauty, and his vocabulary in
singing the praises of her character. “Her form was exquisitely
symmetrical,” “the brilliancy of her eyes, the superb arch of her
eyebrows, her well-formed, aquiline nose, her teeth as white as
pearls, and the profusion of her sable tresses,” made up a figure
which “might have compared with the proudest beauties of England.”
She is indeed “the very Bride of the Canticles,” as Prince John
remarks; “the Rose of Sharon and the Lily of the Valley,” as the
Prior’s warmer imagination suggests. Immeasurably superior to
Abigail in beauty and to Jessica in virtue, she equals Portia in
wisdom—a perfect heroine of romance. Withal there is in Rebecca a
power of quiet self-sacrifice that raises her almost to the level of a
saint. Altogether as noble an example of womanhood as there is to
be found in a literature rich in noble women. To sum up, in contrast
to Marlowe’s and Shakespeare’s creations, there is a great deal of
the tragic, and little, if anything, of the comic in Scott’s Jew.
It would, however, be an error to suppose that Scott was the
spokesman of a unanimous public. His Ivanhoe appeared in 1819.
Four years later we find the writer who with Scott shared the
applause of the age, giving an entirely different character to the Jew.
The Age of Bronze, written in 1823, carries on the Merchant of
Venice tradition. To Byron the Jew is simply a symbol of relentless
and unprincipled rapacity. Referring to the Royal Exchange, “the
New Symplegades—the crushing stocks,”

“Where Midas might again his wish behold

In real paper or imagined gold,
Where Fortune plays, while Rumour holds the stake,
And the world trembles to bid brokers break,”

the poet moralises at the expense of the Jew, to whom he traces our
own greed and recklessness in speculation:

“But let us not to own the truth refuse,

Was ever Christian land so rich in Jews?
Those parted with their teeth to good King John,
And now, Ye Kings! they kindly draw your own.”

Alas! times have changed since the day of “good King John.” Now
the Jews, far from being the victims of the royal forceps,
 “All states, all things, all sovereigns they control,
And waft a loan ‘from Indus to the pole.’
And philanthropic Israel deigns to drain
Her mild per-centage from exhausted Spain.
Not without Abraham’s seed can Russia march;
’Tis gold, not steel, that rears the conqueror’s arch.”

Nor is this all. Sad as the state of things must be, since Spain the
persecutrix has been degraded into a suppliant, the worst of the
calamity lies in the circumstance that these new tyrants of poor
Spain and poor Russia are a people apart; a people without a
country; a people of parasites:

“Two Jews, a chosen people, can command

In every realm their Scripture-promised land.
What is the happiness of earth to them?
A congress forms their ‘New Jerusalem.’
On Shylock’s shore behold them stand afresh,
To cut from nations’ hearts their ‘pound of flesh.’”

But our modern Jeremiah’s indignation is not altogether

disinterested. He confesses elsewhere, with a candour worthy of his
prophetic character,

“In my younger days they lent me cash that way,

142
Which I found very troublesome to pay.”

And not only Byron but piety also was still inimical to the Jew.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose philosophy, in its second childhood,
sought comfort in the cradle of theology—a not uncommon
development—gives vent to some exceedingly quaint sentiments on
the subject. On April 13, 1830, he declares that the Jews who hold
that the mission of Israel is to be “a light among the nations” are
utterly mistaken. The doctrine of the unity of God “has been
preserved, and gloriously preached by Christianity alone.” No nation,
ancient or modern, has ever learnt this great truth from the Jews.
“But from Christians they did learn it in various degrees, and are still
learning it. The religion of the Jews is, indeed, a light; but it is as the
light of the glow-worm, which gives no heat, and illumines nothing
143
but itself.” Here we find Coleridge, in the nineteenth century,
reviving the complaint of Jewish aloofness—of the provincial and
non-missionary character of Judaism—which was one of the causes
of the Roman hatred towards the race in the first. Nor is this the only
case of revival presented by Coleridge’s attitude.
Luther, three hundred years earlier had said, “I am persuaded if
the Jews heard our preaching, and how we handle the Old
144
Testament, many of them might be won.” Coleridge now says: “If
Rhenferd’s Essays were translated—if the Jews were made
acquainted with the real argument—I believe there would be a
145
Christian synagogue in a year’s time.” He is, however, somewhat
in advance of Luther, inasmuch as he does not insist upon the Jews’
abandoning circumcision and “their distinctive customs and national
type,” but advocates their admission into the Christian fold “as of the
seed of Abraham.” He is also in advance of Luther in forgiving the
Jews their claim to be considered a superior order; for he finds that
this claim was also maintained by the earlier Christians of Jewish
blood, as is attested both by St. Peter’s conduct and by St. Paul’s
protests. He also refers to the practice of the Abyssinians—another
people claiming descent from Abraham and preserving the Mosaic
Law—and asks: “Why do we expect the Jews to abandon their
national customs and distinctions?” Coleridge would be satisfied with
their rejection of the covenant of works and with their acceptance of
“the promised fulfilment in Christ.” But what really distinguishes
Coleridge’s missionary zeal from that of the great Reformer is his
demand that the Jews should be addressed “kindly.” It is hard to
imagine Coleridge in his old age taking a Jew on to London Bridge,
146
tying a stone round his neck and hurling him into the river.
 However, though three centuries of humanism had not been
altogether wasted, the philosopher is in theory as hostile to the poor
Jew as Luther himself: “The Jews of the lower orders,” he tells us,
“are the very lowest of mankind; they have not a principle of honesty
in them; to grasp and be getting money for ever is their single and
exclusive occupation.” Nor was this prejudiced view of the race
softened in Coleridge by his profound admiration for its literature,
any more than it was in Luther. The latter was an enthusiastic
admirer of the Psalms—the book that has played a larger part in
men’s lives than any other—and so was Coleridge: “Mr. Coleridge,
like so many of the elder divines of the Christian Church, had an
affectionate reverence for the moral and evangelical portion of the
Book of Psalms. He told me that, after having studied every page of
the Bible with the deepest attention, he had found no other part of
Scripture come home so closely to his inmost yearnings and
147
necessities.” But Coleridge’s affection for ancient Hebrew
literature deepened, if anything, his contempt for the modern Jew.
He called Isaiah “his ideal of the Hebrew prophet,” and used this
ideal as a means of emphasising his scorn for the actual: “The two
images farthest removed from each other which can be
comprehended under one term are, I think, Isaiah—‘Hear, O
heavens, and give ear, O earth!’—and Levi of Holywell Street—‘Old
clothes!’—both of them Jews, you’ll observe. Immane quantum
148
discrepant!” The philosopher does not deign to reflect on the
possible causes of this lamentable discrepancy.
Again, Coleridge, like Luther, delighted in clandestine
conversion. He was on friendly terms with several learned Jews,
and, finding them men of a metaphysical turn of mind, he liked, as
was his wont, to preach to them “earnestly and also hopelessly” on
Kant’s text regarding the “object” and “subject,” and other things
weighty, though incomprehensible. At one time he was engaged in
undermining the faith of four different victims of his zeal and
friendship, or may be of his sense of humour: a Jew, a
Swedenborgian, a Roman Catholic, and a New Jerusalemite. “He
said he had made most way with the disciple of Swedenborg, who
might be considered as convert, that he had perplexed the Jew, and
had put the Roman Catholic into a bad humour; but that upon the
New Jerusalemite he had made no more impression than if he had
149
been arguing with the man in the moon.”
Even the genial Elia was not above entertaining and elaborating
the hoary platitude that Jews and Gentiles can never mix. Although
he declares that he has, in the abstract, no disrespect for Jews, he
admits that he would not care to be in habits of familiar intercourse
with any of them. Centuries of injury, contempt and hate, on the one
side—of cloaked revenge, dissimulation and hate, on the other,
between our and their fathers, he thinks, must and ought to affect the
blood of the children. He cannot believe that a few fine words, such
as “candour,” “liberality,” “the light of the nineteenth century,” can
close up the breaches of so deadly a disunion. In brief, he frankly
confesses that he does not relish the approximation of Jew and
Christian which was becoming fashionable, affirming that “the spirit
150
of the Synagogue is essentially separative.”
Yet, in defiance of Byronic wrath, of Elian humour, and of
Coleridgean theology, the demand for justice daily gained ground. In
1830 Mr. Robert Grant, member of Parliament for Inverness,
sounded the trumpet-call to battle by proposing that Jews should be
admitted to the House of Commons. The Bill was carried on the first
reading by 18 votes, but was lost on the second by 63. The initial
success of the proposal was evidence of the progress of public
opinion; its final rejection showed that there was room for further
progress. Indeed, the victory of light over darkness was not to be
won without a severe conflict: the prejudices of eighteen centuries
had to be assaulted and taken one after the other, ere triumph could
be secured. How strong these fortifications were can easily be seen
by a glance at the catalogue of any great public library under the
proper heading. There the modern Englishman’s wondering eye
finds a formidable array of pamphlets extending over many years,
and covering the whole field of racial and theological intolerance. But
the opposite phalanx, though as yet inferior in numbers, shows a
brave front too. In January, 1831, Macaulay fulminated from the
pages of the Edinburgh Review in support of the good cause:
 “The English Jews, we are told, are not Englishmen. They are a
separate people, living locally in this island, but living morally and
politically in communion with their brethren who are scattered over
all the world. An English Jew looks on a Dutch or Portuguese Jew as
his countryman, and on an English Christian as a stranger. This want
of patriotic feeling, it is said, renders a Jew unfit to exercise political
functions.”
This premosaic platitude, and other coeval arguments, Macaulay
sets himself to demolish; and, whatever may be thought of the
intrinsic value of his weapons, the principle for which he battled no
longer stands in need of vindication.
The warfare continued with vigour on both sides. The Jews,
encouraged by Mr. Grant’s partial success, went on petitioning the
House of Commons for political equality, and their petitions found a
constant champion in Lord John Russell, who year after year brought
in a Bill on the subject. But the forces of the enemy held out gallantly.
That a Jew should represent a Christian constituency, and, who
knows? even control the destinies of the British Empire, was still a
proposition that shocked a great many good souls; while others
ridiculed it as preposterous. A. W. Kinglake voices the latter class of
opponents in his Eothen. A Greek in the Levant had expressed to
the author his wonder that a man of Rothschild’s position should be
denied political recognition. The English traveller scowls at the idea,
and quotes it simply as an illustration of the Greek’s monstrous
materialism. “Rothschild (the late money-monger) had never been
the Prime Minister of England! I gravely tried to throw some light
upon the mysterious causes that had kept the worthy Israelite out of
the Cabinet.” Had Kinglake been endowed with the gift of foreseeing
coming, as he was with the gift of describing current events, he
would probably never have written the eloquent page on which the
above passage occurs. But in his own day there was nothing absurd
in his attitude. Till 1828 no more than twelve Jewish brokers were
permitted to carry on business in the City of London, and vacancies
were filled at an enormous cost. Even baptized Jews were excluded
from the freedom of the City, and therefore no Jew could keep a
shop, or exercise any retail trade, till 1832.
 The struggle for the enfranchisement of the Jews was only one
operation in a campaign wherein the whole English world was
concerned, and on the result of which depended far larger issues
than the fate of the small community of English Jews. It was a
campaign between the powers of the past and the powers of the
future. Among those engaged in this struggle was a man in whom
the two ages met. He had inherited the traditions of old England, and
he was destined to promote the development of the new. His life
witnessed the death of one world and the birth of another. His career
is an epitome of English history in the nineteenth century.
In 1833 Gladstone, then aged twenty-four years, voted for Irish
Coercion, opposed the admission of Dissenters to the Universities,
and the admission of Jews to Parliament. He was consistent. Irish
Reform, Repeal of the Test Acts, and Relief of the Jews, were three
verses of one song, the burden of which was “Let each to-morrow
find us farther than to-day.” In 1847 Gladstone, then aged thirty-eight
years, “astonished his father as well as a great host of his political
supporters by voting in favour of the removal of Jewish
151
disabilities.” His desertion, as was natural, aroused a vast amount
of indignation in the camp. For had he not, only eight short years
earlier, been described as “the rising hope of the stern and
unbending Tories”? But the indignation, natural though it might be,
was unjustifiable. Gladstone was again consistent. Several important
things had happened since his first vote. Both Dissenters and
Roman Catholics had been rehabilitated. In other words, the Tory
party had surrendered their first line of defence—Anglicanism, and
abandoned their second—Protestantism: was there any reason,
except blind bigotry, for their dogged defence of the third? Gladstone
could see none. The admission of the Jews was henceforth not only
dictated by justice, but demanded by sheer logic. Furthermore, the
Jews in 1833 had been permitted to practise at the bar; in 1835 the
shrievalty had been conceded to them; in 1845 the offices of
alderman and of Lord Mayor had been thrown open to them; in 1846
an Act of Parliament had established the right of Jewish charities to
hold land, and Jewish schools and synagogues were placed on the
same footing as those of Dissenters. The same year witnessed the
repeal of Queen Anne’s statute, which encouraged conversion; of
the exception of the Jews from the Irish Naturalisation Act of 1783;
and of the obsolete statute De Judaismo, which prescribed a special
dress for Jews. After the bestowal of civil privileges, the withdrawal
of political rights was absurd. Gladstone could not conceive why
people should be loth to grant to the Jews nominal, after having
admitted them to practical equality. But though prejudice had died
out, its ghost still haunted the English mind. Men clung to the
shadow, as men will, when the substance is gone. Those orators of
the press and the pulpit whose vocation it is to voice the views of
yesterday still strove to give articulate utterance and a body to a
defunct cause. Sophisms, in default of reasons, were year after year
dealt out for popular consumption, and the position was sufficiently
irrational to find many defenders. But the result henceforth was a
foregone conclusion. Even stupidity is not impregnable. Prejudice,
resting as it did upon unreality, could not long hold out against the
batteries of commonsense.
Yet ghosts die hard. Baron Lionel de Rothschild, though returned
five times for the City of London, was not allowed to vote. Another
Jew, Alderman Salomons, elected for Greenwich in 1851, ventured
to take his seat, to speak, and to vote in the House, though in
repeating the oath he omitted the words “on the true faith of a
Christian.” The experiment cost him a fine of £500 and expulsion
from Parliament. Meanwhile, the Bill for the admission of the Jews
continued to be annually introduced, to be regularly passed by the
Commons, and as regularly rejected by the Lords. The comedy did
not come to an end till 1858, when an Act was passed allowing Jews
to omit from the oath the concluding words to which they
conscientiously objected. Immediately after Baron de Rothschild took
his seat in the House of Commons, and another “red letter day” was
added to the Jewish Calendar.
The Factories Act of 1870 permits Jews to labour on Sundays in
certain cases, provided they keep their own Sabbath; and the
Universities Tests Act, passed in the following year, just after a Jew
had become Senior Wrangler at Cambridge, enables them to
graduate at the English seats of learning without any violation to their
religious principles. At the present day the House of Commons
contains a dozen Jewish members, and there is scarcely any office
or dignity for which an English Jew may not compete on equal terms
with an English Christian. The one remnant of ancient servitude is to
be found in the Anglo-Jewish prayer for the King, in which the
Almighty is quaintly besought to put compassion into his Majesty’s
heart and into the hearts of his counsellors and nobles, “that they
may deal kindly with us and with all Israel.”
Tolerance has not failed to produce once more the results which
history has taught us to expect. As in Alexandria under the
Ptolemies, in Spain under the Saracen Caliphs and the earlier
Christian princes, and in Italy under the Popes of the Renaissance,
the Jews cast off their aloofness and participated in the intellectual
life of the Gentiles, so now they hastened to join in the work of
civilisation. When the fetters were struck off from the limbs of Israel,
more than the body of the people was set free. The demolition of the
walls of the ghettos was symbolical of the demolition of those other
walls of prejudice which had for centuries kept the Jewish colonies
as so many patches of ancient Asia, incongruously inlaid into the
mosaic of modern Europe. The middle of the eighteenth century,
which marks the spring-time of Jewish liberty, also marks the spring-
time of Jewish liberalism. It is the Renaissance of Hebrew history; a
new birth of the Hebrew soul. The Jew assumed a new form of pride:
pride in the real greatness of his past. He became once more
conscious of the nobler elements of his creed and his literature. And
with this self-consciousness there also came a consciousness of
something outside and beyond self. Moses Mendelssohn did for the
Jews of Europe what the Humanists had done for the Christians. By
introducing it to the language, literature, and life of the Gentiles
around it he opened for his people a new intellectual world, broader
and fairer than the one in which it had been imprisoned by the
persecutions of the Dark Ages; and that, too, at a moment when the
shadows of death seemed to have irrevocably closed round the body
and the mind of Israel. This deliverance, wondrous and unexpected
though it was, produced no thrill of religious emotion, it called forth
no outpourings of pious thankfulness and praise, such as had
greeted the return from the Babylonian captivity and, again, the
Restoration of the Law by the Maccabees in the days of old. The joy
of the nation manifested itself in a different manner, profane maybe
and distasteful to those who look upon nationality as an end in itself
and who set the interests of sect above the interests of man; but
thoroughly sane.
Orthodoxy, of course, continued to hug the dead bones of the
past, to denounce the study of Gentile literature and science as a
sin, and to repeat the words in which men of long ago expressed
their feelings in a language no longer spoken. This was inevitable.
Equally inevitable was another phenomenon: a religious revival
springing up simultaneously with the intellectual awakening. The
Jewish race includes many types. As in antiquity we find Hellenism
and Messianism flourishing side by side, as the preceding century
had witnessed the synchronous appearance of a Spinoza and a
Sabbataï Zebi, so now, while Moses Mendelssohn was writing
Platonic dialogues in Berlin, another representative Jew, Israel
Baalshem, was mystifying himself and his brethren with pious
152
hysteria in Moldavia. But the more advanced classes declared
themselves definitely for sober culture. The concentration which was
forced upon Judaism as a means of self-defence, more especially
after the expulsion from Spain and the subsequent oppression
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was now to a great
extent abandoned, and then ensued a period of dissent
proportionate to the previous compulsory conformity. There was a
vast difference of opinion as to the length to which reform should go.
But one result of the movement as a whole was a more or less
thorough purification of Judaism of the stains of slavery. The solemn
puerilities of the Talmud and the ponderous frivolities of Rabbinic
tradition, grotesque ritualism, and all the inartistic ineptitudes in belief
and practice, with which ages of barbarism had encrusted Judaism,
were relegated to the lumber-room of antiquarian curiosities, and all
that was fresh and truly alive in the Jewish race sought new vehicles
for the expression of new thoughts: modern emotions were
translated into modern modes of utterance and action. The
Messianic dream came to be regarded as a vision of the night,
destined to vanish in the light of freedom, and its place was taken by
an ideal of a spiritual and racial brotherhood of the Jews, based on
their common origin and history, but compatible with patriotic
attachment to the various countries of their adoption.
Nothing is more characteristic of the general healthiness of the
emancipation of the Jewish mind than the new type of renegade Jew
which it brought into being. In the Middle Ages the Jew who
renounced the faith of his fathers often considered it his sacred duty
to justify his apostasy by persecuting his former brethren. The
conditions which produced that vulgar type of renegade having
vanished, there began to appear apostates of another kind—men
who, though unwilling to devote to a sect what was meant for
mankind, or, perhaps, unable to sacrifice their own individuality to an
obsolete allegiance, yet never ceased to cherish those whom they
deserted. In them the connection of sentiment outlasted the links of
religion, and these men by their defection did more for their people
than others had done by their loyalty. Heinrich Heine, born in 1799,
was baptized at the age of twenty-five, prompted partly by the desire
to gain that fulness of freedom which in those days was still denied
to the non-Christian in Germany, but also by a far deeper motive: “I
had not been particularly fond of Moses formerly,” he said in after
life, “perhaps because the Hellenic spirit was predominant in me,
and I could not forgive the legislator of the Jews his hatred towards
all art.” The case of Benjamin Disraeli in this country was an
analogous, though not quite a similar one. Among later examples
may be mentioned the great Russo-Jewish composer Rubenstein
who, though baptized in infancy, never sought to conceal his Jewish
birth, but always spoke of it with pride—and that in a country where it
still is better for one to be born a dog than a Jew. Many of these ex-
Jews have attempted, and in part succeeded, in creating among the
Gentiles a feeling of respect towards the Jewish people as a nation
of aristocrats. And, indeed, in one sense the claim is not wholly
baseless.
Since the abolition of religious obstacles the Jews have taken an
even more prominent part in the development of the European mind
under all its aspects. Israel wasted no time in turning to excellent
account the bitterly earned lessons of experience. The persecution
of ages had weeded the race of weaklings. None survived but the
fittest. These, strong with the strength of long suffering, confident
with the confidence which springs from the consciousness of trials
nobly endured and triumphs won against incredible odds, versatile
by virtue of their struggle for existence amid so many and so varied
forms of civilisation, and stimulated by the modern enthusiasm for
progress, were predestined to success. The Western Jews, after a
training of eighteen hundred years in the best of schools—the school
of adversity—came forth fully equipped with endowments, moral and
intellectual, which enabled them, as soon as the chance offered, to
conquer a foremost place among the foremost peoples of the world.
Science and art, literature, statesmanship, philosophy, law, medicine,
and music, all owe to the Jewish intellect a debt impossible to
exaggerate. In Germany there is hardly a university not boasting a
professor Hebrew in origin, if not always in religion. Economic
thought and economic practice owe their most daring achievements
to Jewish speculation. Socialism—this latest effort of political
philosophy to reconcile the conflicting interests of society and its
constituent members—is largely the product of the Jewish genius. It
153
would be hard to enumerate individuals, for their name is legion.
But a few will suffice: Lasalle and Karl Marx in economics, Lasker in
politics, Heine and Auerbach in literature, Mendelssohn, Rubenstein
and Joachim in music, Jacoby in mathematics, Traube in medicine;
in psychology Lazarus and Steinthal, in classical scholarship and
comparative philology Benfey and Barnays are some Jewish workers
who have made themselves illustrious. Not only the purse but the
press of Europe is to a great extent in Jewish hands. The people
who control the sinews of war have contributed more than their
share to the arts and sciences which support and embellish peace.
And all this in the course of one brief half-century, and in the face of
the most adverse influences of legislation, of religious feeling and of
social repugnance. History can show no parallel to so glorious a
revolution. Mythology supplies a picture which aptly symbolises it.
Hesiod was not a prophet, yet no prophecy has ever received a
more accurate fulfilment than the poetic conception couched in the
following lines received in the Hebrew Palingenesia:
“Chaos begat Erebos and black Night;
But from Night issued Air and Day.”
 CHAPTER XXI

IN RUSSIA

The one great power in Europe which has refused to follow the new
spirit is Russia. In the middle of the sixteenth century Czar Ivan IV.,
surnamed the Terrible, voiced the feelings of his nation towards the
Jews in his negotiations with Sigismund Augustus, King of Poland.
The latter monarch had inserted in the treaty of peace a clause
providing that the Jews of Lithuania should be permitted to continue
trading freely with the Russian Empire. Ivan answered: “We do not
want these men who have brought us poison for our bodies and
souls; they have sold deadly herbs among us, and blasphemed our
Lord and Saviour.” This speech affords a melancholy insight into the
intellectual condition of the people over whom Ivan held his terrible
sway. Nor can one wonder. Printing had been popular for upwards of
a century in the rest of Europe before a press found its way into the
Muscovite Empire, where it aroused among the natives no less
astonishment and fear than the first sight of a musket did among the
inhabitants of Zululand, and was promptly consigned to the flames
by the priests, as a Satanic invention. Things did not improve during
the succeeding ages. Till the end of the seventeenth century Russia
remained almost as total a stranger to the development of the
Western world and to its nations as Tibet is at the present day.
Venice or Amsterdam loomed immeasurably larger in contemporary
imagination than the vast dominions of the White Czar. British
traders at rare intervals brought from the port of Archangel, along
with their cargoes of furs, strange tales of the snow-clad plains and
sunless forests of those remote regions, and of their savage
inhabitants: of their peculiar customs, their poverty, squalor, and
superstition. And these accounts, corroborated by the even rarer
testimony of diplomatic envoys, who in their books of travel spoke of
princes wallowing in filthy magnificence, of starving peasants, and of
ravening wolves and bears, excited in the Western mind that kind of
wonder, mingled with incredulity, which usually attends the narratives
of travellers in unknown lands.
This home of primordial barbarism was suddenly thrust upon the
attention of the civilised world by the genius of one man. Peter the
Great, a coarse and cruel, but highly gifted barbarian, conceived the
colossal plan of bridging over the gulf that separated his empire from
Western Europe, and of reaching at a single stride the point of
culture towards which others had crept slowly and painfully in the
course of many centuries. It was the conception of a great engineer,
and it required great workmen for its execution. It is, therefore, no
matter for surprise if the work, when the mind and the will of the
original designer were removed, made indifferent progress, if it
remained stationary at times, if it was partially destroyed at others. It
must also be borne in mind that Peter’s dream of a European Russia
was far from being shared by the Russian people. The old Russian
party, which interpreted the feelings of the nation, had no sympathy
with the Emperor’s ambition for a new Russia modelled on a
Western pattern. They wanted to remain Asiatic. And this party found
a leader in Peter’s own son Alexis, who paid for his disloyalty with
his life. The idea for which Alexis and his friends suffered death is
still alive. Opposition to Occidental reform and attachment to Oriental
modes of thought and conduct continue to exercise a powerful
influence in Russian politics. Europe and Asia still fight for
supremacy in the heterogeneous mass which constitutes this hybrid
Empire, and there are those who believe that, although Russia
poses as European in manner, in soul she is an Asiatic power; and
that the time will come when the slender ties which bind her to the
West will be snapped by the greater force of her Eastern affinities.
Whether this view is correct or not the future will show. Our business
is with the past.
The history of the Russian Empire from the seventeenth till the
twentieth century is largely a history of individual emperors, and its
spasmodic character of alternate progress and retrogression is
vividly illustrated by the attitude of those emperors towards their
Jewish subjects. Peter the Great welcomed them, his daughter
Elizabeth expelled them, Catherine II. re-admitted them, Alexander I.
favoured them. No democratic visionary was ever animated by a
loftier enthusiasm for the happiness of mankind than this noble
autocrat. By the Ukase of 1804 all Jews engaged in farming,
manufactures, and handicrafts, or those who had been educated in
Russian schools, were relieved from the exceptional laws against
their race; while special privileges were granted to those who could
show proficiency in the Russian, German, or Polish language. Other
decrees, issued in 1809, ensured to the Jews full freedom of trade.
These concessions, while testifying to the Emperor’s tolerant
wisdom, show the severity of the conditions under which the race
laboured normally. On the partition of Poland the Russian Empire
had received an enormous addition to its Jewish population, and the
Czars, with few exceptions, continued towards it the inhuman policy
already adopted under Casimir the Great’s successors. The Jews
were pent in ghettos, and every care was taken to check their growth
and to hamper their activity. Among other forms of oppression, the
emperors of Russia initiated towards their Jewish subjects a system
analogous to the one formerly enforced by the Sultans of Turkey on
the Christian rayahs: the infamous system of “child-tribute.” Boys of
tender age were torn from their parents and reared in their master’s
faith for the defence of their master’s dominions. Alexander I.
determined to lift this heavy yoke, and, as has been seen, he took
some initial steps towards that end. But, unfortunately, the closing
years of the high-minded idealist’s life witnessed a return to
despotism, and consequently a series of conspiracies, which in their
turn retarded the progress of freedom and hardened the hearts of its
foes.
1825 Alexander’s stern son, Nicholas I., was a
nineteenth century Phalaris. His reign was inaugurated
with an insurrectionary movement, whose failure accelerated the
triumph of the Asiatic ideals in Russian policy. Nicholas, imbued with
a strong antipathy to all that was Occidental, and convinced that the
greatness of Russia abroad depended on tyranny at home, set
himself the task of undoing the little his predecessors had done in