Module 2 - Machining Science and Jigs & Fixtures (21me42)

MACHINING SCIENCE AND JIGS & FIXTURES (IPCC) - 21ME42
MODULE – 2
LESSON CONTENTS:
Mechanics of Metal Cutting:
Single point turning tool geometry (SPTT) influences the chip formation mechanisms of the
Orthogonal and Oblique cutting process.
Cutting Force Analysis (Orthogonal Cutting): Analysis of machining forces and power
requirement, ‘Merchant’s model of Orthogonal Cutting and Theory of Lee & Shaffer’ Chip
Velocity, Velocity relationships (simple numerical); the influence of cutting temperature on
machinability.
Cutting Fluids: Characteristics of Cutting fluids, Selections, and applying methods of cutting
fluids.
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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING
• Metal Cutting is a process of removing (cutting) a layer of material from a metal blank by
means of a tool, which is harder than the metal being cut.
• This process is most important because almost all products get their final shape and size
directly or indirectly by machining.
• Its major drawback is that in this process there is a lot of material lost in the form of chips.
1.2 MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

• A wedge-shaped tool is made to move relative to the workpiece.
• As the tool makes contact with the workpiece it exerts pressure on it resulting in
compression of the metal near the tool tip.
• This induces shear – type deformation within the metal and it starts moving upward along
the face of the tool.
• As the tool advances this process of shearing goes on increasing and material is removed.
1.3 Orthogonal Cutting and Oblique Cutting

The Process of Metal Cutting is classified into two types,
a) Orthogonal Cutting
b) Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting
• It is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel.
• It is also referred as 2-D cutting operation. Only two components of cutting force acts on
the tool and both are perpendicular to each other.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 1

• The chip does not flow to either side, but flows over the tool face.
• The drawback of this type of cutting is shorter tool life.
• This is because, for the same feed and depth of cut, the force which shears the metal acts
on a smaller area thereby reducing the life of cutting tool.
Fig. Orthogonal cutting [2]
Oblique Cutting
• It is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
inclined to the direction of work or tool travel.
• It is also referred as 3-D cutting operation. Three components of cutting force acts at the
cutting edge and they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
• The chip flow across the tool face with a side-ways movement producing a helical form of
chip.
• The chip flow across the tool face with a side-ways movement producing a helical form of
chip.
Fig. Oblique cutting

1.3.1 Comparison between Orthogonal and oblique cutting
Sl. No Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

Cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an angle
1 perpendicular to the direction of tool less than 90o to the direction of tool
travel. travel.
The direction of chip flow is The chip flows on the tool face making
2
perpendicular to the cutting edge. an angle.
3 The chip coils in a tight flat spiral The chip flows sideways in a long curl.
For same feed and depth of cut the
force which shears the metal acts on a The cutting force acts on larger area
4
smaller area. So, the life of the tool is and so tool life is more.
less.
Produces a chamfer at the end of the
5 Produces sharp corners.
cut
For the same depth of cut greater
Smaller length of cutting edge is in
6 length of cutting edge is in contact
contact with the work.
with the work.
Generally parting off in lathe,
This method of cutting is used in
7 broaching and slotting operations are
almost all machining operations.
done in this method.
1.4 Classification of cutting tools

Cutting tools are classified into two types based on the number of cutting edges they possess.
• Single point cutting tool is the simple type consisting of a single effective cutting edge
that removes the excess material from the workpiece. Example: Lathe Tools
(chamfering tool, parting tool, facing tool etc), Shaper Tools, Planar Tools, Boring
Tools etc., are single point cutting tools.
• Multi point cutting tool has more than one cutting edge and includes milling cutters,
drill bit, reamers, broaches, grinding wheel.
1.4.1 Single point cutting tool Nomenclature.

The important nomenclature for a single point turning tool is illustrated in figure., and listed
below.
• Tool Shank is the main body of cutting tool, and is also the part of the tool that gripped
in the tool holder.
• Face is the top surface of the tool over which the chip (cut material) flows during cutting.
Fig. Single point cutting tool Nomenclature.
• Cutting edge is the portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the workpiece.
The total cutting edge of the tool includes,
✓ Side cutting edge is the primary or major cutting edge formed on the side face of
the tool.
✓ End cutting edge is the minor cutting edge formed at the end face of the tool
• Flank is the surface adjacent to, and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a
horizontal position.
• Nose is the tip of the cutting tool and is formed by the intersection of the side cutting
edge and the end cutting edge.
• Nose radius is the radius of the nose of the cutting tool. It is a very important parameter,
since it gives strength to the cutting tip, increases tool life, and gives a fine surface finish
on the workpiece.
1.4.2 Cutting Tool Geometry
The cutting tool can perform its function efficiently, when it is ground to the correct shape and
with correct angles. Tool geometry refers to the various angles provided on the cutting tool.
Figure., below shows a single point cutting tool with various geometric elements marked on it.
• Side cutting edge angle: Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting
edge on the side of tool and the side of the shank (longitudinal axis {z-axis}). It is
responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface.

• Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the
workpiece surface.
Fig. Geometry of single point cutting tool (3-Principal views)
• End cutting edge angle: End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge
and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting
edge and workpiece.
• End relief angle: End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end
flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,
measured at right angles to the flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing
on the workpiece.
• Lip angle: It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank.
Lip angle is maximum when clearance and rake angle are minimum.
• Rake angle is the inclination of the face (top surface) of the tool with respect to the
horizontal reference surface. Rake angle can be zero (neutral), positive or negative as
shown in figure., below.
Fig. Types of rake angle
✓ Back Rake angle: Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point
cutting tool and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane
through the side cutting edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is
negative back rake angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle.
Back rake angle helps in removing the chips away from the workpiece.

✓ Side rake angle: Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined
sideways. Side rake angle is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below
the point and the line down from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of
cutting tool determines the thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided
on tool to provide clearance between workpiece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of
workpiece with end flake of tool.
✓ Zero (neutral) rake angle: When the of the cutting tool is flat or horizontal as shown
in fig. (a) above, the tool is said to contain a zero rake.
✓ Positive rake angle: When the factor of the tool is so ground that it slopes downwards
from the tip of the tool as shown in fig. (b) above, the tool said to contain a positive
rake. Positive rake angle helps in the formation of continuous chip in ductile materials
and contributes in avoiding the formation of built-up-edge chip.
✓ Negative rake angle: When the face of the cutting tool slopes upwards from the tip of
the tool as shown in fig. (c) above, the tool said to contain a negative rake. Cutting tools
with negative rake angle are stronger making them suitable for machining high
strength materials; for taking interrupted cuts, and machining with high feeds.
1.4.3 Designation of Cutting Tools (Tool Signature)
The tool is designated to denote a standardized system of specifying the principal tool angles of a
single point cutting tool. This designation is termed as tool signature.
There are two systems used to designate the cutting tool:
1. ASA- (American Standard Association) System or ANSI (American National Standard

Institute)
2. ORS - (Orthogonal Rake Angle) System
1.4.3.1 ASA- (American Standard Association) System
In the ASA System, the various tool angles are specified independently of the position of the
cutting edge. The three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the
configuration and axis of the machine tool concerned.
Tool signature of a tool as 10,9,6,5,8,7,2mm represents:

a) Back rake angle = 10°
b) Side rake angle = 9°
c) End relief angle = 6°
d) Side relief angle = 5°
e) End cutting edge angle = 8°
f) Side cutting edge angle = 7°
g) Nose radius = 2mm

1.4.3.2 ORS - (Orthogonal Rake Angle) System

In the ORS System, the various tool angles are specified with reference to position of the cutting
edge. The planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration of
cutting tool.
Tool signature of a tool as 5, 10,6,6,5,90,1mm represents:
a) Angle of inclination = 5°
b) Normal rake angle = 10°
c) Side relief angle = 6°
d) End relief angle = 6°
e) End cutting edge angle = 5°
f) Approach angle = 90°
g) Nose radius = 1mm
1.5 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

• When the cutting tool is forced to move against the work piece, the tool exerts a
compressive force on the work piece.
• The material of the work piece is stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform
plastically and shear off.
• The sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of
small pieces called chips.
• Work is done by the tool on the work piece, and more than 90% of the energy is
transformed into heat.
• The heat is concentrated near the tip of the tool, and as a result, in some cases causes the
chips to weld to the cutting tool.
• Hence, the cutting force, heat and wear of the tool form the basic features of the metal
cutting.

Fig. Mechanics of machining
1.6 Mechanics of chip formation (Chip formation process)

In the process of metal cutting, as the cutting tool moves forward, the tool removes the work
piece metal along the shear plane in the form of chips.
Three different types of chips are formed:

a) Continuous chips
b) Continuous chips with built-up-edges (BUE)
c) Discontinuous chips
a) Continuous chips:
• When the work piece material is ductile fracture will not occur in the shear plane, and the
chip comes off in the form of a long string or ribbon like shining surface. These are called
continuous chips. Shown in Fig. a1
• Continuous chips are desirable, as it creates smooth finish on the work piece, absorb less
energy/power, create less machining noise and enhances tool life.
• To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with chip breakers. Shown
in Fig. a2
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of Continuous chip includes:
✓ Work piece material is ductile.

✓ Large rake angle is provided on the tool.
✓ Fine feed and high cutting speeds are selected during cutting.
✓ Efficient coolants are used.

Fig.a1) Continuous Chip Fig.a2) Use of chip breaker
b) Continuous chips with built-up-edges (BUE)
• During machining tough steels such as alloy steels, tool steels etc., larger cutting forces
are required.
• This produces a lot of heat at the tool-work interface.
• The high heat generated causes the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose to get
welded to it in the form of metal lumps.
• The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is called built- up-edge.
• As the chip slides up the tool, the built-up-edge is broken and carried away with the
chip, while rest of it adheres to the surface of the work piece making it rough. Shown in
Fig. b.
• Thus, the formation of BUE must be reduced and this is achieved by circulating a proper
cutting fluid at the cutting zone during machining.
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of built-up-edge includes:

✓ Cutting tool provided with low rake angle.
✓ Low cutting speeds imparted during cutting.
✓ Imparting high depth of cuts
✓ Rough surface of cutting tool
✓ Insufficient circulation of cutting fluid.
Fig. b) Continuous chip with BUE

c) Discontinuous chips
• When cutting brittle materials like Cast iron, bronze etc., the work piece material along
the shear plane will periodically fracture producing a segment of the chip. This type of
chip is called Discontinuous chips. Shown in Fig. c.
• The primary reason for the formation of such chips in brittle materials is the fact that, the
binding strengths for metal grains are not very strong, and as such, the metal easily shears
before it elongates.
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of discontinuous chips includes:
✓ The work piece material is brittle.

✓ Small rake angle is provided on the tool.
✓ Coarse feeds and low speeds are selected during cutting.
Fig. c) Discontinuous chips
1.7 MERCHANT’S MODEL FOR ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

• During metal cutting process, various forces act on the cutting tool and flowing chip.
• It is desirable to know the value of these forces, since it helps to calculate the power
required for operating the machine tool; design and stiffness, etc.; for machine tolerances;
whether the workpiece is capable of withstanding the cutting pressure, and other relevant
information.
• Merchant circle diagram is used to analyse the forces acting in metal cutting.
• The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to occur. Each
system is a triangle of forces.
The relationship among the various forces was established by Merchant

with the following assumptions:
( or Assumptions made in drawing Merchant’s circle:)

✓ The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact between the workpiece and tool flank.
✓ The width of the cutting tool is greater than that of the workpiece.
✓ Only continuous type of chip is produced.
✓ There is no sideways flow of chip.
✓ Cutting velocity remains constant.
✓ The depth of cut is constant.
✓ Inertial forces of the chip are neglected.
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM & ANALYSIS

• Merchant suggested a compact and a convenient way of representing the forces inside a
circle, whose diameter represents the resultant FR of all the various forces acting on the
chip. The resultant diagram is called Merchant’s circle diagram and is shown in figure.
below.
• The relationship between the various forces acting on the cutting tool is derived as follows:
▪ Let α = Rake angle and ɸ = Shear angle
▪ β = Friction angle
▪ 𝐹𝑓 = Frictional force along tool face
▪ 𝐹𝑛 = Normal force to the tool face
▪ Therefore, 𝐹𝑓 = µ 𝐹𝑛 where µ = co-efficient of friction between the tool-chip
interface
▪ 𝐹𝑠 = Shear force
▪ 𝐹𝑛𝑠 = Force normal to the shear force.
▪ 𝐹𝑐 = Horizontal cutting force exerted by the tool on the workpiece.
▪ 𝐹𝑡 = Thrust force, or vertical force.
▪ 𝐹𝑅 = Resultant force acting at the tool cutting edge.
▪ t1 = chip thickness before cutting
▪ t2 = chip thickness after cutting

Fig. a) Merchant’s circle diagram showing various angles
To draw Merchant’s Circle diagram formula for finding angle are given below
To find
Angle AOB =?
Angle ABO = 𝛽
o
Angle BAO = 90
From triangle ABO,
Total angle of triangle ABO = Angle AOB + Angle BAO+ Angle ABO
o o
180 = Angle AOB + 90 +𝛽
o o
180 - 90 − 𝛽 = Angle AOB
o
Angle AOB = 90 −𝛽
To find
Angle BOC = ? From the figure above
Angle BOD = ? o
Angle IOC = 90
From Triangle BOC Angle IOA = 𝛼
o
Angle BOC =? Angle AOB = 90 – β

From the figure above

Angle IOC = Angle IOA + Angle AOB + Angle BOC
⸫ Angle BOC = Angle IOC – (Angle IOA + Angle AOB )
o o
⸫ Angle BOC = 90 – [𝛼 +(90 – β))
o o
⸫ Angle BOC = 90 – 𝛼 − 90 + β
⸫ Angle BOC = 𝛽 − 𝛼
To find
From Figure above
Angle BOD = ? Angle COD = ɸ
From Triangle BOD Angle BOC = 𝛽 − 𝛼
⸫ Angle BOD = Angle COD + Angle BOC
⸫ Angle BOD =ɸ + (𝛽 − 𝛼)
⸫ Angle BOD =ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼
To find 𝑭𝒄 and 𝑭𝒕 :
From triangle BOC,

𝐹𝑐
cos (𝛽 − 𝛼) = ⸫ 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑅 cos (𝛽 − 𝛼) -------[1]
𝐹𝑅
𝐹𝑡
Also, sin (𝛽 − 𝛼) = ⸫ 𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑅 sin (𝛽 − 𝛼) -------[2]
𝐹𝑅
To find 𝑭𝒔 and 𝑭𝒏𝒔 :
From triangle OBD,

𝐹𝑠
cos (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼) = ⸫ 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑅 cos (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼) -------[3]
𝐹𝑅
𝐹𝑛𝑠
Also, sin (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼) = ⸫ 𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑅 sin (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼) -------[4]
𝐹𝑅
To find 𝑭𝒇 and 𝑭𝒏 :
Note: 𝐹𝑓 and 𝐹𝑛 must be expressed in terms of cutting force (𝐹𝑐 ) and thrust force (𝐹𝑡 ).
The Merchants circle diagram is re-constructed as shown in Fig. b)
• Extend the line AB to a short distance.
• From O, draw a line OR parallel to AB. Extend OR to a short distance.
• From point C, draw a line parallel to OA to cut the extended lines at M & N.

Fig. b) Reconstructed Merchant’s circle diagram

To find 𝑭𝒇 :
From the diagram
𝐹𝑓 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑀𝑁 ⸫ 𝐹𝑓 = 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝐶 + 𝐶𝑁 ----------[5]
But MC = ? & CN = ?
To find MC :
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶
From triangle MCO, sin 𝛼 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝐹𝑐
⸫ 𝑀𝐶 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 ------------[6]
To find CN :
𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁
From triangle CNB, cos 𝛼 = =
𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝑡
⸫ 𝐶𝑁 = 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 ------------[7]
Equation [6] and [7] in [5] gives,
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 ------------[8]
To find 𝑭𝒏 :

Now, from the diagram
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝑅 or ⸫ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝑀 − 𝑀𝑅 ----------[9]
But OM = ? & MR = ?
𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝑀
From triangle OMC, cos 𝛼 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝐹𝑐
⸫ 𝑂𝑀 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 -----------[10]
To find MR : From figure MR =NB

𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐵
From triangle CNB, sin 𝛼 = =
𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝑡
⸫ 𝑁𝐵 = 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 [MR =NB]
⸫ 𝑀𝑅 = 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 ------------[11]
Equation [11] and [10] in [9] gives,
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 ------------[12]
To calculate co-efficient of friction (µ)

𝐹𝑓
w.k.t 𝐹𝑓 = µ 𝐹𝑛 ⸫ µ= -----------[13]
𝐹𝑛
Substituting [12] and [8] in [13], we get

𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼+𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
µ=
𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼−𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼
Thus the Merchant’s diagram helps to calculate all the forces involved in metal cutting.
Summarizing the results, we have the following.
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑅 cos (𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑅 sin (𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑅 cos (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑅 sin (ɸ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼

𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
µ= =
𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼
1.8 SHEAR ANGLE

▪ Shear angle is the inclination of the shear plane with respect to the direction of tool travel
or from the direction of the cutting velocity as shown in figure below.
▪ A higher shear angle results in a smaller shear plane area.
▪ Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required to form the
chip will decrease when the shear plane area is decreased.
▪ This tends to make machining easier to perform, and also lower cutting energy and
cutting temperature.
▪ The shear angle can be increased by increasing the tool rake angle.
▪ However, the effects of increasing rake angle must be considered accordingly.
▪ Shear angle thus forms a complex parameter in metal cutting operations
Shear angle (ɸ) relationship in terms of chip thickness ratio (r) and rake angle (α)
Consider the chip formation process as shown in figure below. The various angles are marked
thereon.
Fig. Chip formation processes

In fugure above to find Angle OMN =?

From Triangle OMN
o
Angle ONM = 90
Angle NOM = α
o
Total angle of Triangle OMN = Angle OMN + 90 + α
o o
180 = Angle OMN + 90 + α
o
Angle OMN = 90 - α
From Triangle AOB; Angle AOB = ɸ ; ⸫ Angle OAM = ɸ
In fIgure above to find Angle PAM=?

From Triangle PAM
o
Angle APM = 90
o
Angle AMP = 90 – α
o o
Total angle Triangle PAM = Angle PAM + 90 + (90 – α)
o o o
180 = Angle PAM + 90 + 90 – α
Angle PAM = α
Let
▪ t1 = chip thickness before cutting
▪ t2 = chip thickness after cutting
The initial feed given during machining is taken as chip thickness before cutting)
▪ α = Rake angle
▪ ɸ = Shear angle
𝑡1
r = Chip thickness ratio = < 1 ------- [1]
𝑡2
From triangle OAB,
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝑡1
sin ɸ = ⸫ 𝐴𝑂 = = ------[2]
𝐴𝑂 sin ɸ sin ɸ
From triangle PAO,

𝐴𝑃 𝑡2 𝑡2
cos (ɸ − α) = = ⸫ 𝐴𝑂 = ------[3]
𝐴𝑂 𝐴𝑂 cos (ɸ−α)
From equation [2] and [3], we have

𝑡1 𝑡2
𝐴𝑂 = =
sin ɸ cos (ɸ − α)

𝑡1 sin ɸ
= ---------[4]
𝑡2 cos (ɸ−α)
But from equation[1]

𝑡1
= 𝑟 = 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑡2
sin ɸ
⸫ equation [4] becomes, 𝑟 =
cos (ɸ−α)
w.k.t. cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴. cos 𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴. sin 𝐵

sin ɸ
⸫𝑟= ---------[5]
cos ɸ.cos 𝛼 + sinɸ.sinα
Divide both sides of equation [5] by r, we have,
𝑟 sin ɸ
=
𝑟 𝑟. (cos ɸ. cos 𝛼 + sinɸ. sinα)
sin ɸ
1=
sinɸ. sinα
𝑟. cos ɸ. (cos 𝛼 + )
cos ɸ.
sin ɸ
1=
𝑟. cos ɸ. (cos 𝛼 + sinα. tanɸ)
tan ɸ
1=
𝑟. (cos 𝛼 + sinα. tanɸ)
tanɸ = 𝑟. cos α + r. sinα. tan ɸ
tanɸ (1 − r. sinα) = 𝑟. cos α

𝑟.cos α
tanɸ = (1−r.sinα) ---------[6]
Equation [6] gives the relationship between shear angle (ɸ), rake angle (α) and chip thickness
ratio (r)
1.9 IMPORTANT RELATIONS

Following are a few important parameters in metal cutting
a) Chip thickness ratio (r)

The ratio of uncut chip thickness (chip thickness before cutting t1) to chip thickness after
cutting (t2)
𝑡1
𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 =
𝑡2
In orthogonal cutting, the width of chip equals the width of cut. Assuming specific
gravityof metal to be constant, the volume of chip produced will be equal to the volume
of metal cut.
[width . t1 . L1 = width. t2 . L2]
i.e., t1 L1 = t2 L2
𝑡1 𝐿2
=
𝑡2 𝐿1
𝑡1 𝐿2
𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 = =
𝑡2 𝐿1
Where L1 = length of metal cut (uncut chip length before cutting)
L2 = length of chip (chip length after cutting)
b) Chip reduction coefficient (k)
Chip reduction coefficient is the inverse of chip thickness ratio.
1
i.e., 𝑘 =
𝑟
c) Power consumed (P) in turning
The power consumed by a single point cutting tool to remove excess material from the
workpiece depends on the cutting force (𝐹𝑐 ) and cutting velocity (VC)
(𝐹𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝐶 )
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = ( 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑘𝑊)
60 ∗ 1000
d) Specific cutting energy (PS)
Specific energy is the power consumption per unit volume of material removed. This
parameter is essential to determine the size of the driving motor in the machine tool.
𝐹𝑐
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑏 .𝑓
Where, b = depth of cut (𝒅𝒄 ) or width of cut(mm), f = tool feed (mm/rev) and cutting force (𝐹𝑐 )

1.10 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS IN METAL CUTTING

Problem 1 Derive an expression for horizontal cutting force in terms of shear force, rake angle,
friction angle and shear plane angle in an orthogonal cutting process
Numerical Problems solving in Lecture hours, and attached in separate pdf files.
3.8 CUTTING FLUIDS

• During metal cutting, as the cutting tool slides on the workpiece material, heat is generated
due to the friction between the tool and the workpiece material. Also, as the chip slides
up the tool face, heat is generated due to friction at the contact points between the chip
and the tool face.
• The excessive heat thus generated can damage the microstructure of both the cutting
tool and the workpiece. Also, the life of the cutting tool reduces at higher temperatures.
In order to reduce the effects of friction or heat generated, cutting fluids are used.
• A cutting fluid or a coolant is a liquid, added to the cutting zone, in order to reduce the
effects of friction between the tool-work and tool-chip interface by way of cooling and
lubrication.
The Functions of a cutting fluid
A cutting fluid performs the following functions:
a) Controls the temperature at the cutting zone through cooling and lubrication,
which in turn helps in decreasing tool wear and extending tool life.
b) Cooling and lubricating action of cutting fluid helps in achieving the desired size,
shape and finish of the work-piece. The removal of heat by the cutting fluid
prevents the workpiece from expanding during the machining operation. which
would otherwise cause size variation as well as damage to the materials
microstructure. Also, proper use of coolants can make higher metal removal
rates possible.
c) Cutting fluid helps to flush away the chips and metal fines from the cutting zone thereby
preventing the tool and the finish of the work surface from becoming marred and
occurrence of built-up-edge (BUE)
3.8.1 The Properties of Cutting Fluids
A cutting fluid should possess the following properties for efficient machining of work
parts:.
a) High specific heat & High thermal conductivity, so that maximum heat will be
absorbed and removed per unit of fluid volume circulated.

b) Good lubricating property so that a strong protective film between the tool face and
the workpiece metal can exist. Such a film assists the chip in sliding easily over
the tool face. Besides reducing heat, a good lubricating fluid lowers power
requirements and reduces the rate of tool wear, particularly in machining tough
and ductile metals.
c) Non-corrosive, in order to avoid damage to the workpiece and the machine parts.
d) Non-toxic and odourless, in order to provide better working conditions to human
operators.
e) A cutting fluid should have a high flash point* to avoid problems associated with
heat damage, production of smoke, or fluid ignition.
f) Low viscosity, for easy circulation. Low viscosity fluids also allow grit and dirt to
settle out of suspension and helps for easy re-circulation through the machining
system.
g) Highly stable, in order to resist its decomposition during its storage and use.
h) In some operations, fluid transparency may be a desired characteristic for a cutting
fluid. Transparent fluids allow operators to see the work area more clearly during
machining operations.
[* Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the oil gives off sufficient vapour so as to
produce a flash when an open flame is brought in contact with the oil. It is an important
property, especially in those applications where the oil is exposed to high temperatures,
Theflash point of any oil must be higher than the temperature at which it is put into use.]
3.9 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

All cutting fluids can be categorized into groups, based on their oil content as listed as listed:
1) Oil based fluids

a. Straight oils and
b. Soluble oils
2) Chemical fluids
a. Synthetic oils and
b. Semi-synthetic oils
3.9.1 OIL- BASED CUTTIN FLUIDS
• Oil based Cutting Fluids oil-based cutting fluids consist of a diverse range of oil mixtures
with various additives and compounds to give the required properties to the cutting fluids.
• Oil-based fluids include straight oil and soluble oils.
3.9.1.1 Straight Oils

• Straight cutting oils (or Neat oils) are so called because they do not contain water. The
cutting fluid is composed of 100% petroleum oil or mineral oil along with some lubricants

such as fats, vegetable oil & esters, as well as extreme pressure (EP) additives in order to
improve specific properties.
• Generally, additives are not required for light duty machining operations, however, for
severe machining operation, where heavy cuts are to be taken, and machining hard
materials like titanium, stainless steel etc., EP additives such as sulfur, chlorine or
phosphorous compounds are often used.
• These additives improve the lubricating and wettability property; that is, the ability of the
oil to coat the cutting tool, workpiece and the chips.
Advantages of Straight Oils
l) Provides excellent lubricating property between the workpiece and cutting tool.
2) Tool life can be increased.
3) Good rust protection.
4) Easy maintenance.
5) Absence of water eliminates bacterial development and odour problems.
Disadvantages of Straight Oils
1) Costlier.
2) Poor heat dissipating properties.
3) Increased fire risk, and hence its use is limited to low-temperature and low-pressure
operations.
Applications of Straight Oils
• Used in severe cutting operations such as crush grinding, tapping, broaching, deep-hole
drilling, and for cutting difficult-to-cut materials like stainless steel, titanium, etc.
3.9.1.2 Soluble Oils
• Soluble oils, also referred as Emulsions, Emulsifiable oils or Water-soluble oils, are
generally comprised of 60 - 90 % petroleum or mineral oil, emulsifiers* and other
extreme pressure (EP) additives.
• Use of soluble oils for a particular application depends on the concentration of water and
oil. Lean concentrations containing more water and less oil provide better cooling, but
less lubrication.
• On the other hand, rich concentrations containing less water and more oil provide better
lubrication qualities, but poor cooling.
Advantages of Soluble Oils

1) Good lubrication capability.

2) Suitable for light and medium duty operations involving both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals.
3) Concentration of oil can be varied for heavy-duty applications.
4) Least expensive among all the cutting fluids
[* Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it is suspended in water in the form of globules.
Braking the oil into tiny particles is done by a chemical known as emulsifier. This medium of oil
in water is known as emulsion.]
Disadvantages of Soluble Oils

1) Presence of water makes the oil more susceptible to corrosion, bacterial growth and
odourness.
2) Maintenance cost to retain the desired properties of the oil is relatively high. 3) Not
suitable for high tensile or stainless steel alloys.
Applications of Soluble Oils

• Soluble Oil is suitable for general purpose cutting operations on low and medium tensile
steels, free machining of brass bronze and cast iron.
• It may also be used as a grinding fluid in non-critical applications, however it is not
suitable for high tensile or stainless steel or nickel alloys.
3.9.2 CHEMICAL CUTTING FLUIDS

• Chemical cutting fluids contain little or no oil with pre-concentrated emulsions and few
extreme pressure (EP) additives.
• They have been widely accepted by the industry since its first introduction. Chemical
cutting fluids include synthetic and semi-synthetic type, and are discussed briefly as
follows.
3.9.2.1 Synthetic Oils

• Synthetic oils generally consist of chemical lubricants and rust inhibitors dissolved in
water.
• Emulsifiers can be added to create lubrication properties similar to soluble oils, allowing
the fluid to act as a lubricant and coolant in heavy duty machining operations.
• The various synthetic chemicals found in this type of oil include:
a) Amines and nitrates for rust prevention
b) Phosphates and borates for water softening
c) Soaps and wetting agents for lubrication.
d) Glycols to act as blending agents.
e) Biocides to control bacterial growth.

Advantages of Synthetic Oils

1) Good corrosion control.
2) Superior cooling properties.
3) Greater stability when mixed with hard water.
4) Can be stored for long periods of time without any problems.
5) Easy maintenance
Disadvantages of Synthetic Oils

1) Synthetic coolants have a tendency to foam. If the rate of coolant flow for a particular
application is high, excessive foaming can be caused, resulting in poor surface finish and
reduced tool life.
2) Lubricating property is not satisfactory.
3) Ingredients added to enhance the lubricating property can result in component rusting and
leave gummy residues on the machine system.
4) Synthetic fluids are easily contaminated by other machine fluids like lubricating oils, and
hence need to be monitored and maintained so that it can be used effectively.
Applications of Synthetic Oils

• Used in grinding carbide tools with diamond wheels, ordinary commercial grinding
where finish is not very critical, in some CNC machines where stock removal is low, etc.
3.9.2.2 Semi-synthetic Oil
• Semi-synthetic oils, also referred to as semi-chemical fluids are a combination of mineral

oil in small amounts varying from 20 - 30 % in a water-dilutable concentrate and certain
synthetic chemicals.
• The synthetic chemicals consists mainly emulsifiers and water; wetting agents, corrosion
inhibitors and biocide additives. Since this type of oil includes both constituents Of
synthetic and soluble oils, they possess properties common to both the types of oils.
Advantages of Semi-synthetic oils
1) Better cooling and wettability properties.

2) Can be used for heavy-duty operations.
3) Lower viscosity of oil helps easy re-circulation of the fluid.
4) Generates less smoke & provides better control over bacterial growth. Oil can thus be
stored for appreciable length of time.
5) Good corrosion protection.
Disadvantages of Semi-synthetic oils
1) Water hardness affects the stability of semi-synthetic oils.

2) They easily foam.

3) Lubricating property is not satisfactory.
Applications of Semi-synthetic oils

• Used in general purpose machining operations, cylindrical and centerless grinding
operations where very high surface finishes are not required
3.10 SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
• Choosing a right cutting fluid for a particular operation is very difficult and time consuming.
• For instance, in high-speed cutting operations such as turning, milling etc.. the tool-work
interface is stnall, and extensive heat is generated due to friction between the tool and the
workpiece.
• In such operations, cooling characteristic of the cutting fluid is very important. Conversely,
in low-speed operations such as broaching, threading, tapping etc., lubricity is more
important, since it tends to reduce the formation of built-up-edge and improve surfice finish
of the workpiece. Also, the type of workpiece material plays a important role in selection of
cutting fluid.
• Following are a few factors to be considered when selecting a cutting fluid:
1) Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut selected.
2) Type, hardness and microstructure of the workpiece material being machined.
3) Operating temperature range.
4) Cost and life expectancy of fluid.
5) Fluid compatibility with workpiece and machine components.
6) Ease of storage and handling while in use.
7) Ease of fluid recycling or disposal.
8) Shelf-life required.
3.10. 1 Methods of Applying Cutting fluid
Apart from selecting the right cutting fluid, it is also important to choose a proper method of
circulating the fluid to the cutting zone. The principal methods of applying the cutting fluid
include:
1) Flood application of fluid

A flood of cutting fluid is delivered to the cutting zone by means of a pipe, hose, or
nozzle system.
2) Jet application of fluid

A jet of cutting fluid is directed to the cutting zone.
3) Mist (spray) application of fluid

The cutting fluid is atomized by a jet of air, and the mist is directed to the cutting zone.
In certain machining operations like drilling deep holes, or machining ultra-tough materials, it is
very difficult to circulate the cutting fluid into the cutting zone. In such cases, the cutting fluid is
supplied through the tool by drilling small holes in the tool.
REFERENCES:
1. Shaw, M C, (2014), Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press.
2. McGeough, J A, (1988), Advanced Methods of Machining, Springer.
3. Boothroyd, G., and Knight, W. A., Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools,
CRC Press.
4. Chattopadhyay, A B, (2013), Machining and Machine Tools, Wiley India.
5. Mikell P. Groover, (2019), Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,

Processes, and Systems, Wiley Publications.
6. Rao P. N., Manufacturing Technology II, Tata McGraw Hill.
7. A text book of “Manufacturing Cutting & Forming” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi

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MACHINING SCIENCE AND JIGS & FIXTURES (IPCC) - 21ME42

1.2 MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

1.3 Orthogonal Cutting and Oblique Cutting

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 1

Fig. Orthogonal cutting [2]

Fig. Oblique cutting

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 2

1.3.1 Comparison between Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Sl. No Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

1.4 Classification of cutting tools

1.4.1 Single point cutting tool Nomenclature.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 3

Fig. Single point cutting tool Nomenclature.

1.4.2 Cutting Tool Geometry

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 4

Fig. Geometry of single point cutting tool (3-Principal views)

Fig. Types of rake angle

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 5

1.4.3 Designation of Cutting Tools (Tool Signature)

There are two systems used to designate the cutting tool:

1. ASA- (American Standard Association) System or ANSI (American National Standard

1.4.3.1 ASA- (American Standard Association) System

Tool signature of a tool as 10,9,6,5,8,7,2mm represents:

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 6

1.4.3.2 ORS - (Orthogonal Rake Angle) System

Tool signature of a tool as 5, 10,6,6,5,90,1mm represents:

1.5 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 7

Fig. Mechanics of machining

1.6 Mechanics of chip formation (Chip formation process)

Three different types of chips are formed:

✓ Work piece material is ductile.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 8

Fig.a1) Continuous Chip Fig.a2) Use of chip breaker

b) Continuous chips with built-up-edges (BUE)

The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of built-up-edge includes:

Fig. b) Continuous chip with BUE

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 9

✓ The work piece material is brittle.

Fig. c) Discontinuous chips

1.7 MERCHANT’S MODEL FOR ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

The relationship among the various forces was established by Merchant

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 10

MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM & ANALYSIS

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 11

Fig. a) Merchant’s circle diagram showing various angles

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 12

From the figure above

From triangle BOC,

To find 𝑭𝒔 and 𝑭𝒏𝒔 :

From triangle OBD,

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 13

Fig. b) Reconstructed Merchant’s circle diagram

From the diagram

Equation [6] and [7] in [5] gives,

𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 ------------[8]

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE, Moodabidri Page 14

Now, from the diagram

To find MR : From figure MR =NB