Inquiry and Action Research Module-1

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING
INQUIRY AND ACTION RESEARCH FOR

EARLY GRADE, UPPER PRIMARY AND
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
Written by:
Theophilus Andoh
Seyram Dusu
Opoku Adusei
Edited by:
Prof. Samuel Asare Amoah, PhD.
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COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT 1: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH
UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: RESEARCH
SECTION 2: ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 3: TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 4: ACTION RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES
SECTION 5: KEY PRINCIPLES OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 6: THE ACTION RESEARCH MODEL
UNIT 2 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM
SECTION 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
SECTION 3: PLANNING THE INTERVENTION ACTIVITIES
SECTION 4: PLANNING FOR DATA COLLECTION
SECTION 5: PLANNING THE INTERVENTION
SECTION 6: MONITORING THE INTERVENTION ACTIVITIES
UNIT 3: DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: GENERAL DATA COLLECTION METHOD
SECTION 2: OBSERVATION
SECTION 3: INTERVIEW
SECTION 4: QUESTIONNAIRES
SECTION 5: RATING SCALES/CHECKLISTS
SECTION 6: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
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UNIT 4: DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: DATA ANALYSIS AND PREPARATION OF THE DATA

SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
SECTION 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
SECTION 4: MEASURES OF VARIABILITY (DISPERSION)
SECTION 5: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
UNIT 5: WRITING ACTION RESEARCH REPORT

UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: PRELIMINARY PAGES

SECTION 2: CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
SECTION 3: CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
SECTION 4: CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
SECTION 5: CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND
DISCUSSION
SECTION 6: CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
UNIT 6: CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH

UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: THE ROLE OF ACTION RESEARCHER
SECTION 2: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 3: STRENGTHS OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 4: LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 5: SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE ACTION RESEARCH
PRACTICES
SECTION 6: PROPOSAL FOR ACTION RESEARCH
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COURSE INTRODUCTION:
Hello learner, you are cordially welcome to this course, which is well structured to furnish
you with the required learning experiences you need to effectively write your action research
project work. The course book “Inquiry and Action Research for Early Grade, Upper
Primary and Junior High Schools” is designed to give you (student-teachers) the
opportunity to identify, diagnose and justify a problem in the classroom context and
introduce some intervention(s) to improve teaching and learning. The point of emphasis is
that you (student-teachers) are expected to propose an intervention to address the identified
problem. You will employ a scientific approach to address and report on the problem.
Further, the course will assist you to understand and use appropriate data collection
procedures to obtain credible information, and to analyse data. You will also be exposed to
issues that relate to action research and the role of the action researcher. The course will also
expose student teachers to the various stages of writing an action research report. It is our
hope that you will find this material very useful as you study this course.
Objectives
By the end of this course, you will be able to:
• Explain research, action research, and types of action research.

• Describe action research as a disciplined inquiry, as reflective practice, and as
bridging the gap between research and practice.
• Discuss the need for action research and the key principles of action research.
• Outline the processes involved in conducting action research in inclusive and
multigrade classroom.
• Discuss the procedures and methods in data collection when conducting action
research.
• Demonstrate how to analyse data in action research.
• Discuss the procedures for writing an action research project.
• Discuss the critical issues to be considered in conducting action research.
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UNIT 1: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH
Unit Outline
Section 1: Research
Section 2: Action Research
Section 3: Types of Action Research
Section 4: Action Research Perspectives
Section 5: Key Principles of Action Research
Section 6: The Action Research Model
Introduction
You are welcome to unit one of inquiry and action research. The unit exposes you to the
meaning of research, importance of research, kinds of research, action research, and types
of action research. Also, the concept of action research as a disciplined inquiry, as reflective
practice, and as bridging the gap between research and practice shall be explained. Finally,
the lesson will discuss the need for action research and the key principles of action research.
The purpose of this lesson is to expose you (student teacher) to action research, and types of
action research. The lesson will further seek to expose student teachers to the characteristics
of action research.
Unit Learning Indicators

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain research
2. Explain action research
3. Describe types of action research
4. Describe action research as a disciplined inquiry, as reflective practice, and as
bridging the gap between research and practice
5. Discuss the need for action research and the key principles of action research.
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Unit 1 SECTION 1: MEANING OF RESEARCH
Introduction
Dear learner, this session introduces you to the concept of research, its importance and types.
This will give you a solid foundation to the understanding of the entire course. It explains
what is meant by research in a scholarly sense. It also explains the role of research in
education and the various types of the research in education.
Learning outcomes
By going through this section you will demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
research, its importance and types
Indicators:
By the end of the session, you will be able to:
1. Explain research
2. Discuss the importance of research
3. Describe types of research
Now read for further explanations
What is research?
Before we delve into what action research really is, let’s examine what we mean by research
in general. The word research has been defined in various ways by many writers. According
to Polit and Beck (2014), research is a systematic investigation that use disciplined
methodologies and a sequence of steps to collect and evaluate information in order to expand
our understanding of a topic or issue, answer questions, or solve problems. Consequently,
there are processes for conducting research. Leedy and Ormrod (2015) also defined research
as the systematic process of collecting, evaluating, and interpreting information — data —
to expand our understanding of a phenomenon that is of interests or concerns us.
From the above definitions, it is clear that a systematic approach and scientific technique are
required to find solutions to countless difficulties or issues or answers to questions that
confront us in education, school, or the classroom and for which we may need to have a
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thorough understanding. I believe at this point you have some idea with regard to what
research is about. This makes research important in every establishment especially in
education and for teachers in particular. Read on to find out more about why research is
important…….
Importance of Research
Research is necessary in all parts of human endeavours, including education. The
significance of research can be viewed from the following perspectives: expanding our
knowledge, improving practise, and informing policy debate. Read on for the explanation.
Research Adds to our Knowledge

When we say that research adds to our knowledge, we imply that educators conduct research
to add to the current body of knowledge about a topic. With the current educational issues
such as inadequate school infrastructure, implementation of the new curriculum, free senior
high school education, examination malpractices, etc., it is necessary for teachers to conduct
research so that we can gain a better understanding of them and find solutions to some of the
problems. In this manner, researchers share their understanding of problems of relevance.
Again, a research report might provide a study that has not been conducted and thereby fill
a gap in existing knowledge. It might also provide new results to validate or refute the
findings of previous research.
Research Improves Practice

We cannot continue to do the same thing in the same way and expect different outcomes.
This emphasises the significance of research, which can then suggest improvements for
practise. Teachers and other educators become more effective when equipped with study
findings. This effectiveness results in enhanced learning and performance for teachers,
researchers, students and significant others. Through research, professionals working in
teacher education programmes in colleges of education, universities now have a greater
understanding of what goes into educating teachers than they had twenty years ago. Today's
teacher educators are aware of the academic skills of students, the characteristics of
successful teacher training programmes, the recurring patterns in teacher training
programmes, the need to question student beliefs and worldviews, and the institutional
difficulties they face. Before these research findings can influence teacher training or any
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other aspect of education, individuals in educational settings must be aware of the findings
of investigations, understand how to read research studies, identify relevant conclusions, and
apply the findings to their own unique situations. Educators and stakeholders that utilise
research findings may be include; elementary and secondary school teachers, district,
regional, and national education officers, school psychologists, and counsellors working
with children with behaviour problems. Research may also assist these individuals in
enhancing their professional practises. Educators and stakeholders can learn about
innovative techniques that have been tried in other places or situations by reading research
reports.
Research Informs Policy Debates

Research offers policymakers with information as they investigate and debate educational
matters. Policymakers may include government officials, and state employees, as well as
local school board members and administrators. Research findings support
educators/stakeholders to discuss and take stances on educational problems that are
significant to diverse locations. For these persons, research provides information that can
assist them in weighing diverse views. When policymakers examine research on a subject,
they become aware of current discussions and the positions of other public officials.
Types of Research
Research can be classified into different types. These are basic and applied research. These
classifications may depend on the goals, methods of investigation, kind of evidence and
analysis used. As far as this course is concerned, research will be looked at based on the
goals of the particular investigation and the use to be made of it.
Basic Research
This type of research, also known as pure research, focuses on gathering empirical data that
can be used to develop, expand, or evaluate theory. The objective of basic research is to
generate fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding of fundamental human and
natural phenomena. Generally, the most rigorous research methodologies are used to
conduct fundamental research (e.g., experimental). The primary objective of basic research
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is to establish a firm foundation of trustworthy and fundamental information and theory upon
which future research can be conducted.
Applied Research
This is the application of basic research theories and principles to educational problems. It
is research conducted in response to genuine problems that arise in the field and under
situations where they are encountered in practise. Applied research focuses on providing
relatively immediate answers to practical, real-world concerns. Applied research is
frequently prompted by contemporary issues in education and is frequently undertaken in
more natural settings. Applied research frequently results in the creation of interventions and
programmes designed to improve educational problems. There are three subcategories of
applied research: action research, evaluation research, and research and development. And
these are briefly explained as follows.
Action Research
Action research focuses on addressing specific issues confronted by local practitioners in
schools and communities (Stringer, 2014). It considers your classroom or other place of
work as a research environment. Action research is founded on the notion that a "researcher
attitude" is useful while exploring environments that are complicated and constantly
changing. This attitude entails continually finding new problems you wish to address and
experimenting with new techniques and activities to determine if they improve your
situation. Numerous practitioners find action research beneficial because it facilitates the
integration of theory and research into practise.
Evaluation Research
When interventions and social or educational programmes aimed at reducing a variety of
conditions are undertaken, evaluation research is frequently conducted to establish how
effectively the programmes work in real-world contexts and to demonstrate how they could
be improved. Specifically, evaluation research entails determining the value, merit, or
quality of an evaluation item, such as an educational programme. Evaluation needs
evaluators to make value judgements about evaluation objects (e.g., Programme XYZ is a
good programme, and it should be continued; Programme ABC is a bad programme, and it
should be discontinued).
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Research and Development
This entails developing and evaluating curricula, methods, and materials to ensure that
educational products and practises are as effective as possible. Institutions that are required
to produce school curricula evaluate curricular materials in schools as a kind of evaluation.
Summary
In this session you have learnt about the meaning of research. We also discussed how
research is important as well as types of research and their focus. We believe you have
enjoyed the above discussions and understand what the content is about. Try your hands on
the following self-assessment questions.
Activity 1.1
1. Which of following statements best describes research?
a) Collecting, analysing, and interpreting information
b) Gathering information
c) Rummaging around for hard-to-locate information
d) Transporting facts from one location to another
2. An early grade teacher reads a research study to locate useful conclusions from them,
and then applied the findings to her own unique situation. Which of the following
describes her action……………………….
a) adding to knowledge
b) improving methodology
c) improving practice
d) informing policy debate
3. Under which of the following types of research can action research best fit?
A) Applied research
B) Basic research
C) Children’s research
D) Institutional research
Question for reflection

Discuss any three reasons why research is important in education.
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UNIT 1 SECTION 2: ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
You are welcome to session two of unit 1. We hope you remember that in section one of this
unit we discussed the meaning of research, importance of research and types of research. We
believe that it has given you the idea and provided you with the understanding of this section.
This section takes us to main issue as far as this course is concerned, inquiry and action
research. You will therefore get to know about the meaning and the characteristics of action
research. I am sure you are anxious to know…………………………..
Learning outcome
Upon successful completion of this section, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of action research and its characteristics.
Learning Indicators:
By the end of the section, you will be able to:
1. explain action research.
2. describe the characteristics of action research.
Action Research in the Classroom

Action research is the reflection one one’s practice (teaching) individually or in groups and
developing and implementing approaches (intervention) that will lead to the solution of a
problem or improving the quality of one’s practice. Put simply, action research involves the
introduction of an intervention to bring about a desired change. If we want to bring about a
change, we must replace the old. Whatever we put in place to bring about the change is the
intervention. And this is unique for action research.
Action research is usually thought of as an investigation that educators do in their own
classrooms to improve their teaching and help their students learn more. In action research,
teachers and other school staff act as researchers and examine their own classroom and
school practises. Because the research is done by educators at their own workplaces, it could
lead to changes quickly. Teachers are always looking for ways to improve the way they
teach. The important thing about this research is that it has the power to make big changes
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in the quality of teachers and the way teaching and learning are done in schools as a whole.
The goal is to help teachers get better at what they do and grow as professionals by helping
them understand their students, solve problems, or learn new skills. So, educators try to
improve their work by studying problems or issues they face. They think about these
problems, collect and analyse data, and then make changes based on what they find. From
what has been said about action research, it seems that it is research with the goal of taking
action.
Characteristics of Action Research
Kemmis and Wilkinson (1998) in summarizing the rationale underlying the action research
model described six characteristics of action research as follows:
• Action research is a social process: It specifically examines how the social and
individual worlds relate to one another. In other words, the research method should
be accountable to the people it examines, rather than just advancing the researcher's
knowledge. Researchers should think about the process and results of their research
in terms of how it affects society.
• Action research is participatory: It encourages individuals to think about their own
knowledge (understanding, skills, and values) and interpretative categories (the way
they interpret themselves and their actions in the social and material world). Students
can take part in actual research projects, and the knowledge they gain will help them
make personal and group decisions about what to do.
• Action research is collaborative and practical: It makes people think about the
things they do that connect them to other people. Students and adults can work
together to solve real problems in ways that are helpful for both groups and for
learning. Students benefit from developing teamwork skills.
• Action research is emancipatory: It seeks to assist individuals in overcoming and
liberating themselves from the limitations of illogical, fruitless, unfair, and
unsatisfying social systems that restrict their capacity for self-development and self-
determination. Research can become more accessible and possibly more accountable
to the public by being made less complex. Students require assurance that they can
conduct thorough independent research to provide reliable knowledge.
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• Action research is critical: Researchers should reflect upon the process of
generation of knowledge as well as on the outcomes of their research. The research
should be reflexive. It should demonstrate the reflectivity that it encourages in others.
• It is recursive (Reflexive, and dialectical): It aims to assist individuals to look into
reality in order to change it and change reality in order to understand it. In particular,
it wants to help people learn more about (and theorise) their practises, the social
structures that limit their practises, and the social media they use to express and live
out their practises. Students can become more critical of the findings and results of
other people's research if they do their own research. When students know more
about the world around them, they can find useful solutions to the problems that
affect their lives.
• Action research involve people to theorise about their practice.
• Action research is small-scale research.
• Action research allows us to build records of improvement.
• Action research is situational.
• Findings are applied immediately or in short term.
• It entails step by step process with intervention built into the process.
• It is flexible and adaptable.
Well, you can now explain what is meant by action research to your colleague. Go through
the following self-assessment to refresh your mind on section 2.
Activity 1.2
1. Explain what is meant by action research?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Describe any four characteristics of action research?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
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UNIT 1 SECTION 3: TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
You are welcome to this section. We hope you now have firm grasp about what action
research really is. In this section we will discuss action research designs, our discussion will
focus on the four main types of action research. Read on for the descriptions of these types:
Learning outcome
After going through this section, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of various types of action research.
Learning indicators:
a) Describe individual research
b) Describe collaborative research
c) Describe School-wide research
d) Describe District-wide research
Individual action research

This type of research is conducted within the classroom by a single teacher. It is intended to
analyse and reform a single specified task. A teacher might utilise his or her own personal
experience to devise ways for overcoming teaching or student performance weaknesses.
Individual action research occurs, for example, when a teacher adopts a peer tutoring
approach for a month and then analyses the results to determine the method's usefulness.
Classroom management, the application of instructional strategies, the usage of teaching
resources, and resolving the academic challenges of students are examples of problems that
a teacher may encounter during ordinary classroom instruction. Individual teacher research
is when a teacher focuses on investigating a specific topic or issue and independently seeks
a solution to that problem, with or without the cooperation of colleagues or administrators.
Collaborative action research

In collaborative action research, more than one person looks into a certain topic. Participants
in collaborative action research are encouraged to question one another's assumptions
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(Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988). A new technique is designed to generate solutions from a
group of individuals. This study is frequently more beneficial than individual research
because it requires the involvement of numerous individuals (VanBaren, 2019). A problem
or difficulty in the classroom that is shared by a group of teachers is addressed and
emphasised (Lesha, 2014). This research promotes a collaborative effort and action among
teachers to resolve a specific issue. Individuals from outside the school, such as a university
or community partner, may provide assistance to these educators (Ferrance, 2000). The
teachers can approach the problem in a variety of ways, such as all the co-teachers of one
classroom focusing on a specific group of students, teachers working together to resolve the
grade issue of a specific class, testing an instructional practise with educational agency or
university personnel, and a group of teachers from the same institution examining the same
instructional concern, among others.
One interesting thing about this is that it works best when individual teachers work together
and respect each other's expertise. It makes teachers more committed and helps them develop
intellectual perseverance. This helps the teaching and learning process grow in a way that
will last. Sharing their ideas with each other helped them learn to make smart decisions by
taking into account the points of view of others. This deepened their understanding and made
the quality better. The success of students depends on how well their teachers work together
to design effective research based on instructional practices.
School-wide action research

The focus of this research is on problems that are common in a school setting. School-wide
research is when an entire school community problem is looked at with the help of
administrators, coordinators, and teachers with the goal of making a big change in the
school's atmosphere. Successful school-wide action research is directly linked to the school
improvement plan's projects (Lesha, 2014). The whole staff works together to use a scientific
approach to solve problems at the school, such as low academic performance, lack of
parental involvement, organizational structure or decision making structure in
administration and frame reforms and implement changes as a reform initiative to
exterminate the problem and increase performance.
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District-wide action research
District-wide research is broader and focuses on the community. Since the research is
multifaceted, it will necessitate the pooling of numerous resources towards a shared goal. In
order to solve the district's organisational or performance challenges, the whole district must
work together. To better the district as a whole, teachers and other school representatives
from different schools work together to find solutions to problems and participate in the
decision-making process (VanBaren, 2019). A district may decide to deal with a problem
that affects more than one school or one of the organisational managements. The main
problems with this research are the need for documentation (communication) to keep
everyone involved in the cycle and the need to keep the process moving. One of the other
problems is that people don't put in enough effort to collect data and finish their assignments
on time. Positively, having multiple groups work together to solve problems and find out
more about them is a great way to create real stakeholders who are committed to change.
So far, we are sure you enjoyed the lesson very well. If you are going to engage in action
research, you will know exactly which type you are going for depending on who are
involved.
Summary
In this section you have been exposed to the different types of action research depending
on the number of teachers/individuals involved, and the focus and nature of the problem.
At this point assess yourself with the following questions
Activity 1.3
1. Mr. Boateng, a Mathematics teacher at Bumpuniso D/A JHS at Sankofa District,
conducted research in helping some students who have problem with number bases
and was assisted by the head teacher. This type of research is termed
as……………………………action research
d) Collaborative
b) District wide
c) Individual teacher
d) School wide
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2. Describe any three types of action research
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Question for Reflection

What makes action research unique from other researches
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UNIT 1 SECTION 4: PERSPECTIVES OF ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
Hello reader, you are welcome to unit 1 section four. This section focuses on perspectives
of action research. In this section, discussions will be on action research as disciplinary
inquiry, action research as a reflective practice. Furthermore, discussions will be on using
action research to bridge the gap between research and practice.
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the perspectives for which action research could be described.
By the end of the section, you will:
a) Explain action research as a disciplinary enquiry
b) Explain action research as reflective practice
c) Explain action research as bridging the gap between research and practice
Action research as a disciplined inquiry

Action research is a term that combines the idea of disciplined inquiry (research) with
focused efforts to improve the quality and performance of an organisation (action). People
who do action research watch how students react to a change in instruction and write it down.
They then talk about what they found. Inquiry on the other hand is the process of gathering,
analysing, and thinking about facts that can be used to make changes.
Action research as reflective practice

Elliott (as cited by McIntosh, 2010), argues that action research is reflective in nature.
Therefore, action research is primarily concerned with the transformation of practise. It is a
practical way of thinking about how important data is for improving practise through
reflection. So, reflection and the quality of the data are linked, because Elliott thinks that
you can't improve the way action research is done without taking philosophical reflection
into account.
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For a while now, it has been expected of learners and researchers in the qualitative field to
reflect on their learning and research experiences as well as the findings that result from
these
Ghaye and Ghaye (1998) offer the following guidelines for reflective practise:
• Reflecting on experience is a way of interrogating our actions and thinking in
particular ways.
• It means returning to re-look at our taken-for-granted values, professional
understanding and practices. It is not about reflecting on the extraordinary; it is about
the ordinary, everyday occurrences of the working day. In this ‘reflective turn’ we
consider the parts played by ourselves and others in these occurrences so that we may
deepen our understanding of them.
• It is about learning to explain and justify the way we go about things.
• It means considering what we do ‘problematically’ – by constantly inquiring and
questioning what we do systematically so that we may learn continuously from it.
• It means putting what we know and learn to use, and informing improvement – by
doing something positive and constructive through the knowledge we create which
is purposeful.
• It means applying critical thinking to practice by asking probing or challenging
questions, both of self and collectively so that transformation can take place.
Action research as bridging the gap between research and practice

There might be some functional relationship between conceptions and actual teaching
practices. In action research, teachers are seen as researchers in their own classrooms. After
identifying the problem and conducting research on it, by putting in an intervention, they
apply their findings to find a solution. In this way, action research bridges the gap between
theory and practise. This indicates that the teacher is both an educational practitioner and an
educational researcher.
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Activity 1.4
1. A teachers observed his students behaviour and decided to collect data, analyse and
how he could use the result solving the problem. This describes action research as…
A. bridging a gap
B. disciplined inquiry
C. reflective practice
D. collaborative effort
2. Describe how action research could be said to bridging a gap between theory and
practice
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..

Describe how a teacher can use a flash card to support a basic two child to pronounce two
letter words orally.
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UNIT 1 SECTION 5: KEY PRINCIPLES OF ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
Hello, learner, you are welcome to the last section of unit one. We believe that you have
learned a lot therefore you need to congratulate yourself for how far you have learned
throughout the unit. Let us therefore finish the unit by looking this last section on the
principles of action research. Action research as a systematic process is guided by certain
principles. In this section we shall take a look at Winter (1987) six key principles of action
research.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the key principles of action research.
1. Outline the key principles of action research
2. Describe the principles of action research
Read on………………..
Reflexive critique
Evidence-based inquiry is conducted to form judgements. This process of inquiry has its
roots from self-awareness and situational understanding with personal bias in a social
setting. It shows what is factual and true by making a person think about their own perceptual
bias. Through self-reflection on one's own perceptual bias, it reveals what is factual and
genuine. Reflexivity emphasises on forming judgements solely on the basis of personal
experiences, as opposed to universal conceptions. With his or her dual function as
practitioner and researcher, the practitioner focuses on the issues and process and provides
explicit interpretations, assumptions, and conclusions. Self-criticism promotes improvement
in subsequent cycles. The successful reflection and critique of the action conducted by the
practitioners is a fundamental principle of action research.
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Dialectical critique
The truth comes out when people talk about it and look at it closely. Dialectical critique is
the term used to describe the conversation between practitioners and participants.
Specifically, it refers to the teacher and the students in educational action research. As a
result, the interaction between the phenomenon and its surroundings as well as between the
pieces that make up the phenomenon serves as the foundation for understanding reality. The
teacher or practitioner has a deeper knowledge of social reality and verifies any research
through dialogue with students or participants.
Collaborative resource
Individualism is never a part of the action research process. The action plan itself calls for
people to work together, especially with coworkers, administrators, and students. Student
participants in an action research project can potentially become co-researchers of it. This
principle of collaborative resource enables and presupposes that each person's contribution
to the formulation of the action plan is accorded equal weight and considered a potential
resource. It seeks to avoid the credibility distortion caused by the prior status of an idea-
holder. It acknowledges in particular all the minds that collaborated to contribute to the
improvement of educational procedures.
Risk
Practitioners engage in action research when they are dissatisfied with their practise or wish
to improve it. The researcher feels a kind of psychic fear when he or she thinks about the
new action research that will be used instead of the old ways of doing things. Putting the
new plan to the test in the real world is risky, but without taking on challenges, there can be
no growth or progress. When an action researcher finds a gap in the way things are done
now, they should take this risk, feel it out, and try to find new solutions and ways to make
things better. People who want to start action research should follow this risk-taking
principle, support new ideas, fight fears, invite people to join, and show that they are willing
to do this kind of research on a voluntary basis.
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Plural structure
Due to the collaborative nature of action research, a variety of perspectives, comments, and
critiques are embodied, leading to modifications in action plans and interpretations. So, there
will always be more than one thing to say when reporting on an action research. Action
research has a plural structure, which is why there are many explicit comments with different
points of view and a variety of ways to carry out the action. So, instead of a final conclusion,
a perfect report for action research is a report on the whole process with ongoing discussions
among collaborators.
Theory, practice, transformation
Action research is a practise that facilitates continuous transformation. Here, the theory
informs a new practise and contributes to the refinement and creation of a new theory. Any
action is planned on the basis of an idea with implicitly held assumptions, theories, and
hypotheses, with the theoretical knowledge being increased by study discoveries. In a
transformative cycle that continuously shifts emphasis between theory and practise, the
subsequent practical applications are exposed to additional study.
Hello student, we have come to the end of unit one of inquiry and action research. We believe
that you have now got the understanding of fundamental principles of action research. We
shall move to much detail as you read on to the subsequent units. Congratulations
Activity 1. 6
1. A teacher examined his own teaching and found that some aspect of his teaching did
not go on well as expected hence thinking of what to do next. This action of the
teacher fall under the principle of………….
a) Dialectical critique
b) Plural structures
c) Reflexive critique
d) Transformations
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2. Madam Kinkina sought to work with her colleague in finding solution to the problem
she was encountering in her class. She sought logistic assistance from her head
teacher. This means madam kinkina is applying the principle of…………
a) Collaborative resources
b) Dialectical critique
c) Plural structure
d) Risk

Discus any four principles of action research
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UNIT 1 SECTION 6: THE ACTION RESEARCH MODEL
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to section six of unit one. In this section, we will explore the five
phases of the action research model proposed by Susman, which includes diagnoses, action
planning, taking action, evaluating, and specifying learning.
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
Susman (1983) model for action research.
Explain the cyclical nature of the Susman (1983) model for action research.
Identify the different stages of the Susman model and their associated activities.
Read on………………………….
Susman (1983) identifies five phases within the action research cycle (Figure 6.1). A
preliminary survey is conducted by the researcher to diagnose the situation and identify or
define the problem. This is then followed by action planning. Alternative courses of action
would be evaluated prior to selecting the optimal course of action. Taking action is
accompanied by data collection and analysis in order to evaluate the consequences of the
action. General findings are identified, and the learning elements may indicate the
effectiveness of the action. Reassessment of the situation initiates a new cycle, and the
process continues until the issue is resolved.
Figure 6.1: Action Research Model
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Diagnosing
Identifying or defining a
problem
Specifying learning Acton planning
Identifying general Considering alternative courses

findings of action
Evaluation
Taking Action
Studying the consequences
of an action Selecting a course of action
Diagnosing
In the first stage of action research, the problem or issue to be addressed is identified. This
involves identifying the problem's symptoms, causes, and effects through data collection
techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The problem can be
identified by reflecting on your everyday activities. Reflection is an active process of
evaluating one's own practise, according to Schon (1983).
Action planning
The next stage, following the diagnosis, is to develop an action plan. This involves
generating and evaluating possible solutions to the issue or problem. The action plan should
be SMART, or specific, measurable, attainable, pertinent, and time-bound. Again, the
planning stage is the time you consider the interventions to use to bring about the change.
The activity you put in place to bring about the change is the intervention. The intervention
depends very much on the causes of the problem. The causes may be many but the
intervention should focus on the major cause. The intervention depends very much on the
26
causes of the problem. The causes may be many, but the intervention should focus on the
major cause.
Taking action
This stage involves carrying out the action plan. That is the implementation of the
intervention (over varying periods of time). Changing institutional policies, procedures, or
practises may be necessary. It is essential to ensure that all stakeholders are engaged and
invested in the implementation process.
Evaluation
The fourth stage is to evaluate the action plan's effectiveness. This involves collecting data
on the results of the intervention and comparing them to the baseline data gathered during
the diagnosis phase. The evaluation must be objective and employ multiple data sources and
methods. The data collected should also be analysed.
Specifying Learning
The final step in the action research process is to specify the learnings acquired. This requires
reflecting the experience and determining the lessons learned. The knowledge gained may
be utilised to inform future action research initiatives and enhance the schools performance.
Activity 1. 6
1. How many phases are identified within the action research model proposed by
Susman (1983)?
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
2. What is the role of action planning within the action research model proposed by
Susman (1983)?
A) To diagnose the situation and identify or define the problem
B) To develop and plan the chosen course of action
C) To select the optimal course of action
D) Considering alternative courses of action
Discuss the significance of action planning in the action research cycle as per Susman
(1983)
27
UNIT 2: PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH
Section 1: identification of problem
Section 2: review of literature
Section 3: planning the intervention activities.
Section 4: planning for data collection
Section 5: planning the intervention.
Section 6: monitoring the intervention activities.
Hello dear learner you are welcome to the second unit the course. In the previous unit you
were taken through the basics of action research. This unit will walk you through the
processes you will go through in conducting action research. The processes or steps of action
research are: identification of problem, review of literature, planning the intervention
activities, planning for data collection, implementing the intervention and monitoring the
intervention activities.
Learning outcome
Upon successfully completion of this unit, you will be able of demonstrate understanding of
the processes involved in conducting action research.
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. identify problem in their classrooms.
2. discuss how to review literature.
3. plan intervention activities in their study
4. plan for data collection.
5. implement planned intervention.
6. monitor intervention.
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UNIT 2 SECTION 1: IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM
Dear learner, you are welcome to section one of this unit (unit 2). In this unit we are going
to look the first step of the processes involved in conducting action research. Specifically
you will learn about how the problem is perceived in action research, guideline for reflection
and diagnosis of the problem which will all culminate in the identification of the problem
which will begin the action research
Learning outcome
By the end of this section you will be able to demonstrate understanding of identification of
a problem for conducting action research.
a) describe how to perceive a problem in action research
b) state the guidelines for reflection
c) explain how to diagnose a perceived problem through evidence
Perceiving a problem for action research

This step may begin with a question about why you believe things are not going well with
the learning of your pupils, your teaching, or any other circumstance that causes discomfort.
For instance, if your students' performance falls short of your expectations, you may
conclude that something is wrong. It could be your teaching methods or some obstacles
preventing your students from learning. So, you may begin to ask yourself question like why
the teaching methods such as cooperative learning not having a greater impact? You will
then try to evaluate the perceived problem and formulate it as critical in an everyday teaching
situation.
Using reflection to identify a perceived problem.

What do you understand by reflection? Keep your answer and read on. Reflective practise is
a cyclical inquiry process in which teachers continuously examine, analyse, and adjust their
instruction as they gain more knowledge about themselves and their students. It affords the
teacher the chance to think on what is genuinely occurring during lesson delivery, allowing
for consideration of what to do next. A teacher or educationist is able to critically assess his
29
past practise. Thus, a researcher might critically reflect on his current practise in order to
investigate the pressing issue in the classroom. The theme of the inquiry stems from
unhappiness with the current state of affairs and a notion for bringing about change. This
may be a peculiar classroom occurrence that arouses your curiosity or a topic you wish to
explore in greater depth.
Diagnosing perceived problem through evidence

In diagnosing a perceived problem for action research, it is crucial to keep in mind that
there must be sufficient and clear evidence or indications to show that the believed
problem exists. McAteer (2013) argues that the problem should: be related to improving
one's own practise; allow for the development of explanations and hypotheses; be within
the action researcher's own control to change; and be professionally and personally
significant and relevant.
During diagnosis of a problem the following need to be followed:
1. Evidence that a problem exists. Information needs to be collected through data

collection instrument (interviews, observations, questionnaire etc.).
2. Causes- the causes need to be identified using data collection instruments
(interviews, observations etc).
3. Identification of the intervention.
4. State research topic- this should include cause(s) under the control of the
researcher with its accompanying intervention identified.
After you've done all of these things, you should define the problem or issue in your area of
interest. The most important step in the action research process is to clearly state the problem
and question to be studied. One good way to define the problem is to describe the differences
between the current situation and what you want it to be. The action research might then
look at why the current situation is different from what the person wants it to be. For
example, a basic five teacher was concerned that her students scored below the national
norms on math story problems while scoring well on the basic math computation section of
the same test. The problem statement in this example might be: "Students do not do as well
on math story problems as they do on other parts of the math section." Or, the problem could
be stated as a question: "Why don't my basic five students score consistently well on the
math application section?"
30
Activity 2.1
1. Why is it important to have sufficient and clear evidence to diagnose a problem for
action research?
a) To ensure that the problem actually exists.
b) To make the problem seem more significant.
c) To make the researcher look more knowledgeable.
d) None of the above.
2. Which of the following characteristics should a problem have for it to be suitable
for action research?
a) It should be beyond the action researcher's control to change.
b) It should be irrelevant to the action researcher's personal and professional life.
c) It should be related to improving one's own practice.
d) It should be something that the researcher is not interested in.
What evidence must be present to support one’s belief that something is not going well in
teaching or students' learning?
31
UNIT 2 SESSION 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Dear learner you are welcome to section 2 of unit 2 of the course inquiry and action research.
In the previous section we explained the first step of the processes in conducting action
research, which is the identification of the problem and all that goes into it. After identifying
the problem, the need to research about the problem that is the review of literature and that
what section 2 is about. We hope that you are going to enjoy the section. Read on………
Learning outcome
By the end of this session, you will be able to demonstrate understanding of how to review
literature.
Learning indicator
Describe how literature is conducted.
By reading published literature on the topic or problem, you can situate it in a theoretical
and research context. This typically involves reading research (both traditional and action
research), theoretical papers, and other educators' reflections on your topic or issue.
Although action research recognises the uniqueness of each context, researchers seek facts
to help them comprehend what may be occurring in their setting. In addition to
understanding the setting in which the research will be conducted, it is essential to be familiar
with previous work in a certain field. There is a good chance that earlier researchers have
considered and written about the subjects of interest. By reviewing the existing literature,
you establish the context for your research, and provide you with a background for your
research. Typically, a brief review of a few professional journal articles and/or books is
adequate. This review provides the action researcher with an understanding of the issue.
Some examples of how others have addressed similar problems, which may offer potential
study methods. We hope that at this point you have the idea about literature review. You will
read more on the literature review on unit 5 section 3.
32
Activity 2.2
1. Why is it important to be familiar with previous work in a certain field before
conducting research?
a) To avoid duplication of research.
b) To build upon previous knowledge.
c) To identify research gaps.
d) All of the above
2. Which type of research recognises the uniqueness of each context?
a) Action research.
b) Qualitative research.
c) Theoretical research.
d) Traditional research.
Question for reflection.

How would reading published literature help you situate your research problem in a
research context?
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UNIT 2 SECTION 3 PLANNING THE INTERVENTION ACTIVITIES
Dear learner, we hope you are following the process as we progress. We have discussed how
you can identify a problem and then read or review literature on the problem identified. The
next process is planning intervention activities. In this section we are going to discuss how
you can plan intervention activities that will help in solving the problem identified.
Learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to demonstrate understanding of planning
intervention activities in action research.
Learning indicators
a) Select appropriate intervention.
b) Arrange intervention activities systematically.
Select appropriate intervention(s)

What then is an intervention? If you do not understand don’t worry. Just read on. In action
research, interventions are plans or activities that are put in place to help solve the problem.
The intervention is the most important part of an action research study, so it needs to be well
planned. Planning a solution to a problem means thinking about what the solution will be,
what data are needed and how to get them, and what data- collection instruments are needed
to collect the data (Cohen et al., 2018). It is important to choose intervention activities that
are likely to help solve the problem under investigation. The planned intervention activities
must cater for data collection which should be in line with the purpose and objective of the
research, your research questions, the data collection method and instruments.
Arrangement of intervention activities

The intervention activities may be arranged in phases, including pre-intervention,
intervention, and post-intervention, with each phase containing a list of activities. At this
stage, the action researcher defines how the project's activities will be sequenced. The
following question can be considered:
• Who will be involved in the intervention activities—student or teacher?
34
• What are the activities that will be involved in the intervention process?
• How long will the intervention activities last?
• How and when will information be gathered? (e.g., pictures, audio, audio visual,
observation, test, checklist etc).
Activity 2.3
1. What are interventions in action research?
a) The data needed to solve a problem.
b) The instruments needed to collect data.
c) Plans or activities put in place to solve the problem.
d) The planning process for solving the problem.
2. Why is it important to choose appropriate intervention activities in action research?
a) To ensure the study is feasible within the available resources.
b) To ensure the study meets ethical guidelines.
c) To help solve the problem under investigation.
d) To make the study more interesting.
Identify two (2) interventions that can be used to support basic three learners to add two digit
numbers
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UNIT 2 SECTION 4: PLANNING FOR DATA COLLECTION
Learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to demonstrate understanding of planning data
collection in action research.
Learning indicators
State the processes involved in planning for data collection.
Planning for Data Collection
The following reflective questions need to guide how data would be collected:
1. Why are you collecting the data?

2. What data exactly are you collecting?
3. Where are you going to collect the data, and for how long?
4. When are you going to collect the data and for how long?
5. How will the data collected be displayed?
Planning for data collecting must take the design, purpose, and objective of the research into
account. Additionally, they should be in line with the stated research question and supported
by the proper instruments. The key to efficient data collection is asking the correct questions.
Be specific about why you are gathering data. Formulate good questions that address the
project's specific information requirements. Be specific about how you want to use the data
you gather. To obtain information, the action researcher must decide what data are required,
who could offer them, how many must be included, and how to contact them (Creswell,
2005). These conclusions give a precise picture of whether quantitative, qualitative or mixed
methods are to be considered.
The researcher makes his final decisions and chooses the method for collecting data based
on how and what kind of information is needed for the study. Observation is a common way
for watching the research participants. Field notes, video recordings, and interviews are
some of the methods utilised to obtain qualitative data from students, colleagues, and
parents. Field notes, video recordings, interviews, are various tools used for collecting
qualitative data from students, , administrators and parents. . Using questionnaire could also
36
help in many ways to get information about attitudes, opinions etc. from a large scale
population.
In designing the process to collect data, the following key questions should be addressed in
the plan:
1. What type of data will be collected? Researchers may wish to collect quantitative
(surveys, questionnaires, school records, etc.) or qualitative data (observations, journals,
reports, etc.).
2. How often will data be collected? Studies may utilize a single data collection point, to
be compared to a baseline.
3. What is the timeline for data collection? Data collection may take place over days,
weeks, months, or even years. The timeline will be determined by the goals of the study.
4. From whom will data be collected? Data may be collected from an entire unit classroom
or section, or only from a small subgroup within the larger unit.
Summary
Planning for data collection is a crucial step in any research project. It involves considering
the research design, purpose, and objective, as well as ensuring that the data collection
methods and instruments are appropriate for the research question. The success of data
collection depends on asking the right questions and being specific about why data is being
gathered. Therefore, it is important to plan and organize data collection activities in a manner
that will yield accurate and relevant information.
Activity 2.4
1. What is the key to efficient data collection?
a) Asking irrelevant questions.
b) Asking the correct questions.
c) Asking the same question repeatedly.
d) Asking too many questions.
2. Which one of the following should be considered when planning for data
collection?
a) The design, purpose, and objective of the research.
b) The colour of the data.
c) The length of the data
d) The size of the data C. D.
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Think about how data will be collected through
1. Paper and pencil methods
2. Live methods
3. Sociometric methods- observation, interviews, focus group interviews etc.
4. Ostensive methods- video-taping, audio-tapping etc.
38
UNIT 2 SESSION 5 IMPLEMENTING THE INTERVENTION
Dear learner, we have come very with regard to the processes involved in conducting action
research. After planning the intervention activities and kind of data to be collected, there is
the need to implement the intervention. Putting the intervention into practice, which involves
consideration of timing, duration, and participants, constitutes the implementation of the
intervention (Cohen et al, 2018). Read on to see how the intervention will be implemented.
Learning outcomes
By the end of the section, you will be able to demonstrate understanding of implementing
intervention activities in action research.
Learning indicators
a) Device innovative and creative approaches of intervention
b) prioritise intervention activities;
c) make intervention activities practical and understandable
Device innovative and creative approaches of intervention

The implementation of the intervention requires innovation and originality. The researcher
develops an action plan based on the analysis of the collected data and the foundational
knowledge acquired through reviews. It is essential that only one variable be considered at
a time in action research.
Action research is characterised by small-scale intervention. To prevent confusion in
defining the effect of the intervention on the students, the researcher avoids focusing on
multiple concepts. Thus, it becomes simple to determine which activity caused the outcome.
The new ideas and views of researchers are formulated into a solution plan for the original
problem.
Prioritise intervention activities.

This phase could last for some time. All scheduled activities of the intervention must be
carried out on time and within the specified time frame. Conditions and data gathering
39
procedures must be adhered to. In addition to implementing times and timeframes for
meetings, interim reports and records on the many activities that occur during the process of
the intervention must be maintained, as well as final reports on the activities that occur
during the process.
Summary
You have learned in this section that the implementation of an intervention in action research
requires innovative and creative approaches. The researcher needs to develop an action plan
based on the analysis of collected data and foundational knowledge. Prioritizing intervention
activities and adhering to conditions and data gathering procedures are crucial to the success
of the intervention.
Activity 2.5
1. Which of the following should a researcher base the action plan for implementing
the intervention on?
a) The literature reviews.
b) The participants' opinions.
c) The researcher's personal opinion.
d) The weather forecast.
2. Why is innovation and originality important in implementing the intervention in
action research?
a) Because it adds unnecessary complexity to the intervention.
b) Because it helps ensure the intervention is effective.
c) Because it makes the intervention more difficult to implement.
d) Because it makes the intervention more expensive.

Pair up and describe the processes involved in prioritizing an intervention.
40
UNIT 2 SECTION 6: MONITORING INTERVENTION ACTIVITIES
Hello, learner, welcome to the last section of unit 2. We congratulate you for coming this
far. We are sure you have enjoyed lessons in the previous section though they somewhat
challenging. In concluding the processes involved in conducting action research, it important
we discuss how the intervention activities put in place is carefully monitored. In this section
we will look at how to map out monitoring plan, data collection plan and how data will be
collected. Read on for details.
Learning outcome
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to demonstrate understanding of monitoring
intervention activities
Learning indicators
a) map out a monitoring plan
b) state how data will be recorded
Mapping out monitoring plan

Dear learner, how can you begin effective monitoring? A monitoring plan for the assessment
of tasks and the transmission of feedback to the research team is necessary for the proper
monitoring of intervention activities. This monitoring plan must be carefully designed to
cater for each intervention activity. The ultimate objective of action is to create a cycle of
reflection that brings the researcher and participants closer to best practises. Consequently,
the results of the research must offer a plan for stakeholders' subsequent action.
Action research is cyclical, which means that the researcher has to keep checking,
evaluating, and revising how well the action plan is working. Step by step, every part of the
intervention must be carefully monitored by coming up with a good plan for collecting data.
Perpetuating cyclic nature of action research makes the researcher continuously monitor,
evaluate and revise the effectiveness of the action plan which is implemented. Step-by-step
monitoring of every aspect of the implemented intervention requires the development of an
effective data collection plan.
41
Stating how data will be recorded
In monitoring the intervention, final reports on individual/group evaluation reports are
recorded so that it may be determined to what extent the intervention has been successful in
addressing the problem. Consequently, data must be collected throughout the monitoring
process. This will indicate the direction of the intervention's effectiveness. There are several
factors to consider while implementing the findings of an action research project. First, when
implementing change, it is essential to focus on a single variable at a time; this will allow
researchers to evaluate the correlation between an intervention and the outcome as indicated
by the data. Before initiating concrete change, it is also a good idea to reflect with other
stakeholders on the research process. Consideration of the study's strengths and limitations
will help to shorten the implementation process and identify intervention components
requiring further adjustment. Understand that initiating an action plan is not the final step. It
restarts the action research cycle, since new actions generate additional reflection and
questions for review.
Eventually. We have come to the end of section 6 of unit 2 which marks the end of unit 2.
We hope that you learnt a lot. Now attempt the following assessment questions on unit 2.
Summary
Monitoring intervention activities is an essential part of action research, which is a cyclical
process that involves continuously checking, evaluating, and revising the effectiveness of
the action plan. To monitor intervention activities effectively, a monitoring plan must be
developed that is tailored to each intervention activity. The plan should include a process for
collecting data at every step of the intervention, and the data should be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the intervention. The ultimate goal of monitoring intervention activities is
to create a cycle of reflection that brings the researcher and participants closer to best
practices and provides a plan for stakeholders to take subsequent action based on the research
results.
Activity 2.6
1. What should the results of action research offer?
a) A list of intervention activities.
b) A plan for stakeholders' subsequent action.
c) A report on the effectiveness of the intervention.
d) A summary of participant satisfaction.
42
2. Why is it important to focus on a single variable at a time when implementing
change in action research?
a) To evaluate the correlation between the intervention and the outcome.
b) To increase the number of variables involved in the intervention.
c) To make the intervention more complex.
d) To reduce the effectiveness of the intervention.
Describe the process you will go through in conducting action research on a problem you
have identified.
43
UNIT 3: DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
UNIT OUTLINE
SESSION: 1 GENERAL DATA COLLECTION METHOD
SESSION 2: OBSERVATION
SESSION 3: INTERVIEW
SESSION 4: QUESTIONNAIRES
SESSION 5: RATING SCALES/CHECKLISTS
SESSION 6: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
Introduction
We have come to unit 3 of this book. You are welcome. We have discussed in detail what
action research is all about. We have also looked at the process in conducting action research.
Do you remember some of the main points discussed in each session of the previous units?
In this unit we will be looking at data collection procedures and data collection instruments,
we have six sessions. The lesson will seek to provide you with understanding of the
procedures and methods in data collection when conducting Action Research.. In this unit,
we will discuss several common data collection tools that are found to be most useful for
gathering information in action research. For each method, we provide some general
guidance and practical tips that, we hope, will contribute to the effectiveness of your data
collection process. We also include examples to illustrate how the methods work in
educational settings. It further seeks to assist students to apply the data collection procedures
in a mini action research project
Learning outcome
By the end of the unit, you should be able to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and
application of data collection procedures (NTECF, NTS 3a, 3b, 3c, 3e, 3f, 3g, 3i).
44
Learning indicators
1. Discuss the procedures and methods in data collection when conducting action
research.
2. Apply the data collection procedures in a mini action research project.
3. Describe the various data collection instruments and their characteristics.
4. Identify the various purposes for which questionnaires and interviews are used.
45
UNIT 3 SESSION 1: GENERAL DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Introduction
You are welcome to the first session of this Unit. In this session we will be looking at
meaning of data, types of data and general data collection methods. We are looking forward
to having a very fruitful and lively discussion with you.
Learning indicators
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. explain the meaning data

2. state and discuss the general data collection method
Read on …
One of the most far-reaching decisions a researcher must make is the way in which the data
will be collected. Before decisions can be made about how to collect the data required to
answer research questions, consideration needs to be given to the kind of data to be collected,
where they will come from, and how they will be selected. The selection of data collection
tools and strategies derives from the nature of our research questions, rather than from
theoretical orientations (Check & Schutt, 2011). Data collection involves introducing a
number of related questions to a target population in order to find out how a group feels
about an issue or event.
Meaning and types of data
Data are the pieces of information or facts that are collected in research (Nieswiadomy &
Bailey, 2018). According to Blaikie (2005), data used in research can be of three main forms:
primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary data are generated by a researcher who is
responsible for the design of the study and the collection, analysis, and reporting of the data.
This is 'new' data, used to answer specific research questions. The researcher can describe
why and how they were collected. Secondary data are raw data that have already been
collected by someone else, either for some general information purpose, such as a
government census or other official statistics or for a specific research project. In both cases,
the original purpose in collecting such data is likely to be different from that of the secondary
46
user, particularly in the case of a previous research project. Tertiary data have been analysed
either by the researcher who generated them or by an analyst of secondary data.
Data collection
Data collection refers to obtaining relevant information regarding the major ideas of the
hypotheses or research questions for the purpose of answering them. Data collection
instruments are the tools used by researchers to actually collect data in the research process.
Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data. It is a fact findings
strategy for gathering data. Due to the inherent complexity of classroom life, it is hard to
divide the research tools and methods into qualitative and quantitative when carrying out
action research. The same tool may generate qualitative or quantitative data depending on
the strategy developed.
General data collection procedures and methods

General data collection procedures and methods include selecting the methods; making a
rational choice; methods available; considering practicalities; categorizing the methods.
The categories of data collection methods include:
• Paper and pen methods (personal field notes or journals; pupils’ diaries;
questionnaires; class exercises, quizzes, tests; portfolios; case study).
• Live methods (sociometric methods; on-to-one interview; group interview; focus-
group interview/discussion; observation; rating scale).
• Ostensive methods (slide/tape presentations; audio-taped interviews; videotaping the
action).
Approaches to data analysis (quantitative analysis; creating a data set; qualitative analysis;
types of qualitative data; approaches to qualitative data analysis; processes of analyzing
data).
Steps for analyzing data (analyzing quantitative data; software tools for qualitative analysis;
qualitative approach to analyzing action research data; synthesizing the data; guidelines for
analyzing data.
Data gathering and analysis techniques used in action research are flexible. Research
questions may be modified as data are collected and hypotheses emerge after the study
begins. However, to qualify as research, action research must include a plan for
47
systematically collecting and analyzing data. Decisions need to be made regarding the
selection and choice of methods available, considering their practicalities as well
categorizing the methods in relation to what types of data to be collected.
How is data collected in action research?

It is essential for the researcher to choose an acceptable data collection method. Most action
researchers collect at least two different types of data, often including both quantitative and
qualitative data. Quantitative data describe the numerical values of a measured variable,
while qualitative data describe the type of observations. Data collection must also involve
simple and short procedures that will not interfere with the normal activities in the setting.
A classroom teacher who wants to conduct interviews might schedule a brief interview with
individual students while others are working in groups. The research plan should also include
consideration of the length of time for data collection, determination of times when data will
be collected, the frequency and places where collaboration will occur, and identification of
methods to check on the quality of the data.
In collecting a meaningful data for action research, therefore, the following guideline can be
of a help to the researcher. Asking the right questions is the key skill in effective data
collection.
1. Be clear as to why you are collecting data. Formulate good questions that relate to the
specific information needs of the project.
2. Be clear about how you are going to use the data you collect.
3. Design a process to collect data.
4. Use the appropriate data analysis tools and be certain the necessary data are being
collected.
a. The data: i) must be accurate; ii) should be useful; iii) must not be too time
consuming; and iv) must be reliable enough to allow you to formulate hypotheses
and develop strategies with confidence.
5. Decide how much data is needed. Ask: what is an accurate sample size? for how long
should the data be collected?
6. Use multiple sources of data (triangulation) to increase the believability of the findings.
Collect data from more than two sources or points of view.
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7. Present the data in a way that clearly communicates the answer to the question.
8. Review the data. Ask: do the data tell you what you intended?
9. Visually display the data in a format that can reveal underlying patterns.
10. The key issue is not how we collect data, but how do we generate useful information.
Your data will be more solid and give you more information if you collect it from more
than one source, at more than one point in time (Triangulation). Triangulation means that
researchers take different perspectives on an issue under study or—more generally
speaking—in answering research questions. These perspectives can be substantiated by
using several methods and/or in several theoretical approaches (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018).
Various types of triangulations can be distinguished as data triangulation, investigator
triangulation, theory triangulation and methodological triangulation.
Data triangulation refers to the combination of different data sources that are examined
at different times, places, and person (Data gathering from many sources, such as parents
and other teachers). Investigator triangulation means the employment of different observers
or interviewers to control or correct the subject bias from the individual.
Theory triangulation refers to approaching data with multiple perspectives and hypotheses
in mind. Triangulation as an approach is especially common in qualitative research; for
instance, a researcher might engage in many informal observations in the field and conduct
in-depth interviews, then look for common themes that appear in the data gleaned from both
methods. Triangulation is also common in mixed-methods designs, in which both
quantitative and qualitative data are collected to address a single research question (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2015). Because of its practical orientation, action research generally uses both
quantitative and qualitative data as well (Lodico et al., 2010) hence triangulation becomes
important in action research.
Let us now discuss the various methods of data collection into details
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Paper and Pencil Method of data collection
The paper and pen methods of data collection in action research include but not limited to
the following; personal field notes or journals; pupils’ diaries; questionnaires; class
exercises, quizzes, tests; portfolios; case study.
1. Personal field notes or journals: This includes notes written by teachers, teacher
observations, student reflections, class activities, comments to students. Teachers,
researchers, or participants often use journals to record thoughts, feelings, and ideas
about the research activities. Journals may be structured by presenting questions for
participants to address, or participants may be allowed to enter any thoughts or feelings
that they like. Teachers often use journals to reflect on their feelings, perceptions, and
interpretations of what they see happening in their classrooms. Journals might also
include drawings or diagrams as well as written comments. Some researchers use
journals to record notes from their observations.
2. Records and Documents: As part of this advent of paper and technology, records and
documents can tell a lot about how a school works. Records and documents contain a
huge amount of information, such as meeting minutes, report cards, records of
attendance, records of discipline, lesson plans, letters from parents, and written
evaluations of teachers. Action researchers are likely to utilize the records and
documents produced within their immediate settings. As such, records and documents
can be a valuable way to corroborate information from other sources. If a teacher reports
in observational notes that student motivation increased as a result of a new instructional
strategy, attendance records could be used to back up those claims.
3. Pupils’ diaries: This may include what students, class groups have jotted down in the
course of some discussions that have taken place in their classrooms or learning process
4. Questionnaires: Questionnaire is a self-report data-collection instrument filled out by
research participants. It may border on attitudes, opinions, preferences, information. We
may have questionnaires to students, parents, and staff with respect to their attitudes,
perspectives, and may be responded at more than one point in time. It may be constructed
in a Likert type scale or any other form to collect information from intended respondents
or participants
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5. Class exercises, quizzes, tests; these are scores obtained by students which have been
recorded over time and could be used as data in conducting action research.
6. Portfolios: A collection of students work showing progress of students’ drawings or
poetry, of examples of students' "best" work, or of descriptions of projects completed.
The researcher can use cover sheets to describe what the work represents and why it was
selected to put in the portfolio. This could also be of a range of work from students of
different abilities around a particular topic; a representation of a total experience; specific
curricular area, work samples over time, comprehensive picture of student.
7. Case studies: comprehensive, picture/study of a student or a group of students. Case
studies are in-depth investigations of a single entity or a small number of entities (Polit
& Beck, 2014). The entity may be an individual, family, institution, community, or other
social unit. In a case study, researchers obtain a wealth of descriptive information and
may examine relationships among different phenomena, or may examine trends over
time. Case study researchers attempt to analyze and understand issues that are important
to the history, development, or circumstances of the entity under study. The focus of
case studies is typically on determining the dynamics of why an individual thinks,
behaves, or develops in a particular manner rather than on what his or her status,
progress, or actions are.
Live method of data collection

Live method as a means of data collection method in action research include sociometric
methods; interview (on-to-one interview; focus-group interview/discussion); observation
and rating scale/checklist.
1. Sociometric method: it is used to interpret interpersonal relationship or reaction in an
area (classroom). A chart or sociogram is drawn and assign weight that may place the
data into numerical categories +1positve, 0 for indifference, and -1 for a negative
reaction. With this you can see an individual who is popular or a star in a class.
2. Interview: An interview is a data-collection method in which an interviewer (the
researcher or someone working for the researcher) asks questions of an interviewee
(the research participant). To interview, inquire, to ask questions of, and listen to,
students, colleagues, and others connected with your project in order to hear another
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side, version, or angle of the story. In interview data, the researcher asks the questions
or gives the prompts, and the participant answers. Interviews may be conducted either
verbally or on paper, and may be conducted individually or in groups. Interviews could
also be conducted over the telephone.
3. Observation: In research, observation is defined as the watching of behavioural patterns
of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest
(Johnson & Christensen, 2017). The observer should attempt to be unobtrusive so as not
to affect what is being observed. Observation is an important way of collecting
information about people because people do not always do what they say they do. To
observe as a student teacher-researcher is to critically and deliberately watch at a
participant in the classroom. The act of observing recognizes that “live action” provides
powerful insights for teacher-researchers. It can be useful to digitally record sessions and
then observe the recording.
Ostensive Method
The ostensible methods of action research data collecting include: slide/tape presentations;
audio-taped interviews; videotaping the action; class discussions, interviews, presentations,
instructional lessons; day in the classroom, group dynamics.
Videotaping the action/ audio-taped interviews: Videotapes and audiotapes are more
invasive and run the risk of altering the behaviour of participants as they "pose for the
camera." However, videotapes and audiotapes provide the researcher with the ability to
capture activities and exchanges in greater detail and to revisit the events at a later time
(Lodico et al., 2010). Videotaping and audiotaping are tools that can also be helpful in
establishing reliability for action research measures. If a rubric or observational checklist is
being used to gather data from a classroom activity, the situation can be also videotaped.
The recordings then can be viewed and scored by multiple people at a later date. The data
from both the checklist and the videotape can then be compared. Video material catches the
non- verbal data that audio recordings cannot, which may be particularly useful. Video
material is live and is useful for recording evolving situations and interactions, details that
the observer may miss, and non-verbal matters (e.g. facial expressions, aggressive behaviour
(Cohen et al., 2018).
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Photographs: Photographs are another type of visual data that can capture rich detail about
specific students over time, group of students’ activities, and context of an educational
setting. Researchers might take photographs themselves or might ask participants to take
photos. This provides a useful window into the participants’ experiences and perspectives
and enables the researcher to share the products of the research—that is, the photos—with
collaborating participants. As with photographs, the researcher has to be aware of the
selective bias inherent in moving images, i.e. the images recorded are a function of the focus
and location of the camera, as well as the editing of the material. Hence the researcher must
consider not only the images themselves and where, how, why, for whom, how and under
what conditions they were produced, but also the interpretations that he or she (or indeed
others) make or may make of the moving images, and how these interpretations are
influenced by the interpreters’ own backgrounds, values and purposes, i.e. the issue of
reflexivity (Cohen et al., 2018).
Summary
In this session, we have discussed the meaning of data, general data collection procedures
and methods. It is important to note that data collection is the stage in the research process
whereby a researcher gathers any relevant information or data for the solution of the research
problem under study. The discussion focus on selecting the methods, making a rational
choice, methods available, considering practicalities and categorizing the methods. We hope
you have enjoyed the discussion, let us reflect on what we have learned so far.
Activity 3.1
1. What is the main goal of triangulation in research?
a) To avoid collecting data
b) To confuse the reader with multiple data sources
c) To prove a preconceived hypothesis
d) To take different perspectives on an issue under study
2. How is observation defined in research?
a) The collection of quantitative data.
b) The collection of qualitative data.
c) The manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationships.
d) The watching of behavioural patterns of people in certain situation.
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3. Why is it important for the researcher to choose an acceptable data collection
method?
a) It allows the researcher to collect data quickly and easily.
b) It ensures that the data collected will be biased.
c) It ensures that the data collected will be reliable and valid.
d) None of the above.
1. Explain what is data in action research

2. Explain the meaning of Triangulation in action research.
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UNIT 3 SESSION 2: OBSERVATION
Introduction
Welcome to session 2 of unit 3. In the previous session, we look at data collection methods.
In this session, we are going to look at the major ways of collecting data for your action
research. The first among these methods is observational technique. Let us look at the
learning indicators of this session.
Learning indicators
1. explain the observational technique of data collection.
2. describe observational variables.
3. explain the phases of observational method;
4. discuss the recording of observations;
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of observation.
Read on …..
Observation
Observation is the deliberate examination of a setting. Observation offers a profound
understanding of the genuine life of schools and classrooms. You can observe the activities,
people, and physical components of your educational environment in a systematic manner.
Observation is the process of identifying the existence or absence of a particular
characteristic or behaviour in a person or group of people. According to Nworgu (2006),
observation, as a method of data collection, involves watching people, events, situations or
phenomena in order to obtain first-hand information about a particular aspect of such person,
event, situation or a phenomenon. Some of the times, you may have certain information
relating to some aspects of human behaviours which may not be easy to obtain except you
are in that particular setting where such behaviours are exhibited. It may not surprise you
that most of the times information provided by respondents in questionnaires and interviews
can be inaccurate, prestige-based or faked. But observational techniques make it possible for
you to obtain first-hand information about the person, object, event, situation, phenomenon
or object-event interaction of interest. In other words, instead of using the other methods
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which can easily accommodate response faking and personal bias, you can decide to obtain
your information directly by means of naturalistic observations. For instance, if you are a
technical instructor and you are required to fill in a questionnaire and list the methods you
use for teaching prevention of accidents in the school workshop, what will you do? You will
go and list the best and current methods available, whether you use them or not is another
thing. But if you are watched at random while teaching your class, we may be able to obtain
the actual methods used. Observation characterizes or is used in all types of research, be it
experimental or non-experimental. Observation techniques are challenging. They need to be
planned and carried out in a systematic way. Observations allow you to view the school, the
classroom, or specific individuals in those settings and to see things that you may
unconsciously miss in the often-chaotic dynamics of teaching.
Phases of Observational Method

There are six phases of systematic observation, these are:
1. Definition of Aims and Objectives: If you want to conduct a systematic observation,
you should start by defining the focus of your observation. You cannot observe
everything in every situation. You have to decide what to observe by defining the
aims and objectives of the observation as derived from your hypotheses and/or
research questions. In this case, you will be collecting relevant data for the solution
of the research problem.
2. Selection and Definition of Attributes: At this point, you will need to select and
define the target objects and events. For instance, if your focus is on the instructional
aids, you have to identify items which would be classified and accepted as
instructional aids. Models, drawings, specimens, charts, projectors, machine tools,
hand tools, pictures etc. You will also need to define the characteristics of each item
to differentiate it from others. For example, what differentiates a machine tool from
a hand tool? On the term “used”, for instance, if a machine tool is mounted on the
floor of the workshop when it is used, if it is referred to, if it is used to explain
something? Or if it is manipulate? It is necessary that these things are clarified to
prevent confusion in categorization among different observers or by the same
observer at different times, different places or different encounters; it improves the
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reliability of counting and recording procedure. Abstract qualities such as inquiry,
honesty, stress etc. should be well-defined by their denotable characteristics.
3. Selection of Observation Modes and Training of Observers: At this stage, you have
to take a decision on the type or mode of observation to adopt. You can decide to use
the natural senses or technological gadgets. You can decide to be a participant in the
target situation or a non-participant. You have to know which mode is more
appropriate for the particular situation before the actual observation. Your choice of
observation mode should be guided by the consideration of having minimum
interference can be achieved by the use of one-way screens, remote censors, light
differential and elevated corridors. These will keep you out of the views of the
subjects. You can use micro-recorders to make the subjects less conscious of being
observed. If you choose to be a participant observer, do not play a leadership role.
4. Administrative Arrangements: For you to carry out a systematic observation, you
have to make adequate arrangements and proper planning. These will enable you
obtain valid data. If it is in a school situation, you have to seek for the cooperation of
the school heads, the teachers, look for and mount appropriate technological gadgets
and plan and adopt such strategies that will ensure minimum dislocation of the
phenomena under observation.
5. Observation: As much as possible, let your observation focuses on the low-inference
and not denotable characteristics or high inference abstract qualities. For instance, if
again you want to observe teachers’ attitude to work, denotable indicators can be
punctuality, regularity, extra hours of work, etc. Attitude is then inferred rather than
observed. But there must be an integrated theoretical or empirical basis for the
inference. Consideration should be given to the number of visits or observations
needed for reliable observations. You can use as many as thirty visits, though most
studies cannot afford more than a dozen observations on a single teacher. In order to
obtain a trustworthy mean score for one teacher, particularly for cognitive variables,
you need as many observations as possible. You have to gird against observer effects.
You have to provide a situation where you can observe without introducing some
distortion to the events that would have occurred if observations were not taking
place. To minimize distortion effects in observation, possible techniques are:
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habituation-staging with the participants long before the observations start. This will
make the participants not to attach any importance to your presence. Others are
assessment of effects and remote presence. You should also guard against halo-
effects and interpretation bias during observation.
6. Quantification of Observation: Observations are quantified by coding. There are
multiple coding systems in use today. The three major types are the sign system, the
category system and the rating system.
a. The Sign System otherwise called interval recording, records the event once
within a specified time period. It does not matter how many times the event
occurs during that period. A typical example is the Science Teaching Observation
Schedule, STOS.
b. The Category System which records an event each time it occurs. A typical
example is the Biology Teacher Behaviour Inventory, BTBI.
c. The Rating System which estimates the frequency of events only once, usually
at the end of the observation session. A typical example is the teaching practice
rating.
Types of Observation
There are several types of observation; some are more popular than others. Although,
basically, the various types are similar, they do differ from each other in the degree or extent
of the observers’ participation in the environment, in the setting in which it occurs and in the
manner in which it is organised. Some types/forms of observation are:
1. Participant and Non-Participant observation.
➢ Participant Observation in which the observer is either a member of the
setting or group being observed or has joined the setting or group just for the
purpose of carrying out the observation. In this case, the observer is always
with the observed e.g. your head of department, the principal and the
teachers, the instructor and the apprentice etc.
➢ Non-Participant Observation in which the observer is not a member of the
setting or the group being observed. The observer visits the observed at
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different intervals e.g. Supervisors from the Ministry of Education to the
schools, or Inspectors from the Inspectorate, Teaching Practice etc.
2. Structured and Unstructured
➢ Structured observation employs a formal and strictly organised procedure,
with a set of well-defined observation categories. It is subject to high levels
of control and differentiation. It is organised and planned before the study
begins.
➢ Unstructured observation is loosely organised and the process of observation
is largely left up to the observer to define.
3. Natural and Laboratory Observation
The main difference between these two techniques lies in the type of setting in which
they unfold.
In the natural observation, observation takes place in natural settings. In the
laboratory, they are performed in the laboratory.
4. Open and Hidden
This distinction refers to the degree to which the identity of the researcher as an
observer as well as the purpose of the study is known to the participants. In the case
of the open observation, the participants are well informed of the nature of the study
and the identity of the researcher but in hidden observation they are not.
5. Active and Passive Observation
This type of observation refers to the degree to which the observer is involved in the
process and purpose of observation. Active observation presupposes full engagement
of the observer in the course of the study. In passive observation, the role of the
observer is seen as being just a strict recording of data. In this case observation is a
job to be done in an objective and neutral fashion.
6. Direct and Indirect Observation
Direct observation studies the subjects it intends to explain, for example, if the study
intend to explain the patterns of conflicts in marital homes, and observation involves
named couples, this is a direct observation.
Indirect observation does not involve the subject of study, either because the subject
refuses to take part in the study, a direct observation is not possible, or the subject is
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deceased. Instead, the observer/researcher observes the physical traces the
phenomena under study that the subject has left behind and make conclusions about
the subject.
Techniques for Recording Observations

The techniques as classified by Gall et al. (2003)) are:
1. Duration Recording: This involves measuring the length of time in which target
behaviour occurs. You may use some form of timing device like the stopwatch. You
may record the time for a single behaviour. For example, the length of time a student
stays without making noise, the length of time the teacher talks before moving around
etc.
2. Frequency Count Recording: This involves recording the number of times the target
behaviour is exhibited by the subject. You may use a tally sheet or a counting device
to record each time the behaviour occurs. It is most useful in recording behaviours
of short duration, e.g., how many times a student raises his hands to answer a
question, how many times a teacher use praise to reinforce a good behaviour etc.
3. Interval Recording: In this case, the target behaviour is observed at intervals of say
30 seconds or one minute. The length of time varies with the nature of behaviours
being observed. For instance, which of the listed mannerisms does a teacher exhibit
within the time interval.
4. Continuous Observation: In this case, all the behaviour of the target subject are
recorded in a chronological order during the observation session. For example,
recording everything which the subject does in a given setting – playground,
classroom, in a meeting etc.
5. Time Sampling: In this case, you will select time intervals out of the total time
available for observation. You can only observe during the selected periods. The
periods can be selected at random and can be used in conjunction with the other
methods. For instance, you can select school days at random in order to observe a
given teacher or teachers.
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The Process of Observation
Steps in Observation
What form does observation take in action research? Observation takes place in the same
form as the general research introduced earlier in this book. The content, however, depends
on the nature of observation. The following is a brief summary of the basic steps of research
as employed in the area of observation.
1. Selection of Topic: This step includes the issues to be studied through observation.
This must be an observable social phenomenon of any level.
2. Formulation of the Topic: This involves a specific definition of the topic,
development of observation categories, establishment of the observer-subject
relationship, the type and explanation of what is to be observed.
3. Research Design: Here, the researcher will determine the subjects to be observed,
select the setting for observation, that is, the time when observation will be carried
out, place in which observation will be conducted, type of event to be studied-the
researcher observing everything, some events, routine events and subjects or persons
to be observed.
4. Collection of Data: This involves familiarisation with the setting and subjects, initial
interaction, observation and recording. Recording of data is an issue that must be
considered during the planning stage of the research. This included three issues,
namely what will be recorded, when and how. This refers to the methods of
recording, the events to be recorded and the coding.
The method of recording varies from one type of observation to another. The most
common methods of recording are: i. writing down information verbatim in summary
or in key words ii. Tape recording conversations iii. Video recording events iv.
Taking photographs
5. Auditing of Data: At this stage, the researcher will undertake data reduction,
presentation (e.g. in tables and graphs), cross tabulation and interpretation.
6. Report Writing: This involves the writing of the reports to be published in some form.
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Conducting and Recording Observations.
Conducting good observational action research takes time and practice. The following are
some guidelines to good observation in action research:
1. Obtain prior knowledge of the conditions or background of what to observe;
2. Examine the general and specific objectives of the observation;
3. Determine the method of observation – direct, using assistants, participants or
nonparticipant;
4. Define and establish the variables of observation;
5. Device an appropriate method of recording results;
6. Observe carefully, critically and objectively;
7. Rate specific phenomena independently, in the case of rating;
8. Do not interfere with the setting in which the observation is taking place.
9. Keep your observations short. As your skills improve, you can increase the length
of time that you are observing.
10. Be alert to the behaviour, conversations, and activities of the participants. You
will want to remember as much from your observations as possible. Making a
mental note or jotting down actual notes will be helpful.
11. Concentrate on specifics. Avoid being global in your observations. Look for
examples of specific behaviours.
Problems of Observation
Observation, as a method of data collection, has some problems. These are:
1. Observer Effects: These are virtually inevitable, but can be minimized by
unobtrusive methods
2. Observation Requires Enterprise: In order to have proper observation, you need to
be trained if you are not an expert. Assistant observers also need to be trained. This
will help to save time or maintain objectivity.
3. The Number of Observations: The number of observations needed to obtain a
representative sample of events is most of the times prohibitive. This is why many
researchers resort to studying the target phenomena shoddily.
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4. Interpretation Bias: If a researcher decides to report a coloured version rather than
the objective findings, it can distort the observed event. This can be minimized by
the use of blind observation whereby trained observers are used without them
knowing the objectives of the observation; the use of trained recorders for objective
recording of events; the use of multiple independent observers or the use of taped
recorders which can allow analysis and re-analysis.
5. Halo-Effects: You have read about this in the last unit. In this case, it means later
records of observations being affected by earlier impressions. This can reduce the
reliability of information collected through observation.
6. Rating Errors: This can occur when the rating system is used. It can be as a result of
ambiguities in the meaning of the scale points. Again, rating systems such as the
tendency to rate subjects towards the middle, rather than at either of the two
extremes.
Advantages of Observation
1. It provides unique insights not attained by other methods.
2. It yields direct first-hand information which is more valid than reported information.
3. It is peculiarly suitable for the study of young children, handicapped persons and
illiterates.
4. It is relatively inexpensive.
5. It employs a less complicated and less time-consuming procedures of subject
selection.
6. It can offer data when respondents are unable and/or unwilling to correlation-operate
or to offer information.
Disadvantages of observation
1. It requires enormous amounts of time, energy and resources to be properly executed
2. Samples are usually small and this tends to reduce the internal validity as well as the
external validity or generalisability of the findings. This is because of the
unrepresentativeness of the samples.
3. Some behaviours are not explicit and observation may not apply in such situations.
4. The faking of some participants when they know that they are being observed.
5. It cannot provide information about past, future or unpredictable
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6. It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly
7. It cannot offer quantitative generalizations on the results
Summary
Dear student, in this session you have learnt that observation is a process of looking out for
and recording the presence or absence of a particular trait or behaviour of a person or group
of persons. We also looked at phase of observation, types of observation as well as
observation method. We further discussed the advantages and disadvantages of observation
in action research.
Activity 3.2
1. What is the difference between participant and non-participant observation?
a) Participant observation involves being a member of the group being
observed while non-participant observation involves visiting the observed
at different intervals.
b) Participant observation involves observing at different intervals while non-
participant observation involves being with the observed all the time.
c) Participant observation involves observing from a distance while non-
participant observation involves being a member of the group being observed.
d) Participant observation involves observing from a distance while non-
participant observation involves being with the observed all the time.
2. Which recording technique involves measuring the length of time in which target
behaviour occurs?
a) Continuous Observation
b) Duration Recording
c) Frequency Count Recording
d) Interval Recording
1. Explain observation?
2. What are the phases of observation?
3. Explain the two types of observation.
4. What are the techniques for recording observation?
5. State 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages using observation as a data collection
instrument in action research?
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UNIT 3 SESSION 3: INTERVIEW
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to session 3 of unit 3. In the previous session, we studied the
observation techniques for data collection in action research. In this session, we will focus
our attention on using interview as a data collection instrument in action research. It will
expose you to the details of how to use the interview technique as a data collection tool, the
advantages, and disadvantages. We hope you will enjoy the session. Before we proceed let
us look at the learning indicators.
Learning indicator
1. explain the meaning of interview
2. discuss the phases of interview;
3. list and explain the types of interview;
4. enumerate the advantages and disadvantages;
5. explain how to record interview responses.
Let us now read on ………
Interview
An interview is a way to gather information in which the researcher or someone working for
the researcher asks questions of the person being interviewed, who is called the interviewee
(the research participant). To interview is to inquire, ask questions of, and listen to students,
colleagues, and other individuals associated with your project in order to hear another side,
version, or perspective of the event. In interview data, the researcher asks and the participant
responds to questions. Individual or group interviews may be conducted orally or in writing,
singly or in groups. The telephone could also be used to conduct interviews. The researcher's
freedom to utilise probes is a strength of interviews (prompts used to obtain response clarity
or additional information).
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So if you want to achieve maximum success in your use of interview, the interview situation
should be kept as comfortable and permissive as possible. A lot of communication skill is
needed in order to frame the questions in such a way that the respondents can understand
what information they are required to give. Therefore, you must ask questions which are
relevant and related to the type of information you desire to obtain.
One-on-one interview/in-person interviews: In one-on-one interviews, the interviewer talks

to one person or an individual at a time. For example, one-on-one interviews might be
conducted with students understanding of mathematics lessons in class to capture their
individual perspectives.
Focus group interview/discussion: Group interview/Focus group interview/discussion is a

type of group interview in which a moderator leads a discussion with a small group of
individuals (e.g., students, teachers, teenagers) to examine, in detail, how the group members
think and feel about a topic. It is called a “focus” group because the moderator keeps the
individuals in the group focused on the topic being discussed. The moderator generates
group discussion through the use of open-ended questions, and he or she acts as a facilitator
of group process. Focus groups are used to collect qualitative data that are in the words of
the group participants. students, parents, staff. With focus group interviews, the researcher
is able to collect data from multiple participants and also to observe and record the
interactions and group dynamics that unfold.
Types of Interviews
Interviews, being it individual or group can be classified into structured, semi structured,
or nonstructured interview.
1. Structured interview is one in which the researcher comes to the interview with a set
of questions, does not deviate from those questions, and asks the same questions of
all the participants. Structured interviews are interviews in which the specific
questions to be asked and the order of the questions are predetermined and set by the
researcher. They are based on a strict procedure and a highly structured interview
guide, which is no different from questionnaire. A structured interview is in reality a
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questionnaire read by the interviewer as prescribed by the researcher. The rigid
structure determines the operations of this research instrument and allows no
freedom to make adjustment to any of its elements, such as contents, wording or
order of questions. The instrument of predetermined questions is known as an
interview schedule. The interview is based on this schedule, and strict adherence to
the questions and the instructions is paramount.
2. Semi structured interview: In a semi structured interview, researchers usually
prepare a list of the questions to be asked but allow themselves the opportunity to
probe beyond the protocol.
3. Unstructured interview: Unstructured interviews are more conversation-like and
allow for the greatest flexibility. The researchers may simply jot down a list of topics
that they want to cover in the interview. There are no restrictions in the wording of
the question, the order of question or the interview schedule. Thus, the interviewers
have the discretion to form questions on the spot, probe into issues and in some cases
follow the order dictated by the situation. The structure of these interviews is flexible
and the restrictions minimal. An instrument used in such an interview is called an
interview guide. The guide is not as detailed as the schedule. It merely outlines the
kind of information required.
Generally, in qualitative research, the researcher will conduct a semi structured or
unstructured interview.
Phases of Interview
There are four major phases of interview. These phases overlap and interact. They are
preparation, establishment of rapport, the question-answer and the recording phases.
1. Preparation Phase: The degree of success in an interview is dependent on how well

you have prepared for it. The preparation stage is when you take decisions on the
mode of recording the responses. You need to check the recording instruments for
validity and reliability. You need to trial-test the instruments to ensure that they are
in good working conditions. For instance, if you are going to use a tape recorder, you
have to see that the batteries are good and tried out. If you need to use gifts to express
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gratitude or to establish rapport, you need to make the correct selection. Again,
during this stage, you will ascertain the cultural background of your subjects, so that
appropriate salutations may be used, appreciate wears may be selected in advance.
You also need to ascertain the biographical data of your subjects so as to address
them appropriately. Your questions should be derived from well-defined hypotheses
or research questions. They have to be edited in terms of such issues as
appropriateness, length, relevance, palatability, clarity, simplicity, precision,
language and the conceptual levels. You have to validate the questions. You
remember how the questionnaire instruments were validated? It is the same thing
here i.e. through expert validation and trial-testing. After the validation, you would
review the questions thoroughly, memorise them, if possible and rehearse it to
mastery level in the sequence in which they will be asked.
2. Rapport Phase: For you to collect valid data, you need to establish a cordial
atmosphere for the interview. There is no rule for doing this, but as a mature
investigator, you have to survey the situation and evolve appropriate strategies. You
may follow any of these suggestions:
a. Courteously seek permission from the appropriate authority. In doing this, you
should provide information about the objectives of the study and the nature of
the interview.
b. Give notice to the interviewee and book appointment for date, time and venue.
The venue should be comfortable in terms of sitting, ventilation, lighting and
decoration. The venue should be noise-proof.
c. Take note of your appearance. It should be appropriate, neat, unoffensive.
Consider your dental and body deodorization and any other aspect likely to
irritate your subject.
d. Your first contact with the interviewee must be friendly, pleasant and courteous.
Use appropriate salutation and address him with the correct title. Pay some
compliments, but not flatter. This will make him more relaxed.
e. You need to be relaxed too. Introduce yourself briefly and modestly and also
introduce the problem which is the focus of the interview. You may need to start
by asking the first few minutes for a short conversation to enable you and your
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subject to relax. You also need to assure him that his responses will be treated
confidentially and only for the research purposes. Otherwise, he might be
suspicious and unwilling to respond to the questions freely.
3. Question-Answer Phase: This is where you have to make use of your skills and
expertise to make the session more permissive, flexible and interactive. You have to
keep the interviewee, interested and responsive till the end of the interview. In doing
this, you have to devise appropriate strategies, but you have to be pointed and
business-like and not to wonder aimlessly. When you ask a starter question, follow
it up with prodding and probing questions to get comprehensive information. Where
you need to use pictures or related objects, drafts, drawings etc. use them for probing
to elicit further explanations and reasons for earlier statements. But you should try to
avoid interviewer bias by being as nondirective as possible. In all, you have to be
relaxed, not tensed up or nervous throughout the duration of the interview.
4. Recording Phase: Recording is a very important aspect of interview. You must try to
comprehensively record information from an interview as unobtrusively as possible.
Recording may be done in any of the three methods.
(a) Mental Note: If you want to commit the responses into memory, you can be sure;
it removes apprehension on the part of the respondent and therefore increases the
rapport. But you have to appropriately assess yourself in terms of memory retention
before using mental notes. This is because any information forgotten is as good as
missing and may not be easily reconstructed.
(b) Written Note: It is advisable to use written records when there are too many
questions and responses. But extensive writing is likely to excite or offend
respondents. If this happens the rapport and validity of the responses will be reduced.
If you are versed in shorthand, it can be an advantage in written notes. You can also
use structure interview schedule where alternative responses are provided. Here,
there is minimum writing, but you have to make allowance for unanticipated
responses.
(c) Taped Records: In order to solve all the problems of memory loss and that of
extensive writing, tape recording of interview is the answer. It removes strain from
the interviewer. It can be replayed and transcribed at leisure. But you have to bear at
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the back of your mind that audio and video recording instruments can go faulty in
the process. You must take care of this at the planning stage. Other problems like
instrument reactivity should also be taken care of. Recording can also frighten or
excite the subject. This may channel away his attention and bring about distortion in
his behaviour. As far as possible, conceal your recorders. You can use micro
recorders, remote censors or pick up buttons when available.
Characteristics Skills and Qualities of Interviewers

The interviewers must possess certain skills and qualities to be able to conduct a successful
interview. Amedahe (2002) has identified the following skills and qualities to be followed
for a successful interview session.
a. Knowledgeable: The researcher must be knowledgeable on the topic/theme he/she is
working on. Why is this so? This will enable the interviewer to pursue relevant
issues.
b. Structuring: An interviewer should be able to structure the interview – introduction,
process and closing. He/she should be able to give an introduction that will capture
the attention of the interviewees. In the process of the interview he/she should be
lively and not boring in order to sustain the interview throughout the session.
c. Clear: The interviewer should pose clear, simple, short and straightforward
questions. He/she should be able to speak distinctly and understandably and avoid
academic and professional jargons.
d. Gentle: Allows subjects to complete what they are saying and tolerate pauses and
accept unconventional and provocative opinions.
e. Sensitive: Listen attentively to the content of what is said. Be empathetic, if need be.
f. Steering: The interviewer should control the course of the interview and should not
be afraid of interrupting digressions from the interviewee
g. Open: Approach the interview with an open mind. Must be open to others’ opinions.
Accept whatever opinions and interviewee expresses on an issue once he/she has not
digressed.
h. Critical: Does not take everything that is said at the face value but questions critically
to test the reliability and validity of what the interviewees tell.
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i. Remembering: The interviewer should be able to retain and recall what interviewees
tell and must be able to relate them.
j. Interpreting: An interviewer must throughout the interview session try to clarity and
extend the meanings of the statements made by the interviewee for confirmation or
disconfirmation.
Advantages and Limitations of Interviewing

The popularity of interview is often justified in terms of several of its qualities which give it
an advantage over other methods of data collection.
The advantages of interviewing
1. Flexibility – interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations.
2. High response rate – interviewing attracts a relatively high response rate.
3. Easy administration – interviews do not require respondents to have the ability to
read.
4. Opportunity to observe non-verbal behaviour – such opportunities are obviously not
available when questionnaires are used.
5. Capacity for correcting misunderstanding by respondents. More complex questions
can be used because the presence of the interviewer can assist in correcting any
misunderstanding as well as assisting in answering the questions.
Limitations
1. Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods such as
questionnaires.
2. They are attacked for the “interviewer factor” and the possible bias associated with
it.
3. They are more inconvenient than other methods such as using questionnaires.
4. It is less effective than other methods when sensitive issues are discussed. For
example, many people prefer to write about sensitive issues than to talk about them
5. It offers less anonymity than other methods since the interviewer knows the identify,
residence, type of housing, etc.
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Summary
In this unit, we have learned that interview is a face-to-face interaction in which oral
questions are posed by an interviewer to draw out responses from the interviewee. We have
also look at the phases of interview as preparation phase, rapport phase, question and answer
phase and recording phase. The advantages and disadvantages of interview, the major
considerations, which are interviewer characteristics and nature of the problem were also
discussed. Let us reflect on what we have discussed.
Activity 3.3
1. How is the person being interviewed referred to?
a) The interviewee
b) The investigator
c) The observer
d) The researcher
2. What is the role of the moderator in a focus group interview?
a) To ask closed-ended questions
b) To facilitate group discussion
c) To provide a lecture on the topic being discussed
d) To record individual responses
1. State and explain the 4 phases of conducting interview

2. Mention the types of interview
3. Outline 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of interview
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UNIT 3 SECTION 4: QUESTIONNAIRE
Welcome to session 4 of unit 3. In this session, you will study in detail the questionnaire as
an instrument for data collection in action research.
Learning indicators
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
1. define the concept of questionnaire;
2. enumerate the types of questionnaire;
3. construct questionnaire items;
4. list the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire;
5. discuss the characteristics of a good questionnaire
The Concept of Questionnaire
A questionnaire can be said to be a carefully designed instrument for collecting information
or data in relation to the specifications of the research questions and hypotheses. This
instrument is used to elicit written responses from the subjects of the research through a
series of questions or statements put together with some specific objectives in mind. It can
be used to ascertain facts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, practices, etc.
The Components of Questionnaire

A questionnaire is made up of such components as the title, the introduction, the response
instructions, biographical information, the questions/statements, return instructions and
gratitude. For you, as a student/learner, a letter of reference from an appropriate authority
may accompany your questionnaire to elicit the cooperation of your respondents. Now, let
us briefly touch on these components.
a. The Title: This gives an appropriate caption for the substantive content of the
questionnaire. It is not the topic of the research project.
b. The Introduction: This gives the main objectives of the research and/or the
questionnaire. It also gives a guarantee of anonymity of the respondents and
confidential treatment of the information supplied. It establishes a rapport with the
respondents by assuring that no information in the research report can be traced to
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particular individuals. This will likely bring out accurate, frank, objective and
comprehensive information from the respondents.
c. The Response Instruction: This specifies the mode or modes of completing the
questionnaire. You have to instruct the respondents to fill in the blanks, underline,
put a cross, circle or tick the appropriate place. It is a good practice to use one or two
questions and answers to illustrate what they should do.
d. Biographical Information: This gives the personal data of the respondents. It is
required for analysis and interpretation of the data. It includes such things as type of
school, class, occupation, sex, income, age, qualification, experience, social class,
marital status, etc. You should include only the variables that are needed for analysis
and interpretations. Again, you have to be cautious on the type of information being
elicited or required.
e. The Questions/Statements: This gives the actual substantive content of the research.
They can require factual answers, opinions or evaluations. Every question/statement
has to address a specific issue in the research. Therefore, the questions/statements
must not be written aimlessly, haphazardly or shoddily. All the statements or
questions must be relevant to the hypotheses and/or research questions. Do not add
unnecessary questions to make the questionnaire lengthy. Select words which will
give you the required information with a minimum of distortions. The language
should be simple, clear and precise. You must try to avoid ambiguous, suggestive,
leading, antagonistic and embarrassing questions that invade privacy. Do not use
double-barrelled questions.
f. Return Instructions: These direct the respondents on what to do with the completed
instrument. Specify the collection point, a mailing address or to hand them back to
you or your assistants.
g. The Gratitude: This is the end of the instrument. You should recognize that the
respondents are under no obligation to complete the instrument. In fact, they are
doing you a favour. Therefore, you need to appreciate the respondents by thanking
them.
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Forms of Questionnaire
Based on the format for the statements/questions and the responses, questionnaires can be
classified into two major types. These are structured/closed or fixed response type and the
unstructured/open end type. Let us look at them.
1. The Structure or Fixed Response or Close-Ended Questionnaire: Here, the
respondents are restricted to some response options. A question is asked or a
statement is made and a respondent has to choose from the available alternatives.
You can see that the respondents do not have the freedom and opportunity to express
their views. Look at the following examples:
Tick the appropriate responses:
(a) How old are you?
20 – 30 years ( ) 31 – 40 years ( ) 41 – 50 years ( ) 51 – 60 years ( ) 61 and above
()
(b) For how long have you been teaching?
Below 5 years ( ) 6 – 10 years ( ) 11 – 15 years ( ) 16 – 20 years ( ) 21 and above
()
This type of questionnaire is usually preferred because it facilitates data analysis and
the estimation of validity and reliability indices for the instrument. Again, it is easier
and demands less time to complete. But on the other hand, a respondent may have
different suggestions for your imagination. He may not have the opportunity to give
those suggestions.
2. Unstructured or Open-Ended Questionnaire: Here, response options are not provided
for the respondents. All you need do is to provide questions pertinent to the problem
and the respondents are free to supply their responses in their own words and in any
manner. When you are not sure or cannot predict what the subjects’ responses are
likely to be, this type of questionnaire is the most appropriate. The open-end
questionnaire can provide unanticipated and insightful information that could lead to
a better understanding of the problem. But they are difficult to complete and time-
consuming. There may be misinterpretation arising from the fact that some people
may not be able to express themselves very well; while others may use styles which
are at variance with that of the researcher. These may bring about communication
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problems. Again, classification and quantification of the responses are very difficult
leading to serious difficulties in the data analysis.
Construction of Questionnaire Items

For you to construct a questionnaire, you need to clearly identify the objectives for which
the questionnaire is expected to accomplish. This will make the questionnaire to yield
information pertinent to the problem of study. After identifying the objectives, you then start
to construct the items. To be able to write good questionnaire items, you have to consider
such factors like: the sample characteristics, type of questionnaire format to adopt and the
length of the questionnaire.
(a) The Sample Characteristics: Here, you may need to know the educational level, their
socio-economic class, age etc. Why do you have to know this information about your
samples? This will enable you keep the language and illustrations at such a level that will be
appropriate to the samples.
(b) Type of Questionnaire Format to Adopt: You have to decide whether to use the restricted
response format or the open-end format. This will depend on the type of data you need to
generate and the type of analysis you require to do.
(c) The Length of the Questionnaire: You have to put into consideration that the longer the
instrument, the higher the reliability. But it can be boring to complete a lengthy instrument.
Therefore, you will have to construct an instrument which is neither too short nor too long.
Administration of Questionnaire
Administration of the questionnaire to the respondents can be done in any of these three
ways:
1. By Mail: In this case, the questionnaire is sent by mail to the respondents who are
expected to complete and also return through the post. If you want to use this method,
then you have to encourage a high response and return rate by enclosing stamped
self-addressed envelopes for the return. Some of the times, you need to send
appropriate, tangible inducements such as gifts or suitably-worded and non-
threatening reminders to those who have not returned by due time. You should also
make arrangements for substitute respondents where possible. The advantage of
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using the mail is that suitably qualified respondents can be used in the research while
they are very far away. Again, the respondents can afford to consult sources of
information. It can also increase the chances of obtaining valid but socially
unacceptable responses. Again time and travelling expenses are conserved.
The advantages are:
(i) Very poor response or low percentage returns which tend to reduce the
sample size and leads to sampling bias;
(ii) Not suitable for persons of low intelligence or low educational background,
since you are not there to explain any misinterpretation;
(iii) The instrument may be given to a more competent person to fill, this may
result in the distortion of the sample and results;
(iv) You cannot follow any chronogram, since you do not have control of the
time to receive the responses and therefore plan to start the analysis;
(v) You cannot guarantee the return of the instrument by post, especially in
Ghana where the postal services are very poor.
2. Personal Administration with on-the-spot collection: In this case, you and your
research assistants can deliver the questionnaires to the respondents in person, wait
for them to complete and collect them back. This method can give you a 100%
delivery and return. It will also provide the opportunity to clarify misinterpretations,
while ambiguities are kept to a minimum. You are also in control of the time for
completing the project. But if the respondents do have the answers on-the-spot, he
may need to access the information before completing the questionnaire. Again, your
presence may influence the respondents to fake responses or put them under
psychological tension. The personality of the researcher may positively or negatively
affect the diligent completion of the instrument.
3. Personal delivery with collection after a time interval: In this case, you need to
deliver the questionnaires in person, but return after some time to collect them. This
mode affords the respondents time to look up information. They are more relaxed
while completing the instrument. Therefore, it is preferred when documents and
other sources need to be consulted. But you may not be sure of 100% return. Again,
time and money may be wasted in repeated trips to check on the respondents. There
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may be mass consultation of respondents in close proximity in your absence. This
may give rise to uniform responses which will reduce the validity of the data. Note
that these modes may be used in combinations. It depends on your choice.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

You have seen that the questionnaire is a very popular method of data collection in education
and behavioural sciences. The reason can be attributed to the relative ease and cost-
effectiveness with which it is constructed and administered to large samples when compared
to other methods. To serve its purposes very effectively, the questionnaire you construct
must be characterized by the following features:
(i) Relevance: The instrument should be relevant to the purpose of the research. It
should elicit all the information necessary for answering the research questions
and testing the hypotheses. It should also consider the background and experience
of the respondents.
(ii) Consistency: The instrument should be able to yield responses that are consistent.
The responses of a group of people to the instrument on two different occasions
should be as close as possible on these occasions.
(iii) Usability: The instrument should as much as possible be usable. It should not be
too long or so bulky. The conditions for the administration and the method for
interpreting the data elicited should be fairly simple and easy.
(iv) Clarity: Both the instructions and the items should be clear enough to avoid
possible misinterpretations. You should note once again that a good
questionnaire should not contain ambiguous items or instructions.
(v) Quantifiability: The responses from a good questionnaire must be easily
quantifiable. It should be easy to assign numerical values or figures to such
responses in a manner that is systematic.
(vi) Legibility: All the items should be legible without tiny characters. The words
should be properly spaced with appropriate side margins. Always use the
computer to type your questionnaire so as to produce very neat and legible
instrument.
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Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
1. It is economical in terms of time and cost;
2. It can be administered to variety of people;
3. It is easy to administer and even to distant respondents;
4. It can be used to get information on non-cognitive constructs such as kindness, stress,
anxiety etc;
5. Great percentage of students or respondents can be reached at a time.
Disadvantages
1. There may be low percentage return which may lead to the distortion of the findings;
2. There may be misunderstanding or wrong responses if the item s are not clear or the
instructions are misleading;
3. Wrong or negative or faked answers may be given if the instrument is too lengthy or
if it is intruding of the respondents’ private life;
4. It is not suitable for the illiterates, semi-illiterates, and children.
Summary
Well done my dear learners, in this session, we have learnt that the questionnaire is a
carefully designed instrument for collecting data in accordance with specifications of
research questions or hypotheses. We have also look at the construction, validation,
administration, advantage and disadvantage of the questionnaire.
Activity 3.4
1. What is the purpose of biographical information in a questionnaire?
a) To direct the respondents on what to do with the completed instrument.
b) To give the main objectives of the research project
c) To provide information about the mode of completing the questionnaire
d) To specify the personal data of the respondents
2. What is a structured or fixed response questionnaire?
a) A questionnaire that allows respondents to freely express their views.
b) A questionnaire that is not suitable for data analysis
c) A questionnaire that restricts respondents to some response options
d) A questionnaire that requires lengthy and time-consuming responses
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1. In your own words explain questionnaire

2. Enumerate the types of questionnaires you know.
3. List the components of a questionnaire.
4. Outline 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of using questionnaire as data collection
instrument.
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UNIT 3 SECTION 5: RATING SCALES/CHECKLISTS
Dear students, welcome to session 5 of unit 3. In this session we will be looking at other data
collection instrument such as rating scales, check list, attitude scales, and photography.
Before we start the discussion, let us look at the learning indicators for the session.
Learning indicators
1. Explain what is a checklist.
2. explain the use of rating scale in measuring behaviour.
3. discuss the types of attitude scales;
4. describe the use of interest inventories in data collection.
5. explain sociometric technique of data collection
Now read on
1. Rating scale/checklist
A rating scale is used to assess the extent to which a person possesses particular
characteristics or exhibits particular behaviours. The rating scale necessitates a response
from the rater, indicating the extent to which a person possesses a particular trait.
Typically, the scale consists of a series of statements about the trait or behaviour being
assessed, and the rater assigns a point value to each statement based on the extent to
which they agree with it. The Likert scale is a common example of a rating scale, in
which individuals indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement,
such as "I am a good listener" or "I am able to work well under pressure."
A checklist on the other hand, is a simple tool for obtaining information about
whether a person possesses particular qualities or demonstrates particular behaviours.
The checklist consists of a list of items or tasks that must be marked as present or
absent by the individual being assessed.
Action researchers frequently use checklists and rating scales as part of their teaching
and their research. Teachers might design a checklist or rating scale for the strategies or
skills that they hope to see in their students’ writing and record information on the skills
that they see along with the dates or assignments on which the skills were shown. Simple
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rating scales might be designed to assess student reactions to assignments. Checklists for
action research might also be open-ended, with categories identified and space for
recording information about student strengths and weaknesses.
Figure 1
Rating Scale for English or Literacy Skills.
Grade Writing competencies Introduce Progressing Proficient Mastery
Level 0 1 2 3
5,6,7,8 Write to reflect personal ideas
7,8 Construct simple outlines
7,8 Use story clusters
5,6,7,8 Use a dictionary
5,6 Write complete simple
sentences
5,6 Write complete compound
sentences
5,6 Write complete complex
sentences
From Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice (p. 128) Lodico, et al,
(2010), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 3
Observational Checklist for Self-Esteem.
___ Child is afraid to try new things.
___ Child seems to be hopeful about the future.
___ Child gets discouraged easily.
___ Child is self-directed and initiates activities on own.
___ Child is comfortable making eye contact with others.
___ Child thinks s/he is not important or is unattractive
From Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice (p. 114) by Lodico et al.
(2010), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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2. Videotaping the action/ audio-taped interviews: In action research, videotaping the
action or audiotaping interviews are common collection methods. They are used to
record the actions or interactions of participants and allow researchers to analyze
these actions and interactions in great detail.
Using a video camera to record the behaviour, actions, or interactions of participants
constitutes videotaping the event. The researcher may use a camera to record a
particular location, event, or activity. Afterward, the video footage can be reviewed
and analyzed to identify patterns, behaviours, or interactions that may be relevant to
the research question. This method is particularly useful when the research focuses
on non-verbal communication, body language, or other visual cues that may not be
readily captured by other data collection techniques.
In contrast, audiotaped interviews involve recording participant interviews using an
audio recorder. The interviewer asks the participant questions and documents their
responses, which can be transcribed and analyzed later. This method is beneficial
when the focus of the research is the participants' opinions, attitudes, or beliefs. It
enables researchers to record the participant's voice, tone, and inflection, which may
be difficult to record using other data acquisition methods. Videotapes and
audiotapes are more obtrusive and run the risk of changing participants’ behaviours
as students “mug for the camera.” However, the advantage of videotapes and
audiotapes is that they allow the researcher to record actions and interactions more
fully and to revisit the events at a later time (Lodico et al., 2010). Videotaping and
audiotaping are tools that can also be helpful in establishing reliability for action
research measures. If a rubric or observational checklist is being used to gather data
from a classroom activity, the situation can be also videotaped. The recordings then
can be viewed and scored by multiple people at a later date. The data from both the
checklist and the videotape can then be compared. Video material catches the non-
verbal data that audio recordings cannot, which may be particularly useful. Video
material is live and is useful for recording evolving situations and interactions, details
that the observer may miss, and non-verbal matters (e.g. facial expressions,
aggressive behaviour (Cohen, et al., 2018).
3. Photographs: Photography can be used as a data collection instrument in action
research. In action research, photographs are frequently used as visual
representations of data that can be analyzed and used to inform context-specific
changes. Photographs can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data,
and they can provide a comprehensive and complex view of the subject of research.
Photographs are capable of capturing both static and dynamic images in a variety of
contexts. For instance, photographs of physical environments, such as classrooms
or workplaces, can capture information about how individuals interact with the
space. People can also be photographed in order to capture their facial expressions,
body language, and interactions. Researchers might take photographs themselves or
might ask participants to take photos. This provides a useful window into the
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participants’ experiences and perspectives and enables the researcher to share the
products of the research—that is, the photos—with collaborating participants. As
with photographs, the researcher has to be aware of the selective bias inherent in
moving images, i.e. the images recorded are a function of the focus and location of
the camera, as well as the editing of the material. Hence the researcher must
consider not only the images themselves and where, how, why, for whom, how and
under what conditions they were produced, but also the interpretations that he or
she (or indeed others) make or may make of the moving images, and how these
interpretations are influenced by the interpreters’ own backgrounds, values and
purposes, i.e. the issue of reflexivity (Cohen, et al, 2018).
4. Attitude Scales: Attitude is a response pattern or a tendency to think or act in a
particular way under a given set of circumstances. It is closely related to feelings and
emotions which constitute an important aspect of an individual’s personality. In
action research, attitude scales are a common data collection instrument used to
assess people's beliefs or perceptions towards a particular phenomenon or issue. An
attitude scale is a self-report tool made up of several statements or questions
regarding a particular subject. We can use an attitude scale to measure attitudes
towards the introduction of new changes in school, society, system etc. For instance,
we can construct attitude scales to measure the attitude of teachers or
students/learners towards new educational programme, new punishment mode, new
school uniforms etc.
5. Interest Inventories: Interests are the likes and dislikes of a person. Then, an interest
inventory is an instrument used for measuring the person’s likes and dislikes and
aversions. A person’s interest in an activity, event, object, programme, course etc. is
measured with an interest inventory. The inventory consists of a series of questions
about various topics, and the respondent is asked to rate their level of interest in each.
The responses to the questions are scored to determine whether or not the individual
is interested in the area. A high score shows interest while a low score indicates lack
of interest in that particular area. For instance, an academic counsellor may utilize
an interest inventory to assist a student in selecting a course of study or career path.
The primary benefit of using an interest inventory is that it provides insight into an
individual's motivations and preferences; however, it may be limited to specific areas
and may not provide information about the individual's skills or abilities in those
areas.
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Summary
Good work done for completing session 5 of unit 3. In this session we have discussed other
data collection instruments in action research. Focusing on rating scale, checklist, attitude
scales, videos, photographs and interest inventories. Let us reflect on what we have discussed
so far.
Activity 3.5
1. Which of the following explains an interest inventory?
a) A tool for measuring a person's cognitive abilities.
b) A tool for measuring a person's likes and dislikes.
c) A tool for measuring a person's personality traits.
d) A tool for measuring a person's physical fitness.
2. Which of the following is an example of a rating scale?

a) A list of items or tasks that must be marked as present or absent by the
individual being assessed.
b) A tool for obtaining information about whether a person possesses particular
qualities or demonstrates particular behaviours.
c) A series of statements about the trait or behaviour being assessed, and the
rater assigns a point value to each statement.
d) A tool for indicating the level of agreement or disagreement with a statement.
1. Construct a 5- point rating scale to observed a learner’s behaviour towards teaching

of English language
2. What is interest inventories in research?
3. Distinguish between rating scale and a checklist
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UNIT 3 SECTION 6: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to session 6 of unit 3. In the previous session under unit 3, we have
look at data collection instruments. In this session we will focus our attention on the validity
and reliability of instruments used in collecting of data.
Learning indicator
By the end of the session, you will be able to.
1. define validity and reliability of an instrument;
2. discuss the types of validity;
3. explain the various ways of estimating reliability.
Validity
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If
research has high validity that means it produces results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world. It refers to the extent to which
an instrument measures exactly what it purports to measure and nothing else. As a
researcher, you are faced with several educational variables for measurement. These include
intelligence, attitude, achievement, aptitude, creativity among others. Validity is always
specific to some particular use. An instrument may be valid for one purpose, but not for
another. You should therefore ask yourself whether the instrument is valid for the purpose
to which you intend to put it. For instance, an instrument that has a high validity in reasoning
ability may have very low validity for measuring arithmetic ability. An instrument may be
valid for one culture or geographical setting, but not valid for another.
Validity can be classified into four major types. These are content, construct, criterion related
and face validities.
1. Face Validity
Face validity is the extent to which an instrument appears to measure what it is
intended to measure. It is a subjective and informal assessment of whether a measure
appears to measure what it is intended to measure, based on a fast glance or brief
inspection.
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For instance, if a researcher is devising a questionnaire to measure depression, the
questionnaire's face validity would be evaluated by examining the questions and
determining whether they appear to be related to the symptoms of depression. A
measure with high face validity appears valid and pertinent at first glance and is
perceived as such by those who use it.
Despite its importance, face validity is not a sufficient indicator of a measure's
validity because it does not guarantee that the measure actually measures what it is
intended to measure. It is the initial stage in determining whether or not a measure is
valid. To determine the overall validity of a measure, other categories of validity,
such as construct validity and criterion validity, must also be established through
empirical evidence.
2. Content Validity
This refers to the degree with which the items of an instrument are representative
of the content and behaviours being measured. This indicates that the
instrument's questions or items are appropriate, comprehensive, and cover all the
essential aspects of the concept being measured.
It is estimated using the sample of items and comparing them with the content
and behaviours which they should represent. A high degree of content validity is
achieved if the sample of items covers all aspects of the content and behaviours.
3. Construct Validity: This refers to the extent to which a particular instrument
reflects hypothetical constructs presumed to underlie the performance and also
the extent to which the instrument reflects the theories underlying the constructs.
Some psychological concepts such as: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, attitude,
reasoning etc. which cannot be seen with the eyes, but their existence can only
be inferred from manifested characteristics or behaviour are called constructs.
For you to design a test, you have to ask: To what extent do certain explanatory
concepts or qualities account for students’ performance on a test? The process of
construct validity is easy to determine only when the construct is specified.
Therefore, the construct should be precisely defined before you undertake to
develop the instrument. Let us take students’ interest in your subject, for instance.
In the definition of interest, you specify such behaviour as prompt attendance,
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alertness, carrying out assignments, smiles on their faces when they understand,
curiousity to learn, asking relevant questions etc. So, when you administer a
testing the subject and notice that students who exhibit the abovementioned
behaviours perform better, you can say that the test has a good construct validity.
4. Criterion Related Validity: Criterion-related validity is a form of validity used to
evaluate the relationship between a test or measurement instrument and a
particular criterion or outcome. This type of validity examines how well a test or
measurement instrument predicts or correlates with a specific outcome or
criterion.
In order to assess the validity of a test designed to measure mathematical
ability, a researcher might compare test scores to actual mathematical
performance (such as grades or test scores) to determine whether the test
accurately predicts math ability. If there is a strong correlation between test
scores and mathematical ability, the test has high criterion-related validity.
Reliability
It refers to the extent of consistency with which an instrument measures what it is
measuring. An instrument is regarded as reliable if it yields the same results time
after time, or if similar results come out consistently under the same or slightly
different test conditions. It is very important that the data collection tool you are
going to use for your research project is reliable, especially if your research study is
going to involve pre-test and post-test, experimental and control groups. If your
instrument has low level of reliability, it may not be able to discriminate between
pre-test scores and post-test scores. It may not discriminate effectively between the
performance of the experimental and control group. The methods of estimating
reliability include test-retest, alternative form, split-halves and internal consistency
methods.
a. Test – Retest Method: This involves the repeated administrations of the
instrument to the same people on two occasions. It is usually recommended that
the time interval be between two weeks and one month. The scores resulting from
the two administrations of the test are then correlated. You will have to note that
if the time interval is too short, the memory of the responses to the first test will
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affect the second. A long-time interval may create opportunity for candidates to
learn more or to forget what they had known.
b. Alternate-Form Method or Equivalent Form Method: In this method, two parallel
forms of an instrument are administered to the same respondents at a single
sitting or with a short time interval between the two. The scores from the two
tests are correlated. You have to note that parallel forms of an instrument are
expected to have the same specification of content and objectives and measures
the same behaviours.
c. Split-Halves Method: This is a measure of internal consistency. It requires the
administration of a single test instrument to the students once then the items of
the instrument are split into two parts. In other words, the total set of items is
divided into halves. The scores on the halves are correlated to obtain the estimate
of reliability. You can split the items using odd and even numbers, or randomly
dividing the items into two groups etc. You can see that the result you get from
it for a half test.
d. Internal Consistency Method The estimate here is obtained through an analysis
of the individual items following a single administration of the measuring
instrument.
Summary
Congratulation, you have d to the end of session 6 of unit 3. In this session we have looked
at validity, types of validity, reliability, types of reliability and how to measure validity and
reliability of the instruments.
Activity 3.6.
1. What does high validity in research mean?
a) The results produced correspond to characteristics, and variations social
world.
b) The results produced are consistent and repeatable.
c) The results produced are free from bias.
d) The results produced are easy to understand.
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2. Which of the following is an example of a variable that a researcher may need to
measure for validity in action research involving classroom teaching practices and
learners’ achievement?
a) A learner's level of understanding in a subject area
b) The weather.
c) The time of day
d) The height of a tree
3. What is the Split-Halves Method?

a) Administering a single test instrument to the students once, then splitting
the items into two parts.
b) Administering two parallel forms of an instrument to the same respondents at a
single sitting.
c) Obtaining the estimate of reliability through an analysis of the individual items.
d) Repeated administration of the instrument to the same people on two occasions.
1. Explain the meaning of validity.

2. What do you understand by reliability?
3. State and explain the various types of validity in research.
4. How would you establish reliability of an instrument in research work?
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UNIT 4: DATA ANALYSIS
UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: DATA ANALYSIS AND PREPARATION OF THE DATA

SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
SECTION 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
SECTION 4: MEASURES OF VARIABILITY (DISPERSION)
SECTION 5: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Introduction
You are welcome to the unit 4 of this course. The unit is divided into 5 sections. This unit
provides a step by-step description of the process and techniques for quantitative and
qualitative data analysis and interpretation. We describe the most common and practical
approaches for organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions for different
types of data. The unit seeks to provide the student teacher with understanding of the
procedures and methods in data analysis when conducting Action Research. Finally, it seeks
to assist students to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and application of data analysis
procedures and apply the data analysis procedures in a mini Action Research project
(NTECF, NTS 3a, 3b, 3c, 3e, 3f, 3g, 3i).
Learning Indicators
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. Discuss the preparation and approaches to data analysis
2. Discuss the procedures and methods of quantitative analysis
3. Discuss the procedures for creating a data set
4. Explain the approaches to qualitative data analysis
5. Apply the data analysis procedures in a mini action research project
6. Demonstrate how to analyse data in action research
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UNIT 4 SECTION 1: DATA ANALYSIS AND PREPARATION OF THE DATA
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to unit 4 section 1. In this section we will be looking at the
concept of data analysis and how to prepare data for analysis. The purpose of this session is
to help you to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and application of data analysis
procedures.
Learning Indicators
1. Explain the concept of data analysis.

2. Discuss how to prepare data for analysis.
3. Discuss the process or activities involved in data preparation and organization.
Let now read on …..
Data analysis is a crucial stage in the action research process. Data Analysis is the process
of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate,
condense and recap, evaluate and summarizes collected data. It involves the interpretation
of data gathered through the use of analytical and logical reasoning to determine patterns,
relationships or trends.
Often, data collection seems effortless because the data collected may involve procedures
that a practitioner is doing as a normal part of practice. However, reviewing the notes,
numbers, journals, papers, and other types of data can be time-consuming. It is often useful
to review the data with collaborators who can help to interpret what the data show about the
problem and analyse any changes that resulted from the action plan. The research questions
and the data collected will call for the kind of data analysis that would be employed—
whether quantitative or qualitative data analysis.
Data Preparation
Data preparation involves editing, scoring, coding and entering the data into the computer,
if a computer will be used to analyze the data. Even if the data will be analysed manually, it
must be prepared before it is analyzed. We now proceed to discuss the process or activities
involved in data preparation and organization.
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Editing
What do you understand by editing something? Think about the question for a moment.
Read on and find out whether the idea regarding editing agrees with your thought.
Editing of research data involves (a) correcting mistakes in the data if possible and (b)
deciding whether some of the data collected should be deleted from or kept for data analysis
later. For instance, data collected using questionnaires may be incomplete. They may contain
inaccurate information which the researcher must examine before proceeding to analyze it.
It is at the editing stage that you do this examination. Similarly, the best interviewers are
liable to make errors, omit asking certain questions or to record answers to some questions.
Thus, interview responses must be edited before proceeding with the analysis of the data.
Scoring
The next activity in data preparation is scoring. When a study is quantitative in nature, all
instruments administered should be scored accurately and consistently. For self-developed
instruments such as questionnaires, you must develop a scoring procedure to guide you.
Steps for scoring each item and for arriving at a total score must be delineated and carefully
followed. For instance, if a study uses an attitudinal scale, the negative and positive
statements should be scored properly. For example, when “strongly agree” to the statement
“I enjoy school work” is scored 5 on a five point scale the statement “I find school work
boring” should be scored 1, if an individual “strongly agree” with it. Scoring is usually not
applicable to qualitative data.
Coding
Coding does not mean the same thing in qualitative and quantitative research. In qualitative
research, coding refers to the process of categorizing data. That is, coding in qualitative
research means the process by which the researcher makes sense out of text data, divides it
into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap and collapses
these codes into themes. The codes are just labels to describe a segment of text. Examples
are “poor learners”, “problem children”, “disruptions during the class”, “students talking to
each other”.
Coding in quantitative research is different from coding in qualitative research.
In quantitative research coding may involve:
a. assigning each subject an identification number,
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b. assigning non numerical or categorical data numbers or
c. assigning designated words (labels) to represent certain variables.
For instance, if there are 100 participants in a study, the subjects may be numbered from 001
to 100. This is an example of assigning each subject an identification number. With regard
to assigning non-numerical or categorical data numbers, the experimental and control groups
in a study may be coded “1” and “2”. Similarly, the variable sex may be coded female = “1”
and Male = “2”.
For you to be effective in using the codes for a particular study consistently, there is the need
to prepare a codebook to which you can refer to if you are in doubt. The codebook shows
what numbers or labels have been assigned to different variables and categorical data.
Coding helps the process of data analysis particularly when a computer will be used in
analysing data. If a computer will be used to analyse the data, then a spreadsheet must be
used to enter the data. The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) spreadsheet is
recommended.
Summary
In this section, we discussed about data analysis, preparation of data editing, scoring, coding
and entering the data into the computer. We focus our attention on the essential elements of
data preparation and organization before actual analysis of the data. It became clear that in
action research the process of preparing and organising data is an integral part of the data
analysis. Essentially, data preparation and organization involve editing, scoring and coding
data in action research.
Activity 4.1
1. Why is data analysis important?
a. To collect as much data as possible, regardless of its quality or relevance.
b. To make sense of the data and identify patterns, relationships, or
trends.
c. To manipulate data to fit preconceived notions or biases.
d. To present data in a visually appealing way, regardless of its accuracy or
meaning.
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2. How is data preparation performed?
a. By analysing the data to determine patterns, relationships, or trends.
b. By collecting data from various sources.
c. By editing, scoring, coding, and entering the data into the computer.
d. By presenting data in a report.
3. Compare and contrast coding in qualitative and quantitative research.

a. Coding in qualitative and quantitative research are essentially the same
process.
b. Coding in qualitative research involves assigning identification numbers to
subjects while coding in quantitative research involves assigning designated
words to represent certain variables.
c. Coding in qualitative research involves categorizing and labelling
segments of text data, while coding in quantitative research involves
assigning numerical values to non-numerical or categorical data.
d. Coding in qualitative research involves representing variables with
designated words while coding in quantitative research involves assigning
identification numbers to subjects.
1. Explain the concept data analysis

2. Discuss the following:
a. Editing
b. Scoring
c. Coding
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UNIT 4 SECTION 2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to Section 2 of Unit 4 of this course. In the previous section,
we explained the process of preparing and organising data before analysing it. This section
discusses the steps in analysing quantitative research data. That is, descriptive analysis of
the data collected and inferential analysis of the data. We hope that you will enjoy reading
this section.
Learning Indicators

1. Explain quantitative analysis.
2. Outline the two main types of quantitative analysis.
3. Distinguished between descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.
4. Discuss the procedures and methods of quantitative analysis.
Read on ……………
What is a Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative data analysis is a systematic process of both collecting and evaluating
measurable and verifiable data. It contains a statistical mechanism of assessing or analyzing
quantitative data (Creswell, 2014). It involves the utilization and analysis of numerical data
using specific statistical techniques to answer questions like who, how much, what, where,
when, how many, and how.
Types of Quantitative Analysis
Regardless of the research method, broadly, there are two different forms of quantitative
analysis. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Statistics for description (descriptive
statistics) and statistics for drawing conclusions (known as inferential statistics). Sometimes
you will want to include both.
Let us now discuss them into details.
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Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics can be described as a type of statistical application which is concerned
with the organisation and presentation of data in a convenient, usable and communicable
form. They are used to describe or present data in an easily accessible form. The main task
is to summarize large amounts of information in such a way that we can quickly, accurately,
and honestly communicate about the main patterns that are present in the data. Descriptive
statistics include frequency distribution (tables, graphs, charts, histogram), measures of
central tendency or averages (mean, median and mode), measures of dispersion or variability
(range, mean deviation and standard deviation).
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics are techniques that enable a researcher to draw conclusions, inferences
or generalizations from a sample to a population of participants. Population of a research
study is typically too large and it is difficult for a researcher to observe each individual.
Therefore, a sample is selected. By analyzing the results obtained from a sample, a researcher
hopes to make general conclusion about the population. This is what inferential statistics
does.
Conclusion
Descriptive statistics offer a clear way of presenting the results of your action research. They
have the advantage of being relatively easy to calculate either by hand, or by using a
calculator or Excel or SPSS. However, there are studies when you want to go beyond
describing your data in order to give a cause-and-effect explanation. This is where inferential
statistics are needed.
Summary
In this section, we have discussed approach to quantitative analysis and how to analyzed
quantitative data. We also focused our attention on the two broad types of quantitative
analysis; descriptive and inferential. Descriptive statistics are used to describe or present
data in an easily accessible form whilst inferential statistics are techniques that enable a
researcher to draw conclusions, inferences or generalizations from a sample to a population
of participants.
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Activity 4.2
1. What is quantitative data analysis?
a. A process of collecting and evaluating both qualitative and quantitative
data.
b. A process of collecting and evaluating measurable and verifiable data.
c. A process of collecting and evaluating non-measurable and non-verifiable
data.
d. A process of collecting and evaluating qualitative data.
2. How are descriptive and inferential statistics different?
a. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are essentially the same thing.
b. Descriptive statistics are used to compare two or more groups of data, while
inferential statistics are used to identify patterns in data.
c. Descriptive statistics are used to describe the characteristics of a
sample of data, while inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions
from a sample of data.
d. Descriptive statistics are used to draw conclusions from a sample of data,
while inferential statistics are used to describe the characteristics of a
sample of data.
3. Which of the following is an example of descriptive statistics?
a. Calculating the correlation coefficient between two variables
b. Conducting a chi-square test
c. Reporting the mean, median, and mode of a set of data
d. Testing the difference in mean scores between two groups
1. Explain quantitative analysis in research.

2. State and explain the two broad forms of quantitative analysis.
3. Outline the criteria to guide you in choosing an inferential statistical test.
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UNIT 4 SECTION 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Introduction
Dear learner, in the previous section we discussed some interesting features of analysing
quantitative data set and the two main types. We also learned that descriptive statistics
describe data in terms of measures of central tendency and measures of spread (dispersion).
This section deals with measures of central tendency. Measures of central tendency are
measures or statistics that describe the location of the centre of a distribution. A distribution
consists of scores and other numerical values such as number of years of teaching, age,
results of pre-test and post-test and the frequency of their occurrence. This section focuses
on numerical summaries of the centre of the distribution.
Learning indicators
1. explain the role of measures of central tendency in research.

2. compute the measures of central tendency.
3. describe data appropriately using computed measures of central tendency and
interpret them
Let us now begin the discussion ….
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
What is “central tendency,” and why do we want to know the central tendency of a group of
scores?
One of the important objectives of statistics is to find out various numerical values which
explains the inherent characteristics of a frequency distribution. The first of such measures
is averages. The averages are the measures which condense a huge unwieldy set of numerical
data into single numerical values which represent the entire distribution. Averages are the
typical values around which other items of the distribution congregate. This value lies
between the two extreme observations of the distribution and give us an idea about the
concentration of the values in the central part of the distribution. They are called the
measures of central tendency. Averages are also called measures of location since they
enable us to locate the position or place of the distribution in question.
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Types of the Central Tendency
The following are the main types of averages that are commonly used:
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
THE MEAN ( X )
The arithmetic mean of a series is the quotient obtained by dividing the sum of the values
by the number of items. In algebraic language, if X1, X2, X3 ....... Xn are the n values of a
variate X.
It is the sum of the observations divided by the total number of observations.
i.e. Add the values and divide by the number of observations.
i.e. 4 + 2 + 3 + 1 + 5 = 15
15
Mean = =3
5
Properties of the Mean
1. The mean is influenced by every score or value that makes it up. If a score is changed,
the values of the mean changes.
3, 4, 2, 4, 7 Mean = 4
3, 4, 7, 4, 7 Mean = 5. The change of the score 2 to 7 has changed the mean to

5.
2. The mean is very sensitive to extreme scores (outliers).
4, 2, 3, 6, 5 Mean = 4
4, 2, 23, 6, 5 Mean = 8. All the scores are below 7 and the presence of 23, an
outlier has moved the mean from 4 to 8.
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3. The mean is a function of the sum (or aggregate or total) of the scores.
X=
X
N
NX =  X This implies that the number of observations
multiplied by the mean gives the sum of the scores.

Of the three measures it is the only one that is a function of the sum of the scores.
It is also possible to calculate the mean for a combined group if only the means and
number of scores (N) are available.
e.g. Mr Mensah’s class Mean =5 N = 20

Ms Addo’s class Mean = 6 N = 30
(5 X 20) + (6 X 30) 280

Mean for the total group: X = = = 5.6
50 50
4. If the mean is subtracted from each individual score and the differences are summed,
the result is 0.
4 – 4 =0
2 – 4 = -2
3 – 4 = -1
6–4=2
5–4=1
The distance of the score from the mean is known as the deviation.
5. If the same value is added to or subtracted from every number in a set of scores, the
mean goes up or goes down by the value of the number.
For example, given 8 2 10 4 X = 6.
Now add 2 to each score: 10 4 12 6 X = 8 ie 6 + 2
6. If each score is multiplied or divided by the same value, the mean increases or
decreases by the same value.
For example, given 8 2 10 4, X = 6.
Now multiple each score by 3. 24 6 30 12 X = 18 ie 6 × 3
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7. The sum of the deviation of a given set of individual observations from the
arithmetic mean is always zero. Symbolically. = 0. It is due to this property that the
arithmetic mean is characterised as the centre of gravity i.e., the sum of positive
deviations from the mean is equal to the sum of negative deviations.
8. The sum of squares of deviations of a set of observations is the minimum when
deviations are taken from the arithmetic average.
Uses of the mean
1. It is useful when the actual magnitude of the scores is needed to get an average. E.g.
total sales for a new product, selecting a student to represent a whole class in a
competition.
2. It is useful for further statistical work e.g. standard deviation, correlation coefficient.
3. It is useful when the scores are symmetrically distributed (i.e. normal).
4. It provides a direction of performance, compared with other measures of location
especially the median. Where Mean >Median, the distribution is skewed to the right
(positive skewness) showing that performance tends to be low and where Mean <
Median, the distribution is skewed to the left (negative skewness) showing that
performance tends to be high.
5. It serves as a standard of performance with which individual scores are compared. For
example, for normally distributed scores, where the mean is 56, an individual score of
80 can be said to be far above average. Also, performance can be described as just
above average or far below average or just below average.
THE MEDIAN (Mdn)
It is a score such that approximately one-half (50%) of the scores are above it and one-half
(50%) are below it when the scores are arranged sequentially.
E.g. Given the scores, 8, 4, 9, 1, 3, the Median, after sequentially arranging the scores like
1, 3, 4, 8, and 9 is 4.
(n + 1)
For odd set of numbers, median occupies the th position.
2
102
Using the formular
N= 5, 5+1 = 6/2= 3rd position, therefore the median is 4
E.g. given the scores, 91, 75, 73, 97, 89, 67
Rearranged them in sequentially like 67, 73, 75, 89, 91 97
Since it is an even number the two middle numbers are 75 +89 = 164/2 = 82
For even set of numbers, find the mean of the two middle numbers or calculate the mean of
( n) n
the number in the th position and ( + 1)th position as the median
2 2
Using the formular
N = 6 so (6/2)th = 3rd position and [(6/2) +1]th = 4th position
From the data given the 3rd position is 75 and 4th position is 89
75+89 = 164/2 =82
Therefore, median for the data is 82.
The median can be obtained from both ungrouped and grouped data and also from
Microsoft Excel.
To find the median from ungrouped data
1. Arrange all observations in order of size from smallest to largest or vice versa.
2. If the number of observations, n, is odd, the median is the number at the centre or the
(n + 1)
number at the th position.
2
3. If the number of observations, n, is even, the median is the mean of the two centre
observations.
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Examples
1. For odd set of numbers
Given a set of observations as: 8 11 26 7 12 9 6 20 14
Note that there are 9 observations, which is odd.
1. Rearrange the scores in a sequential order: 6 7 8 9 11 12 14 20 26

(n + 1) (9 + 1) 10
2. Find th position i.e. th = th = 5th position
2 2 2
3. The score at the 5th position is 11.
9. For even set of numbers
Given a set of numbers as: 48 52 36 54 62 71 69 45 58 32
1. Rearrange the scores in a sequential order: 32 36 45 48 50 54 58 62 69 71
(n + 1) (10 + 1) 11 1
2. Find th position ie th = th = 5 th position. This means that the
2 2 2 2
median lies half-way between the 5th and 6th positions.
3. The score at the 5th position is 50 and at the 6th position is 54. Half-way between 50
(50 + 54) 104
and 54 is = = 52 . The median is therefore 52.
2 2
To find the median from grouped data
Example
Classes Midpoint Freq Cum Freq
X f cf
46 – 50 48 4 50
41 – 45 43 6 46
36 – 40 38 10 40
31 – 35 33 12 30
26 – 30 28 8 18
104
21 – 25 23 7 10
16 – 20 18 3 3
Total 50
From the table identify the median class.
N
It is the class that will contain the middle score. Find the value of , where N is the total
2
score. This is the position of the middle score. Checking from the cumulative frequency
column, find the number equal to the position or the smallest number that is greater than
the position. From the table above,
N 50
= = 25 , therefore, the number is 30. The class that this number belongs to is the
2 2
median class. From the table above, the median class is 31 – 35.
Features of the median

1. It is not influenced by extreme scores. For example, the median for the following
numbers, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 is 4. If 6 changes to 23 as an extreme score, the median remains
4.
2. It does not use all the scores in a distribution but uses only one value.
3. It has limited use for further statistical work.
4. It can be used when there is incomplete data at the beginning or end of the distribution.
5. It is mostly appropriate for data from interval and ratio scales.
6. Where there are very few observations, the median is not representative of the data.
7. Where the data set is large, it is tedious to arrange the data in an array for ungrouped
data computation of the median.
Uses of the median
1. It is used as the most appropriate measure of location when there is reason to believe
that the distribution is skewed.
2. It is used as the most appropriate measure of location when there are extreme scores to
affect the mean. e.g., Typical income in a company of senior and junior staff.
3. It is useful when the exact midpoint of the distribution is wanted.
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4. It provides a standard of performance for comparison with individual scores when the
score distribution is skewed. For example, if the median score is 60 and an individual
student obtains 55, performance can be said to be below average/median.
5. Also, performance can be described as just above average or far below average or just
below average depending on the median score.
6. It can be compared with the mean to determine the direction of student performance.
7. Where Median < Mean, the distribution is skewed to the right (positive skewness)
showing that performance tends to be low
8. Where Median > Mean, the distribution is skewed to the left (negative skewness)
showing that performance tends to be high.
THE MODE
It is the number that occurs most frequently in a distribution.
Given the following scores, 1, 2, 4, 6, 4, 6, 7, 2, 4 the number that occurs most frequently
is 4. This is the Mode. This number appears 3 times.
Advantages of the Mode
1. The main advantage is that it is the only measure that is useful for a nominal scale.
2. It is used when there is a need for a rough estimate of the measure of location.
3. It is used when there is the need to know the most frequently occurring value e.g. dress
styles.
4. It is not useful for further statistical work because the distribution can be bi-modal or
tri-modal or no mode at all.
Summary
In this session, we discussed the three measures of central tendency which are descriptive
statistics. Measures of central tendency are measures or statistics that describe the location
of the centre of a distribution, thus Mean, Median and Mode. We further look at features
and uses of the mean, the median and the mode. Let us reflect on what we have learn so
far.
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Activity 4.3
1. Which of the following is true about measures of central tendency?
a. They describe the location of the centre of a distribution.
b. They describe the relationship between two variables.
c. They describe the shape of a distribution.
d. They describe the spread of a distribution.
2. Which of the following statements best defines the median?
a. The highest score in a distribution
b. The score that divides a distribution into two equal halves
c. The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution
d. None of the above
3. When would you use the median instead of the mean?
a. When the distribution is normal
b. When the distribution is skewed
c. When the sample size is small
d. When the standard deviation is high
4. Which of the following best describes the mode in a distribution?
a. The average of all the scores in the distribution
b. The score that divides the distribution into two halves.
c. The score that occurs least frequently in the distribution.
d. The score that occurs most frequently in the distribution.
1. What do you understand by measure of central tendency?

2. Outline the features and the uses of the following:
Mean
Median
Mode
3. With practical example, distinguished between the three measures of central
tendency.
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UNIT 4 SECTION 4 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY (DISPERSION)
Introduction
Welcome to section 4 of unit 4. In the previous section, we examined the measures of
central tendency which indicate the location of the centre of distributions. We realized that
measures of central tendency do not give any indication of the spread of the observations
or scores. This is to say that, the measures of central tendency do not give us that total
picture of a distribution. It may be noted that these measures do not indicate the extent of
dispersion or variability in a distribution.
Let us look at this example to help us get the understanding more
The example may be used to study only the extent of variation,
For example: 48, 51, 47, 50 Total = 196 Mean = 49 …..(i)
30, 72, 90, 4 Total = 196 Mean = 49 …..(ii)
The two set of data has the same total number and mean, however, a closer look at the two
sets of data shows that the distribution within each set is not the same. You will noticed
that the scores in set 1 are cluster around the mean making it homogeneous whilst the
scores in set 2 move away from the mean making it heterogeneous. As a result of the
differences in the spread of scores, in describing the performance or observation of these
two distributions, we need more than the average score for each one. In this section we will
focus our attention on measures of spread, variability or dispersion.
Learning Indicators
1. Explain variability.
2. Outline the uses of variability.
3. Calculate the standard deviation and variance of a given set of data.
4. compute the measures of spread (variability)
5. describe data appropriately using computed measures of spread and interpret
them.0
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Concept of Variability
Variability provides a quantitative measure of the degree to which scores in a distribution
are spread out or clustered together. The dispersion or variability provides us one more
step in increasing our understanding of the pattern of the data. Further, a high degree of
uniformity (i.e., low degree of dispersion) is a desirable quality. If in education there is a
high degree of variability in the exams scores, then it can be assumed performance is not
uniform.
• Variability describes the distribution. Specifically, it tells whether the scores are
clustered together or are spread out over a large distance. Usually, variability is
defined in terms of distance.
• Variability measures how well an individual score (or group of scores) represents the
entire distribution. This aspect of variability is very important for inferential statistics
where relatively small samples are used to answer questions about population.
Variability (also called spread or dispersion) can be thought of as a measure of how
different scores are from one another. It’s even more accurate (and maybe even easier) to
think of variability as how different scores are from one particular score
Three measures of variability are commonly used to reflect the degree of variability,
spread, or dispersion in a group of scores. These are the range, the standard deviation, and
the variance.
The Range
Range is the distance between the largest score and the smallest score in the distribution
value. In other words, it is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a set
of data.
We can understand the computation of range with the help of examples of different series:
Marks out of 50 in a subject of 12 students, in a class are given as follows: 12, 18, 20, 12,
16, 14, 30, 32, 28, 12, 12 and 35. In the example, the maximum or the highest marks
obtained by a candidate is ‘35’ and the lowest marks obtained by a candidate is ‘12’.
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Therefore, we can calculate range; L = 35 and S = 12 Absolute Range = L – S = 35 – 12 =
23 marks
e.g.: 48, 51, 47, 50 Total = 196 Mean = 49 …..(i) Range: 51 – 47 = 4
30, 72, 90, 4 Total = 196 Mean = 49 …..(ii) Range: 90 – 4 = 86
The range tells you how different the highest and lowest values in a data set are from one
another—that is, the range shows how much spread there is from the lowest to the highest
point in a distribution. So, although the range is fine as a general indicator of variability, it
should not be used to reach any conclusions regarding how individual scores differ from
one another.
Variance & Standard Deviation

The standard deviation, which is shown by Greek letter s (read as sigma) is extremely
useful in judging the representativeness of the mean, the variance is always considered
together with the standard deviation. It is the square of the standard deviation. Actually,
the standard deviation (abbreviated as s or SD) represents the average amount of variability
in a set of scores. In practical terms, it’s the average distance from the mean. The larger
the standard deviation, the larger the average distance each data point is from the mean of
the distribution and the more variable the set of scores is. So initial thoughts may be to
compute the mean of a set of scores and then subtract each individual score from the mean.
Both variance and standard deviation are computed for both ungrouped and grouped data.
Standard deviation is calculated as the square root of average of squared deviations taken
from actual mean. It is also called root mean square deviation. The square of standard
deviation i.e., S2 is called ‘variance’. Calculation of standard deviation in case of raw data.
There are four ways of calculating standard deviation for raw data:
(i) When actual values are considered;
(ii) When deviations are taken from actual mean;
(iii)When deviations are taken from assumed mean; and
(iv) When ‘step deviations’ are taken from assumed mean.
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Features of the variance/standard deviation
1. The standard deviation/variance of a constant is zero. Eg. 18 18 18 18 18 18 has a

standard deviation/variance of zero
2. It is not resistant. It is affected by extreme scores or outliers. For example, given the
scores, 5, 8, 10, 6, 7, SD = 1.9 and Var = 3.7. However, if the scores become, 5, 8, 10,
6, 24, SD = 7.7 and Var = 59.8
3. The standard deviation/variance is independent of change of origin. If each score in a
set of data is reduced or increased by the same amount, the standard deviation/variance
of the new set of data does not change. For example, given the data 48 51 47 50 with a
standard deviation of 1.58. If 5 points is added to each score to obtain 53 56 52 55, the
standard deviation/variance remains unchanged.
4. The standard deviation/variance is not independent of change of scale. If each score in
a set of data is multiplied or divided by the same amount, say a constant k, the resulting
standard deviation equals k multiplied by the old standard deviation but the variance
equals k2 multiplied by the old variance. For example, given the data 1 2 3 4 5 with a
standard deviation of 2. If each score is multiplied by 10 points to obtain10 20 30 40
50 , the standard deviation becomes 2 x 10 = 20 and the variance becomes 102 x 4=400
5. It uses every value in the distribution.
6. It is difficult to calculate for open-ended distributions.
7. It is affected by extreme values. It gives more weight to extreme values.
USES
1. It is used as the most appropriate measure of variation/dispersion when there is reason

to believe that the distribution is normal.
2. It helps to find out the variation in achievement among a group of students. i.e. it
determines if a group is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
3. Where the standard deviation is relatively small, the group is believed to be
homogeneous i.e. performing at the about the same level. On the other hand, where the
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standard deviation is relatively large, the group is believed to be heterogeneous, i.e.
performing at different levels.
4. It is useful in determining the reliability of test scores. The split-half correlation
method or internal consistency methods use the standard deviation of the scores.
In most score interpretations in education and for descriptive statistics, the standard
deviation is preferred to variance because;
1. the standard deviation (S), is the natural measure of spread or variation for normal
distributions
2. the variance (S2) involves squaring the deviations and does not have the same unit
of measurement as the original observations.
Advantages of Standard Deviation
1. Standard deviation is the best measure of dispersion because it takes into

account all the items and is capable of future algebraic treatment and statistical
analysis.
2. It is possible to calculate standard deviation for two or more series.
3. This measure is most suitable for making comparisons among two or more
series about variability.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to compute.
2. It assigns more weights to extreme items and less weights to items that are
nearer to mean. It is because of this fact that the squares of the deviations
which are large in size would be proportionately greater than the squares of
those deviations which are comparatively small.
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Summary
In this session, we discussed measures of spread or variability. These are the range, standard
deviation and variance. We have learned that measures of spread when used in addition to
measures of central tendency give a clearer picture in terms of describing observations or
scores in a distribution.
Activity 4.4
1. Which measure of variability tells us the difference between the highest and lowest
score in a distribution?
a. Mean
b. Range
c. Standard deviation
d. Variance
2. How is the variance related to the standard deviation?
a. The variance is always twice the standard deviation.
b. The variance is equal to the mean of the standard deviation.
c. The variance is the reciprocal of the standard deviation.
d. The variance is the square of the standard deviation.
1. Explain measures of spread

2. Outline 4 features of variability
3. State 4 advantage and disadvantage of variance
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UNIT 4 SECTION 5: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Introduction
Welcome to section 5 of unit 4. we hope you have enjoyed the previous sections on
quantitative. In this session we will look the other broad approach to data analysis thus
qualitative analysis; types of qualitative data; approaches to qualitative data analysis; and
processes of analysing data. We hope you will find this section also very interesting.
Learning Indicators
1. Explain qualitative data analysis.
2. Describe types of qualitative data analysis
3. Demonstrate the approaches to qualitative data analysis.
4. Explain the processes of analysing data.
5. Outline the steps in qualitative data analysis.
Let us Read on …
Qualitative data analysis (QDA) is the process of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
qualitative data—non-numeric, conceptual information and user feedback to capture themes
and patterns, and answer research questions. Qualitative research is used to understand how
people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they
tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data. Qualitative
data analysis is an iterative and reflexive process that begins as data are being collected
rather than after data collection has ceased (Stake, 1995).
When is qualitative analysis useful?

Qualitative analysis is useful in research studies where:
1. little is known about the research area, and the research question is being framed to
enable the discovery of new information.
2. a richer understanding of the perspective of the person being researched is sought
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3. more in-depth information is needed (which may be difficult to quantify), such as the
richer detail that can be obtained from open-ended questions to amplify questionnaire
responses;
4. there are already existing sources such as diaries, students’ assignments, video
recordings and reports.
Types of Qualitative Analysis

Analysts cannot conduct the qualitative analysis methods using statistical and mathematical
models as it does not concern any numeric aspect of data. Hence, there are five major
methods of performing qualitative analysis, namely:
1. Content Analysis
It includes researching and collecting data through surveys, emails, chats, and social media.
Then the data is effectively presented, accompanied by approaches like a directive,
conventional and summative.
2. Narrative Analysis
It collects and utilizes data related to personal accounts, letter writing, and journals to
interpret the meanings of their daily lives, work, and world.
3. Grounded Analysis
It augurs theory formation by utilizing – text interpretation, core groups, open-ended
question answers, and observations of participants.
4. Discourse Analysis
As the name indicates, the linguistic aspect of community building is its focus. As a result,
it primarily deals with interpreting communication language and various texts.
5. Thematic analysis.
In action research, however, thematic analysis and content analysis are mostly used in data
analysis.
Thematic analysis
Thematic analysis is the identification of themes in the research findings. In hierarchical
analysis, categories are organized into different levels, typologies, and hierarchical systems.
A set of subcategories might fall beneath a certain category, and that certain category might
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itself fall under an even higher-level category. Example, the category called fruit. In this
case, some possible subcategories are oranges, grapefruit, apples, and bananas. These are
subcategories of fruit because they are “part of” or “types of” the higher-level category called
fruit. The category fruit may itself be a subcategory of yet a higher category called food
group. Systems of categories like this are called hierarchies because they are layered or fall
into different levels. Hierarchical analysis search for potential hierarchical arrangement of
inductively generated categories in qualitative data analysis.
Carrying out a thematic analysis

Interview excerpt from Norton and Aiyegabo (2005)
Interviewer: What do you think university teaching is all about?’
Lecturer A: ‘It depends on the university really. I guess it is about nurturing the students.
Getting out their best potential. Working on them. Finding out where they come from and
what they know and to treat them as individuals.’
Lecturer B: ‘There are three ways I look at it. I think it is about inspiring people especially
in an institution like this where the students do not come from a high economic background
attainment. You have to inspire people to learn, to read, to question, to rebel, to fit. I like to
think it is about inculcating them in professional values I learnt as a journalist (that was my
previous job). It is a constant evolutionary process of learning for me. It is about learning
information and communicating it to the students.’
Lecturer C: ‘I think it is about teaching people the skills to carry on learning after university.
To develop skills to problem solving and analyse things. I teach a special needs course which
is essentially disability studies which is rooted in education.’
Lecturer D: ‘I think it is about extending people’s interests in what they are interested to a
higher level. My view is to get people ready for employment. To give them graduate level
skills and I think university performs that.’
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Lecturer E: ‘I think it is about providing the opportunities for people to develop. Also to
provide the opportunities for employment. What I do is to prepare people to be teachers. At
the same time, prepare people to be reflective. And to live more fulfilled lives.’
Lecturer F: ‘I think primarily it is to facilitate students acquiring intellectual skills as
appropriate for them to leave here and find employment. It is to help people engage with the
evolving body of knowledge. In a discipline that I am doing (Philosophy) a lot of the
arguments are engaging with people’s attitudes towards reality. It deals with the students’
relationship with the discipline as well.’
Lecturer G: ‘I think it should be about helping students to think critically and learn
transferable skills that they can use in whatever employment they find themselves.’
Lecturer H: ‘I suppose it is about facilitating students’ learning in the path towards their
future careers. I supposed there has been a change from when I was in university. It is not
about delivering truths or information; it is about enabling students to be lifelong learners.’
Lecturer I: ‘Our job is to engage the students so they go away with the feeling they have
learnt something. The way we teach them should have an effect on the way they learn.’
Lecturer J: ‘It is about student’s finding more about the subject area and also finding more
about themselves. To become much more self-aware and also becoming much more
confident and developing their own knowledge base but not only in the subject but wider
than that.’
Steps for conducting thematic Analysis

Stage 1: Immersion
This is where you read your first transcript and note down any general themes that you notice.
In the first readings of the transcripts some general themes were noted: academic,
employment, transformative, lecturer’s own teacher development.
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Stage 2: Generating categories
This next stage involves a much closer reading of each transcript, one by one, looking to
generate as many categories as possible and to write down a label that best describes each
category, before moving onto the next transcript, where you repeat the process but also look
for new categories.
Stage 3: Deleting categories

In this stage, there is the need to get rid of any categories that have only one or two examples
in them, or any that overlap considerably with other categories.
Stage 4: Merging categories

This is where you look again at your categories and try to collapse as many of them as
possible, relabeling them as themes. A useful strategy is to go back to the original tentative
themes you garnered from your first readings and see if you can refine and describe them
more accurately. In the example, this produces the following themes.
Stage 5: Checking themes

Reread your transcripts alongside your list of themes and revise them if necessary. One way
of checking how accurate your theme labels are, is to ask a willing colleague to allocate
quotes from the transcripts to fit your generated themes.
Stage 6: Linking themes

This is possibly the most difficult stage. In this stage, you need to make notes of any
relationships or links you see between your themes. Keep in mind your research aims and
look for patterns that make sense, in order to tell a coherent and convincing account of what
the data tells you. In this analysis it looks as if employment links with professional values,
vocational preparation and possibly lifelong learning skills (but this latter might also link
with my transformative theme). The pattern that appears to be emerging from looking at
these themes is that these new lecturers most decidedly do not have a ‘traditional’ view of
doing a degree for the love of learning or a passion for the subject; they are much more
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pragmatic and tuned into higher education in the twenty-first century with its demands from
government and consumerism.
Stage 7: Presenting your findings

Take the most important theme, select examples of your transcript data and begin to
construct an overall commentary on how the data examples are linked together – you can
use illustrative quotes to do this. The quotes need to be vivid examples of the argument or
case you are making within the overall narrative. The aim is to present an analytical narrative
that makes some sort of reasoned case in response to your original research question.
Content analysis
Content analysis has its roots from quantitative approach. Originally, the formalised method
was devised for sampling and analysing messages from the media and other recorded
material, such as literature, politicians’ speeches. In this use it was seen as a quantifying
instrument for assessing the content of communications. It is another way of observing
people, not directly, but through the messages they produce. The communications concerned
were originally those already published, but some researchers conduct content analysis on
materials that they ask people to produce, such as essays, answers to interview questions,
diaries and verbal protocols in which case the research project becomes reactive.
Procedure for quantitative content analysis

Probably the first major task you face, should you decide on a content analysis project, is
that of deciding just what material to sample from all that exists. The sampling choice will
probably depend centrally upon the hypothesis or research aim. For newspapers, this will
mean making a decision based on political leaning, price, target readership and so on. For
television, a representative sampling of programmes, times, advertising slots, and the like,
must occur. Having obtained your data you will need to decide upon coding units
appropriate to the kind of content that appears. Some examples are given below.
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Unit Examples
Word Analyse for sex-related words in different magazines
Theme Analyse for occasions, in children’s literature, on which boy/girl
initiates and gets praised
Item Look for whole stories, e.g., article on government cuts
Character Analyse types of character occurring in TV cartoons or soaps
Time and space Count space or time devoted to a particular issue in media
Although it is common to decide on categories only after the data are gathered, in the
traditional model the researcher presents coders with a pre-constructed system for
categorising occurrences. This means that the researcher will have to become very familiar
with the sort of materials likely to be encountered prior to the start of the content analysis
exercise.
Steps for Conducting a Content Analysis

This approach combines both the search for rich meanings and a deeper understanding of
the topic together with the ability to carry out some very basic qualitative procedures.
Stage 1: Deciding on the unit of analysis

Because this analysis is partly quantitative, the very first decision you have to make is what
units of analysis will you use? This can be at the level of words, phrases, sentences or
paragraphs. Which one you choose will be dependent on your research question. For
example, if you wanted to find out how many times the lecturers had referred to
employability, you could simply look for the word ‘employment’, which is mentioned four
times, but of course you miss phrases which mean the same or alternatives such as ‘future
careers’, but, more crucially, you miss the nuances such as preparing students for
employment or helping them acquire graduate skills or giving them opportunities for
employment, which could be captured in a longer unit of analysis such as a sentence:
I think primarily it is to facilitate students acquiring intellectual skills as appropriate for them
to leave here and find employment.
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(Lecturer G) My own preference has been to go for what I call information units; By this I
mean a unit that conveys a single discrete concept, thought or idea, which might be expressed
in a single word, a phrase, sentence or even a paragraph or two.
Stage 2: Dividing transcript into units of analysis

Taking information units as the unit of analysis from the except, you now need to divide the
transcript which shows the first five transcripts broken down into a total of 25 information
units.
Stage 3: Construct categories

This stage is exactly the same as Stages 1–5 in a thematic analysis, as described earlier.
Stage 4: Assign units of analysis to categories (coding)

This is the stage where you have to ensure that all your information units are assigned to one
category. It is a fundamental rule in content analysis that no unit can appear in more than
one category, nor can any unit remain unassigned to a category. So, using the themes in the
thematic analysis and describing them as categories, 20 of the 23 information units were
assigned as follows:
Developing students’ academic abilities. ‘I guess it is about nurturing the students.’
‘Getting out their best potential. Working on them.’ ‘Finding out where they come from and
what they know and to treat them as individuals especially in an institution like this where
the students do not come from high economic background attainment.’
‘I think it is about providing the opportunities for people to develop.’ Engaging with the
subject. ‘I think it is about inspiring people.’ ‘I think it is about extending people’s interests
in what they are interested to a higher level.’
Stage 5: Calculate the percentage of information units that fall into each category.
This is where the quantitative aspect can be applied. Your research question will determine
how you do this. In the example, you want to see what proportion of all the lecturers’ answers
relate to these six categories, which will give you a simple percentage figure as shown in
Table 2.
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Table 2
Percentage of total information units (N = 23) in each category, content analysed from
responses to the question ‘What do you think university teaching is all about?’
Category N percentage
Developing students’ academic abilities 5 22
Engaging with the subject 2 9
Employment 5 22
Transformative effects of higher education 6 26
Lecturer’s own teacher development 2 9
Lecturer’s personal framework 3 13
Total 23 101
Interestingly, what this tells us, is that while we thought that these lecturers were actually
very focused on employment, the quantitative measure tells us something different, namely
that the highest percentage of their comments (26percent) related to the transformative
effects of higher education (personally, I find this a much more cheering view). This is the
most basic form of quantitative analysis, but I might be interested in looking at the
percentage of information units in each category for each lecturer, or I might want to
compare them on the basis of the subjects they teach.
Software packages for qualitative analysis

It is possible to use software packages such as NVIVO and ATLAS Ti to help you with
thematic or content analysis, or any of the other types of qualitative analysis you might
want to carry out. Such software cannot do the thinking for you but arguably gives you
more time by providing tools to classify and sort your information. Which one to choose is
difficult as it is often hard to get unbiased information from the Internet, or from reading
the commercial advertisements. The best advice is to seek personal recommendation from
a colleague who has used a package and can give you a good idea about what it can do, as
well as some of the pros and cons in working with such tools.
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Conclusion
There appears to be many commonalities between thematic and content analysis in
qualitative data analysis. The main differences are that thematic analysis gives you a rich
understanding of the topic you are researching from the participant’s point of view, whereas
content analysis takes a more formulaic objective approach and uses quantitative measures
to do so. In both cases, you have to be careful about generating your themes or categories to
maintain rigour while maintaining the flexibility that both methods offer. In terms of action
research, qualitative analysis is particularly effective for gaining an in-depth understanding
of the student experience.
Summary
Well done for completing unit 4 of the course. In this section, we discussed qualitative
analysis; types of qualitative data; approaches to qualitative data analysis; processes of
analysing data, qualitative approach to analysing action research data; synthesising the
data; guidelines for analysing data and software tools for qualitative analysis. Hope you
have enjoyed the reading. Let us reflect on what we have learned so far in this section.
Activity 4.5
1. How is qualitative data defined?
a. Both non-numeric and numeric information
b. Non-numeric, conceptual information
c. Numeric, statistical information
d. Visual information
2. How is qualitative data analyzed?
a. By capturing themes and patterns in non-numeric data
b. By conducting experiments
c. By organizing, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data
d. By using statistical tests
3. Which qualitative analysis method focuses on personal accounts, letter writing, and
journals to interpret the meanings of daily lives, work, and the world?
a. Content analysis
b. Discourse analysis
c. Grounded analysis
d. Narrative analysis
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1. Explain qualitative analysis

2. State and explain the types of qualitative data analysis
3. Describe the processes to follow in qualitative data analysing
4. Outline the steps in qualitative data analysis
5. Distinguished between thematic analysis and content analysis.
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UNIT 5: WRITING ACTION RESEARCH REPORT
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to unit five of our course. The unit focuses on action research report
writing. As you have been told in earlier sessions, research is helpful because it can lead to
results that can be used to make good decisions and to start more research. So, the results of
action research and the methods used to get those results must be shared for research to serve
these goals. To do this, the research reports are written so that they can be read by a large
number of people. We believe that when you read through the content in this unit, you will
find every bit of conversation very valuable. We hope that this unit helps you immensely in
your pursuit of knowledge. Don't forget to make notes on anything that needs further
attention before moving on to the next unit.
Unit Outline
Section 1: Preliminary pages
Section 2: Chapter one: Introduction
Section 3: Literature Review
Section 4: Methodology
Section 5: Data presentation, analysis, and discussion
Section 6: Summary, conclusions, and recommendations
Learning Indicators
• discuss the procedures for writing an action research project;
• demonstrate how to apply the procedures for writing action research.
• critique an action research report
Now read on …
To complete a successful write-up in the course of your project work, you must be familiar
with the components of the various chapters of a typical project.
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UNIT 5 SECTION 1: THE PRELIMINARY PAGE
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to this section. We are pleased that you have completed Unit
3, which may have appeared somewhat technical to you. Congratulations! This section
commences the six sections on writing an action research report. In this section, you will
learn the contents of the preliminary page of an action research report.
Learning outcomes: After completing this section, you will be able to demonstrate
knowledge about:
• the preliminary report elements and how they should be presented.
Learning Indicator
• describe fully the preliminary report elements and how they should be presented.
Dear learner, we hope you are keen to read the important components of an action research
report's preliminary page. Read on!
The important components of an action research report's preliminary are:
1. Cover Page
2. Fly Leaf
3. The title page
4. The declaration
5. The abstract
6. Acknowledgement
7. The table of contents
8. List of tables and figures
We describe the preliminary report contents and how to present them in detail.
Cover Page
A project work must include a cover page, which typically contains the project's title, the
author's name, the degree for which the project work is being submitted, the name of the
institution, and the submission date.
The cover page is not numbered because it is not regarded to be part of the action research
project actual content. Instead, it functions as a preliminary page that identifies the author
and institution and provides basic information about the project.
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Refer to the illustration in Figure 1 on the next page for sample cover page. Note that the
drawing is not to scale.
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HELPING METHODIST JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FORM ONE STUDENTS TO

ENHANCE THEIR READING AND COMPREHENSION SKILLS USING THE
PHONIC METHOD
KOFI MENSAH
2014
Figure 1: Cover for a project work.
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Fly Leaf
A flyleaf is a blank page found immediately after the cover of the action research project
work. Its pagination [i] is left blank. Even though it is blank, it is required because it
protects the first page from wear and tear. Therefore, it is essential to include a flyleaf in
the document and format it in accordance with the institution's guidelines.
The Title Page

The title page follows the fly leaf. Its page number is not listed (despite being counted [ii]).
The title should include essential points such as the major variables and the target population.
It should be phrased in such a way that it describes the purpose of the study. The following
information is written in capital (block) letters on the title page. Consider the following title:
ENHANCE THEIR READING AND COMPREHENSION SKILLS USING THE PHONIC
METHOD. The title clearly states that the variable is phonic method usage and reading and
comprehension skills. The target population is Methodist Junior High school students.
The title page also includes the degree that will be awarded if the research is successful, the
department/faculty and institution to which the project is being submitted, the date of the
award, and the student's name. The title page is required in academic writing because it
identifies the author, the institution, and the title of the work, which are essential for citation
and reference purposes.
The title page should adhere to the institution's specific formatting requirements, including
font size, style, and spacing. It should be visually attractive and professional, as it is the first
impression the action research project will make on the reader.
We provide a sample for you in figure 2.
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COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING (CODeL)

ENHANCE THEIR READING AND COMPREHENSION SKILLS USING THE
PHONIC METHOD
BY
KOFI MENSAH
A project submitted to the College for Distance and e-Learning (Codel), in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the award of the degree Of Bachelor of Education (Basic Education) in the
University of Education, Winneba
AUGUST, 2022
Figure 2: The Title Page
The Declaration
The declaration is about how real the study is, and both the student and the supervisor of the
research/project sign it. So, there is a place for the student to sign and a place for the
supervisor(s) to sign. A sample is shown below.
DECLARATION
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that this project work is the result of my own original research and that no
part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or elsewhere.
Candidates Signature :……………………… Date:………………………………………
Candidate Name: ………………………………………………………………………..
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Supervisor’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this action research work was
supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of research work laid down by
the University of Education, Winneba.
Supervisor’s Signature:…………………………………Date:………………………………
Supervisors Name:
Abstract:
The abstract provides a concise summary of the study. In general, it describes the objective
of the study, the population, the sample utilised and the sampling techniques, the tools used
to gather data, the data collection procedures, and how the data was analysed. It also
describes the study's findings and its conclusion. The abstract is essentially a concise
overview of the study.
The Acknowledgment Page

Acknowledgments are expressions of gratitude to individuals who contributed in a variety
of ways to the success of the research, such as supervisors, assistants, data analysts, typists,
and anybody else the researcher deems deserving of recognition.
The dedication page:

Dedication is a message from the author to honour a certain individual or group. One must
remember that the dedication page is not just another list of thanks. There should be no more
than two lines, and each line should only be a few words long.
For examples, To My Mother
In Memory of My Father
The Table of Content: This provides a tabular overview of the report's chapters, headings,
and subheadings, along with the corresponding page numbers. The content must be arranged
in a logical order with consecutive page numbers, beginning with the introduction and
ending with the appendices.
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The List of Tables and Figures: In many ways, this is similar to a table of contents. You
can see the page ranges where each table in the report is located. Each table's number and
name need to be listed in order. The list of figures does the same thing, compiling each figure
along with its number, title, and page reference in the report.
Summary
You have gained knowledge of what information belongs in the action research report's
preliminary section in this section. Some of the materials have been illustrated with
examples.
Activity 5.1
1. Which of the following is NOT included in the preliminary components of an
action research report?
a) Cover Page
b) Declaration
c) Fly Leaf
d) Introduction
2. What is the purpose of the abstract in a research report?

a) To describe the limitations of the study.
b) To list the references used in the study.
c) To provide a concise summary of the study.
d) To provide a detailed analysis of the study findings.
1. Briefly explain what is meant by abstract.

2. Distinguish between acknowledgment and dedication.
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UNIT 5 SECTION 2: INTRODUCTION
Introduction
You are welcome to section 2 of unit 5. You have made significant progress in this course,
for which you should be commended. This session examines what should be included in
chapter 1 of the main report.
Learning outcome:
After completing this section, you will display knowledge of:
• introductory chapter of a project report
Learning Indicators
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• write a good background for action research report
• write a problem statement for the action research topic you've chosen.
In section 1, we looked at the project report's preliminary pages. This section explains the
various chapter 1 headings and how to present them in your report.
What are the Introduction chapter's key headings and subheadings?
If possible, list them. If you can't, keep reading.
The INTRODUCTION heading appears in all capital letters at the top of chapter one,
followed by several subheadings such as (background to the study; perceived problem;
diagnosis of the problem in terms of evidence and causes; statement of the problem; purpose
of the study; objectives of the study; research questions; delimitations; significance of the
study; definition of terms; organization of the chapters of the study).
Background to the Study

This section may include a brief description of the situation's facts as well as any preliminary
investigation that may help to explain the circumstances. It establishes the context for the
research. That is, the background to the study provides context for the study in relation to
broader areas. You must provide all necessary information in the background section of your
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report to help any reader appreciate and understand your research problem. The approach
can be historical, developmental, contextual, or a combination of the three. To learn how to
do this, read completed projects to see how others have done it.
It should be noted that the study's background must arouse the reader's interest. A well-
written background is the most effective way to capture your reader's attention. According
to Baron (2019), the background should provide the reader with a brief summary of research
studies relevant to the problem under consideration and should lead up to the problem
statement. You will provide background information in the form of a review, which will
assist you in setting the context for your research work and assisting the reader in
understanding the research questions and objectives. The researcher begins by writing
broadly about the topic and then narrows the scope of the writing to specifically address the
researcher's own problem.
Perceived problem
As learned earlier in unit 2 section a, the perceived problem may begin with an inquiry about
why you believe something is not working well with your students' learning or your
instructional strategy. The perceived problem should not be temporal. It should be a long-
standing issue that has been identified as having an impact on teaching and learning. Based
on the topic helping Methodist junior high school students to enhance their reading and
comprehension skills using the phonic method the perceived problem could read as:
This study seeks to explore appropriate solutions to the issue of form one students' inability
to read passages from their form one English textbook effectively. This circumstance affects
their comprehension of the other topics and their academic endeavour. It may also influence
their employment prospects after graduation. Therefore, the researcher deemed this a
challenge worth solving.
Diagnosis of the perceived problem in terms of evidence and causes

According to Cohen et al. (2018) diagnosing a perceived problem means finding out what
needs to be looked into and why action research is being done, such as to answer a research
question, test a hypothesis, or improve practice. This means thinking about what the problem
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really is. In diagnosing a perceived problem for action research, it is crucial to keep in mind
that there must be sufficient and clear evidence or indications to show that the believed
problem exists. Diagnosing a perceived problem is to gather evidence to support the
existence of the problem. Once the evidence has been obtained, the cause of the issue must
be determined. After identifying the causes of the problem, appropriate interventions must
be developed. The intervention should be founded on the identified causes relevant to the
studied population. The project's title should reflect the nature of the problem being studied
and the proposed solution. The title should be brief and informative, and it should accurately
convey the study's scope.
Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is a short description of the problem or confusing situation that
is being looked into. In a sense, the problem statement can be thought of as the study's goal.
It should say briefly what you, the researcher, looked into. It should lay out a plan for the
rest of the report to fill in with details. Here's an example: the researcher would like use the
phonic method to enhance the reading and comprehension skills of Methodist junior high
school students.
Purpose of the Study

This is a broad description of the study's ultimate goal. The purpose should say what kind
of information is expected to be gained from the study. So, the study's purpose needs to be
stated in general terms. Based on our proposed topic, we can have this as the purpose of the
study;
The purpose of this study is to enhance the comprehension and reading abilities of learners
in form1 at Methodist Junior High School in the Winneba Municipality. The researcher
would employ the phonic technique, observe the methods and procedures in teaching
utilising the phonic method and its elements, and investigate the challenges students face
when learning to read and comprehend. The study would focus on first-grade kids with
significant reading and comprehension challenges.
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The objectives of the study:
Research objectives explain the desired outcomes of the research project. Research
objectives are detailed description of the reason for conducting research in the first place.
They aid in the development of a detailed list of information requirements. Looking at the
objectives of a study, one can predict what the study will achieve. This should include the
specific aspects of the problem studied in the research as well as the reasons for focusing on
these aspects. The objectives are broken down and make sense based on the purpose.
Similarly, the objectives of our proposed topic would include the following;
1. To determine the challenges learners’ have with reading and comprehension
2. To investigate how well the phonics approach helps students learn to read and
understand what they read.
3. To discover the steps and elements of the phonic method that are important for
teaching reading and comprehension skills.
Research Questions
Research questions are questions that the researcher wants to find answers to. In other words,
a research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex, and arguable question that guides
your research. Research questions are derived from turning objectives into questions.
The research questions based on the proposed topic would be
1. What challenges do learners face when learning reading and comprehension skills?
2. How could the phonic method be utilised to effectively teach reading and
comprehension abilities to form one students?
3. What are the relevant steps and characteristics of the phonic method for teaching
reading and comprehension?
Significance of the Study

This demonstrates the practical value of the research. Here, one must describe how the
results could be applied, who would benefit, and how they will benefit. This is the rationale
behind the study. Here, you must explain why investigating this particular issue or problem
is crucial. You must provide an argument for the study's value. This should include the
usefulness of the results.
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Delimitations
This consists of defining the project's scope in terms of geographical areas covered or
excluded, as well as variables included or excluded. That is, study delimitation is concerned
with defining the study's boundaries. A problem may have several aspects, but your study
may have only considered certain aspects in specific contexts.
Definition of Terms
People may interpret the same words differently, especially if they practice different
professions. According to Pajares (2007) it is crucial to define the main concepts or ideas of
the research study because definitions help to create a point of reference. It should not be
given a dictionary definition but a working definition. There is no need to define terms that
almost everyone uses.
Organization of the chapters of the study

This section provides a summary of each chapter's contents. This allows readers to have a
clear understanding of the information contained in each chapter. A student can write
something to the effect that:
The study is divided into five chapters, as follows: Chapter one is titled introduction and
talks about background, perceived problem, diagnosis, evidence, problem statement,
purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research question, significance of the study,
and organization of the study. The second chapter examines a review of relevant literature,
which includes the following topics: factors that course difficulties students encounter in
reading and comprehension, effective use of the phonic method in teaching reading and
comprehension skills, and steps to take when using the phonic method in teaching reading
and comprehension skills. Chapter three which is the methodology chapter begins with an
introduction, the study’s setting, the research design, the population of the study, the sample
and sampling methodologies, the data collection tools, the data collection procedures, and
the data analysis plan. Chapter four offers the data that was discovered, interprets the
findings, and discusses the current study's contribution. The introduction, summary,
conclusion, and recommendation are all included in Chapter 5.
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Summary
In this section, you learned about the action research report's introduction chapter. You
looked at its different parts, such as the background to the study, problem statement, purpose
and objective of the study, significance of the study, delimitation of the study and research
questions.
Activity 5.2
1. What is the purpose of the background section in a research report?
a) To discuss the limitations of the study.
b) To establish the context for the research.
c) To provide a brief summary of the findings.
d) To present the research methods.
2. Which of the following is a study’s delimitation concerned with?
a) Collecting data for the study.
b) Conducting data analysis.
c) Defining the project's objectives.
d) Defining the study's boundaries.
1. Search the internet and identify a sample action research report (Chapter One) and
briefly discuss the various components.
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UNIT 5 SECTION 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
You learned in earlier sections that a researcher is interested in determining the relationships
between two or more variables. Through a thorough review of the related literature, these
relevant variables are looked at in depth. This is what the investigation will be based on.
This is because it gives you the chance to look into the wealth of information available to
you. This unit examines the concept of literature review, the types of literature to review, the
sources of materials to review, and the processes for writing literature reviews.
Learning outcome:
When you have finished this section, you will demonstrate clear understanding of:
• how the literature review should be written
Learning indicator
By the end of this section, you should be able to
• describe how the literature review should be written;
Dear learner, we devoted Unit 2, Session 2 to this issue, which was titled review of related
literature. You must now go back and refresh your mind on topic. In addition, we would like
to highlight the following for your consideration:
Chapter two's major heading is LITERATURE REVIEW, and it provides support for the
study. A literature review involves reading, analysing, evaluating, and summarizing
scholarly materials on your topic (Kabir, 2016). In addition to summarizing relevant
research, you must also evaluate it, demonstrate its relationship to other works, and explain
how it relates to your own work. In other words, you cannot simply provide a summary of,
say, an article; you must choose which aspects of the research to discuss (e.g., the
methodology) and demonstrate how it relates to your work.
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Types of Literature to Review-Theoretical and Empirical
There are two types of literature review: theoretical and empirical.
Theoretical Review
A theoretical review (framework) is a review of existing theories that helps you build the
arguments you will use in your own work. Researchers come up with theories to explain
things, find links between them, and make predictions. In a theoretical framework, you
describe the existing theories that your research is based on. This shows that your work is
based on well-known ideas.
Empirical Review
Empirical research is research that is conducted by observing and measuring the world
around us. The term empirical denotes observation, whereas empirical research denotes
systematic observation. When researchers plan who to observe, what characteristics to
observe, how to observe, and so on, they are conducting systematic research. In empirical
review, the researcher examines various empirical studies conducted by other researchers
that are relevant to the current research. Original empirical research reports are plenty in
journals of the social and behavioural sciences.
Sources of Materials to Review

The works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem are
referred to as "the literature" in a literature review.
The following resources are extremely useful for conducting a literature review:
1. Journal Articles: A journal article is a piece of research, usually scientific or
scholarly, that is published in an academic journal. These are especially useful for
current information. They are frequently used in literature reviews because they
provide a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research.
2. Books: Textbooks are less likely to be useful for a literature review because they are
intended for teaching rather than research, but they are a good starting point for
locating more detailed sources.
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3. Conference Proceedings: A conference proceeding is the published record of a
conference, congress, symposium, or other gathering sponsored by a society or
association, with abstracts or reports of papers presented by the participants. These
can be useful for providing the most recent research or unpublished research. In
addition, they provide information on which areas researchers are currently engaged
in, making it easier to locate additional works by the same researchers.
4. Government/Corporate Report: Many government agencies and corporations
conduct research. Depending on your field of study, their published findings can be
a valuable source of information.
5. Projects, theses, and dissertations: These are potential excellent sources of
knowledge. However, there are drawbacks to using these sources: (1) they are not
widely available because they are not published; instead, they are typically only
accessible through library shelves or interlibrary loan; and (2) the student who
conducted the research may not be a seasoned expert, so their findings may need to
be treated with more skepticism than those of published research.
6. Newspapers: There is little value in using newspaper articles for your literature
review because they are written for a broad (not specific) audience. You can learn
more about recent developments (like changes in policy announced by the
government) by reading the newspaper, but you should look elsewhere for specifics.
7. Internet: As a medium for disseminating information, the internet is rapidly
expanding. Although a comprehensive summary of the available data is obviously
impossible, the following are some tips for making the most of digital resources:
• keep in mind that anyone can post information on the internet, so the quality
may not be reliable;
• the information you find may be intended for a general audience, and thus
not suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general
audience is usually less detailed); and
• more and more refereed electronic journals (e-journals) are appearing on the
internet.
These sources of literature review discussed above may be classified as primary or
secondary.
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Primary Source
From the point of view of the research literature, a primary source is a report on an
investigation written by the person who did the investigation. So, primary sources are the
original articles and reports that researchers write to tell the reader about how they did their
research and what they found. Most of the articles in journals are a good example.
The Secondary Sources

A secondary source is a description of a study or studies written by someone other than the
original researcher. In other words, a secondary source is a source that reviews, sums up, or
talks about the research of someone else. Review papers that provide a summary of the
relevant literature are secondary sources. Some examples of secondary sources are
textbooks, scholarly books devoted to a particular topic, reviews of research in books or
journals, yearbooks, encyclopaedias and handbooks.
Processes for Writing literature review

The process of preparing to write a literature review often involves a series of consecutive
steps: locating sources for the literature review, reading the literature to identify themes,
creating an outline for the literature review, and writing the literature Review.
1. Step 1: Locating Sources for the Literature Review: The process of writing the
literature review begins with locating sources that allow you to gather background
information about your topic. This can be done by using an internet search engine to
identify information related to your topic quickly and easily. Again, academic journal
articles, professional books, and conference presentations can be used. When
possible, use primary sources rather than secondary sources.
2. Step 2: Reading Literature to Identify Themes: Conducting a literature review
requires you to read a bit differently than usual. The purpose in reading research
articles, books, or reports is to focus specifically on information that directly relates
to your own investigation. This information is organized around themes that are
pertinent to your study. To develop the literature review, start by discovering the
relevant themes in each study that you read. As you develop each theme, cite
information from your sources that serves as evidence material. Finally, present the
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themes in a logical order according to the relationship among them and their
importance to your own investigation. Using headings to identify your themes makes
the structure of the literature review clearer for you and the reader.
3. step 3: constructing a literature Review outline: It can be written in a narrative style
or as a series of bullets. Analyze the similarities and differences between the themes
and subthemes and turn them into topics and subtopics. Make sure you record the
name(s) of the author(s) next to each theme. It makes sense to organize items from
the general to the specific, from historical to contemporary, from theory to practice,
and from definitions to examples.
4. step 4: writing the literature Review: There is no single format for writing a literature
review, and the structure generally emerges from the nature of the particular
literature that is reviewed. However, there are usually three main sections: (1) an
introduction, (2) the main section of the review, and (3) a summary and concluding
remarks. Let us briefly discuss these three main sections
• Introduction: In the introduction to the literature review, you could use an
advanced organiser to list the topics that will be talked about. Terms are
introduced and explained, unless they were already done so in the problem
statement section.
• Main Section of the Review: The main section of the review follows the
outline structure and is organized thematically. Under each subtopic discuss
the appropriate theories or studies. Depending upon the significance of the
source to your own study, the discussion can be brief or lengthy. In the
beginning of the main section of your review, you may briefly state a theme
or propose an argument, and then cite references that support your assertion.
Sources must be referenced in a scholarly format throughout the review. In
educational studies, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association, (APA), is often used. Make sure that your review does not end
up as a series of quotations from sources. As a rule, quotations should be used
sparingly and only when they highlight essential points or are particularly
well phrased. Don’t forget to reference each quotation, and, when available,
include the page number. Similarly, also report the page number when
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referring to a specific table, figure, or equation in the text that you are
reviewing. On the other hand, when you paraphrase or summarize ideas
presented by the author(s) of the articles you review, you need to reference
the source but you are not required to include the page number.
• Summary and Concluding Remarks: Provide closure for the review by
writing a short summary. In the summary, the major themes across all studies
reviewed and their implications need to be highlighted. You may include a
critique of the studies you reported or point out practices that have emerged
that may contribute to your own research. You can also point out the
limitations of the current knowledge and recognize unresolved issues or
remaining questions. An existing gap in knowledge and practice would make
the case for the need for your own particular research.
Reference Citation
A reference citation is the documentation required to make your project work or academic
paper scientifically acceptable. It provides authoritative sources for your statements, assists
the reader in gaining access to those sources, and acknowledges that the information in a
paper did not begin with the writer. A reference is also all of the information that your readers
will need to locate the source of ideas or information, claims and statements used in your
project work or report. A citation, on the other hand, is a reference that occurs in the text and
is also known as in-text citation.
Thus, whenever you copy a concept or ideas from a referenced source, you must properly
cite it. This includes direct quotes, paraphrased statements, graphs, and tables, among others.
You must be aware that careless media and magazine statements are inappropriate for
research. In the text, sources can be cited in a variety of ways, while complete reference
information is provided at the end of the piece. You will subsequently see some examples.
There are numerous reference preparation formats available. The format of educational
research reports is consistent with that of the majority of psychological journals, such as the
journal of educational psychology, the journal of the American Psychological Association,
etc. However, the University of Education, Winneba prefers and uses the American
Psychological Association (APA) format.
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EXAMPLES OF REFERENCE CITATIONS IN TEXT--APA STYLE
1. If the name of the author appears as part of the text, cite only the year of publication in
parentheses;
Example: Asiedu (2000) clearly stated that reading with comprehension is the foundation
of all content areas.
2. If the author's name is not part of the text, insert last name, comma, year in parenthesis;
Example: Reading is essential to success in school and lifelong learning (Asiedu, 2000)
3. If a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs as part
of the text. Connect both names by using the word "and."
Example: McCarthy and McNamara (2006) are of the opinion that second language
reading texts must be simplified at the beginning and intermediate levels
4. If a work has two authors and they are not included as part of the, insert within
parentheses, the last names of the authors joined by an ampersand (&), and the year
separated from the authors by a comma
Example: Reading is essential to success in school and lifelong learning (Grabe & Stoller,
2002).
5. If a work has more than two authors (but fewer than six), cite all authors the first time the
reference occurs; include the last name/surname of the first author followed by "et al."
and the year in subsequent citations of the same reference. What does et al. mean? It is et
alia an abbreviation in Latin which means “and others
Example: First occurrence:
Li, Wu and Wang (2007) recommended...
Subsequent citations:
Li et al. (1962) recommended...
EXAMPLES OF ITEMS IN A REFERENCE LIST

Although the format for books, journal articles, magazine articles and other media is
similar, there are some slight differences. Items in a reference list should be double-
spaced. Also, use hanging indents: entries should begin flush left with subsequent lines
indented.
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BOOKS:
One author:
Adams, M. M. (1994). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge:
MIT Press.
Two or more authors: (list each author)

Alderson, J. C., & Urquhart, A. H. (1984). Reading in a foreign language. London:
Longman.
Book Chapters
Pressley, M. (2000). Comprehension instruction: What makes sense now, what might make
sense soon? In M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.),
Handbook of Reading Research (pp.12-26). New York: Longman.
Society, association, or institution as author and publisher:

American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
National Council for Curriculum & Assessment (2019). English language curriculum for
primary schools (basic 4-6). Accra: Ministry of Education
Journal Articles:
One author:
Ansah, G. N. (2014). Re-examining the fluctuations in language-in-education policies in
post-independence Ghana. Multilingual Education 4(12), 1-15
Two authors:
McKeown, M., & Blake, R. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension instruction: A
comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches. Reading Research
Quarterly, 44(3), 218-253
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Summary
You have studied the concept of literature review in this section, where you learnt that it
entails carefully reading, analysing, assessing, and summarising academic texts that are
relevant to the current study.
You have been exposed to the types of literature reviews, as well as the sources of literature
review. The section also includes procedures for writing review of the literature. For extra
information, read any research book you can get your hands on.
Activity 5.3
1. What does a literature review involve?
a. Only summarizing relevant research.
b. Providing a summary of an article without evaluation or analysis.
c. Reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing scholarly materials on a topic.
d. Writing a research paper without using any previous scholarly materials.
2. Which type of resource is particularly useful for obtaining current information in a
literature review?
a. Books
b. Conference Proceedings
c. Government/Corporate Reports
d. Journal Articles
3. Which of the following is an example of a secondary source in a literature review?
a. A government report on a study conducted by the agency.
b. A journal article reporting on original research.
c. A scholarly book discussing a particular topic.
d. An encyclopedia entry summarizing a topic.
1. Explain referencing in a research work or report.

2. What is a reference citation?
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UNIT 5 SECTION 4: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This section of the module focuses on action research methodology, including sections on
research design, setting of the study, population, sample and sampling techniques. In
addition, the section examines critically implementation of intervention and research
instrumentation. This unit concludes with a discussion data collection plan and limitations
of the study.
Learning outcome:
When you have finished this section, you will exhibit understanding of:
• research design
• key components of the methodology chapter
Learning Indicator
• explain what research design is;
• describe the key components of the methodology chapter
Let us look at the main content.
The procedures used to conduct the research are laid out in detail in chapter three of the
report. This is captioned METHODOLOGY. The chapter is divided up into several sections
that need to be discussed. These are: research design, setting of the study, population, sample
and sampling procedures, instrumentation, procedure used in collecting data and data
analysis plan.
Research Design
The research design is the overall strategy for answering the research questions (Polit
& Beck, 2014b). A study's research design outlines the basic strategies that researchers use
to generate accurate and interpretable evidence. In action research, the design is action
research.
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Setting of the study
Action research design begins with a description of the setting. Details regarding the
school community as a whole provide a more complete picture of the study's setting. These
facts will contain information about the school children, parents, and teachers, as well as its
surrounding community. Depending on the particular topic of the study, more data may be
necessary. For example, the research was conducted at Methodist Junior High School in
Winneba. The school has 150 students, 10 qualified teachers, and one night watchman. Most
of the students at this school are Christian or Muslim, but there are also a few traditional
believers. However, most of the students come from families with low incomes and parents
who don't care much about how well their children do in school. The majority of students
do not attend school on market days. Due to the fact that parents rarely visit the school to
report or inquire about their child's progress, the visitors book is nearly empty and contains
no parent's information. This may lead to students' low school attendance, tardiness, and
truancy, as well as their poor academic performance.
• The population
A population is an entire collection of people or items that have one or more characteristics
from which data can be gathered and analysed. To ensure that none of the components and
characteristics of the target population are unclear, you should create a description of the
population and include all the relevant elements.
Sample: A sample is a part of the entire population. A sample in research refers to any group
on which information is obtained (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003) or the number of participants
desired from the population. Their actions, attitudes, or perceptions should provide
information that will help you answer your research topic.
Sampling techniques
This describes how the sample will be selected. The justification for the selection of
particular sampling technique is also elaborated in detail. Who and how many people will
be asked to take part in your study depends on two things: (1) who will be able to give you
the most useful information for your study, and (2) how you choose your sample of
participants. As is the case with all action research, your decision will be influenced by what
is feasible given your time restrictions.
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There are numerous sample techniques available for use. Probability and non-probability
sampling are the two primary classifications. Probability sampling is the type of sampling
used when the likelihood of choosing a certain member of the population is known. That is,
probability (random) sampling occurs when subjects are chosen at random in such a way
that the researcher is aware of the chance of selecting each member of the community.
Therefore, each member of the population or subgroup has an equal chance of being selected
for the study.
Nonprobability sampling is a sampling method that does not rely on randomisation or
chance. As a result, the probabilities or possibilities that members of a population will be
selected for an example are not equal.
According to Efron (2013) and Blaxter et al. (2010)there are multiple ways for selecting the
sample for your study:
Probability sampling
1. Selecting a simple random sample: Everyone in the population has an equal chance
of being chosen, whether they are teachers, students, or parents. Most likely, the final
sample is a good representation of the population from which it was selected.
2. Selecting a systematic sample: The population from which the sample is drawn is
chosen in a structured manner. Every fifth or tenth person, for instance, could be
chosen.
3. Selecting a stratified sample: First, the population is split into smaller groups based
on demographic factors like grade level or gender. Then, a sample is chosen at
random from each of these subgroups. The last sample is a proportional
representation of the population's demographic subgroups.
4. Selecting a cluster sampling: Cluster sampling entails the selection of naturally
existing groups or areas at random, followed by the selection of individual elements
from the selected groups or areas. In cluster sampling, the sample unit consists of
groups of elements (clusters) rather than individual population members or items.
Non-probability sampling
1. Selecting a purposive sample: The participants are selected deliberately and in
accordance with a goal that was established in advance.
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2. Selecting a convenience sample: Participants who are closer and are easiest to reach
are chosen to take part. For researchers who focus on those who are most readily
available and accessible, this is the most common method of choosing a sample.
3. Selecting a volunteer sample: When it's hard to find people to take part in the study,
the researcher chooses them from volunteers, like friends or people who want to take
part in the study.
4. Quota sampling: In this type of sampling, the major groups in the population are
identified, and then subjects are chosen so that each group has a certain number of
people to represent it.
5. Snowball sampling: Informants are used to make referrals for other study
participants.
Implementation of intervention
Describe the intervention intended to be used. It is important that the method of utilising the
resources or the procedure by which the intervention is going to be carried out in order to
improve the students' practise be developed on and described in detail. The intervention
should be well outlined and implemented step by step. It addresses the issue, "How and for
how long will the action plan be implemented?" and whether or not its duration is
predetermined? It may involve the use of some instruments to collect data along the line.
The instruments that would be used should be mentioned and well described. For example,
instruments such as questionnaire, interview, documents, portfolios, observation, etc, must
be described with respect to the nature and how they are going to be used in the process.
Participants and timing in terms of duration of the activity must be considered.
The Importance of Collecting Baseline Data
As you determine the best way to answer your research questions, you may need to think
about collecting baseline data before you start your intervention. Baseline data are gathered
before an intervention is put into place. They are then used to compare how participants were
before and after the intervention. If you want to see how a strategy for teaching the writing
process affects how well your students write, it would be a good idea to get samples of your
students' writing before you use the strategy. By collecting samples of students' writing
before and after the intervention, you would be able to see how their writing changed. If,
instead, you only looked at how students wrote after the intervention was done, you wouldn't
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be able to tell how the intervention changed how students wrote.
Instruments
The research question drives the selection of research instrument. Therefore, the process of
constructing data collection tools begins with considering your research questions,
establishing what information you need to collect to answer this issue, and evaluating which
strategies will be most effective in giving this information.
Be aware that many of the same data collection tools can be structured to be used in a range
of research studies and to produce both narrative and numerical data. For instance,
questionnaire might include both open-ended questions to collect narrative data and
structured rating items to collect numerical data.
Each data-collecting approach can be implemented in numerous ways. You may, for
instance, conduct interviews with individuals or groups presenting questions in person, over
the phone, or online. These interviews may or may not be structured. To obtain a more
complete picture, it is suggested that you use many data collection tools, as each technique
delivers a unique type of information. Using a variety of tools will help enhance your ability
to compare and contrast the data you acquire. Using various data sources is known as
triangulation (a process of collecting and analysing many different kinds of data). Table 5.1
focuses on the most prevalent data gathering tools and their definitions, as well as their
potential benefits and limits.
Table 5.1. Most Common Data Collection Tools: Their Definitions, Usefulness,
and Limitations
Tool Definition Usefulness Limitations

Interview Conversation Shows how Interviews can take
between two or different people feel a lot of time and
more people with about a subject, as usually only involve
the goal of told in their own a few people.
exchanging ideas words.
about a particular
topic.
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Observation Watching specific Offers a genuine Represents only
individuals, perspective on what what can be seen
happenings, and is occurring, with and other tools are
exchanges as they the majority of the needed to figure out
take place. action taking place what people's
within a natural intentions are.
setting.
Questionnaire A questionnaire is a It is simple to reach Self-report
list of questions or a huge number of questionnaires may
statements about people while be sensitive to
study’s goals, retaining their wrong information,
hypotheses, and anonymity; this and getting people
research questions facilitates varied to fill them out may
that need to be opinions on a be difficult.
tested and subject.
answered.
Artifacts Artifacts consist of Provide easily Due to school
many forms of accessible personal, policy and legal
student work and demographic, and concerns, obtaining
other items made by historical formal certain records may
action research and informal data be challenging.
participants. that can be used to
represent the
setting, groups, and
individuals.
Assessment data Scores on teacher- Allows you to There is a
made tests and monitor the possibility that
scores on progress of students assessment
standardised tests and assess how well instruments will not
that measure various instructional capture student
methodologies, performance, the
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students' levels of curricula, or material covered in
achievement. programme class, or the
offerings are efficiency of the
working. teaching technique
in an accurate
manner.
Ethical issues considered

Concerns pertaining to ethics arise at every stage of the research process, including planning,
data collection, data analysis, report writing, and the dissemination of research findings.
When doing research that uses humans as research subjects, you are required to incorporate
an ethics statement into your research proposal. The topic of ethics will be discussed in
further detail in unit 6. A declaration to this effect demonstrates both your understanding of
the ethical consideration at hand and your willingness to carry out fieldwork in a manner
that is consistent with ethical practises.
Data Analysis Plan: This section describes the methods you have applied to the data and,
if applicable, the reasons for their choice. These reasons for choice should be related to the
research design, the nature of the sample and the types of data. If the mode of analysis is not
widely known, you have to report it in details. Note that it is better as far as possible to use
the simplest, well-known techniques. It is not necessary to report the formula and details of
computation of very popular techniques like chi-square, t-test or ANOVA.
Limitations of the study: A limitation identifies potential study shortcomings. Describe the
methodological flaws in your research design and how they may have affected your findings.
Summary
You learned in this session how to compose the methodology section of your project
report. Specific subheadings of the chapter have been outlined, and recommendations for
describing each have been provided.
Activity 5.4
1. What is the research design?
a. A list of research participants.
b. A summary of the literature review.
c. An evaluation of the research outcomes
d. The overall strategy for answering research questions.
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2. Why is the research design important in generating accurate and interpretable evidence?
a. It determines the research participants' demographics.
b. It establishes the funding for the research project.
c. It outlines the basic strategies used by researchers.
d. It provides a summary of the literature review.
3. Which of the following best describes a population in research?
a. A collection of individuals who have different characteristics.
b. A group of people from which data can be gathered and analysed.
c. A group of people who are similar in age.
d. A group of people who share a common interest.
4. How is a sample different from a population in research?
a. A sample and population are the same thing.
b. A sample is a part of the population.
c. A sample is a smaller population.
d. sample is a group of individuals who are similar in age.
1. What is a population?
2. Explain a sample?
3. Explain any three types of probability sampling.
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UNIT 5 SECTION 5: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
Following the last unit on methodology, in which we examined population and sample,
among other concepts, we also talked and learned about data collection. It must be
understood that, following data collecting, the primary competence of the researcher resides
in analysing and interpreting the findings and relating them to the research questions
developed at the commencement of the project. Thus, this unit emphasises data analysis,
presentation, and discussion.
Learning outcome:
After completing this section, you will demonstrate an understanding of:
• how to analyse the collected data
• how to write the results chapter of your project report
Learning Indicator
You should be able to at the end of this unit to:
• explain the procedures in organizing and analysing your data;
• explain what goes into the result chapter of a research study.
Chapter four of the action research report is data analysis, presentation and discussion. This
section presents the results of the study. The chapter can be divided into three main parts:
The data analysis section, results section and the discussion section.
Data Analysis
In this section, you should talk about how the data was organised and how it was analysed,
as well as any statistical methods that were used, if any. There must be a good reason to use
those methods.
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The Results Section
The results section of this chapter presents the findings of the study in a straightforward
manner. Some people tend to divide the results section into two. The first part is used to
describe the characteristics of the subjects (participants) while the second part focuses on
the research questions. It should be pointed out that if the subjects are well described in the
methodology chapter, then there will be no need to describe them in the results section.
In presenting the main findings of the study, you should address or respond to each research
question one by one in the order in which you presented them earlier in the study (i.e., in
Research Questions Section). In a quantitative study you must stay closely to the statistical
findings without drawing broader implications in reporting the results. The implications
must be presented later. In the results section, tables and graphs are used to summarize large
amount of data concisely. You should not include raw data (e.g., the actual scores for
individuals).
A table in research report is a summary of quantitative data organised into rows and columns.
Typically, tables for reporting results contain quantitative information but they might contain
text information such as summaries of key studies. In summarising your data in tabular form,
you should note the following:
1. Present one table for each central item or statistical test. However, if possible, you
can combine some of them in a table (e.g. descriptive data). Make sure none of your
table is busy – (i.e. contains too much information and creates confusion in the mind
of the reader).
2. Organize your tables into rows and columns in such a way that readers will find it
easy to grasp the meaning of the table.
3. The title of the table should accurately represent the information contained in the
table.
4. Follow the American Psychological Association (APA) style in presenting the tables.
For example, you must underline the titles of your tables, tables should be numbered
consecutively in the report using Arabic numerals. Column lines as well as horizontal
lines must be avoided except the horizontal lines carrying the column headings or
closing the tables. An example of a table is provided below.
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An Example of a Table
Table 1
Sex of Respondents
Sex Frequency Percentage
Male 4 40
Female 6 60
Total 10 100
Table 1 reveals that the male population in the study was four, representing 40% of the
population, while the female population was six, representing 60 of the study's total
population. This outcome is not surprising given that 70% of the student body at Methodist
Junior High School is female and 30% is male.
In addition to tables, you may summarise your data, particularly quantitative data, using
figures. A figure is a summary of quantitative data that takes the form of a chart, graph, or
image that illustrates the relationships between scores or variables. Nevertheless, tables are
preferred to figures since they offer more information in a more concise format. Depending
on the characteristics of the variables involved, your figures can take various forms,
including bar graphs, line graphs, and pie chart. Ensure that, by the conclusion of the results
section, you have answered all of your research questions and supplied appropriate answers.
Without these answers, you cannot declare that your task is complete!
In qualitative data involving diaries, journals photographs, video, observations, interviews
etc are also synthesized and presented.
Discussion Section
This is the second major part of the results section. This is the section in which you explain
the results you obtained in your study. In this section, you must present the interpretation of
the results you obtained in terms of the implications for theory and/ or practice. You must
also in this section place your results in a broader context. In fact, you must go beyond the
data to place the findings in a broader perspective sometimes relating it to the literature. You
must write this section logically to reflect the issues investigated.
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Summary
This section has taught you how to analyse and interpret data, as well as how to present and
discuss your findings in action research, with the ultimate goal of providing solutions to
questions that were raised in your own investigation.
Activity 5.5
1. In a quantitative study, what should be the focus of the results section?
a. Describing the characteristics of the subjects/participants.
b. Drawing broader implications of the findings
c. Including raw data
d. Staying closely to the statistical findings
2. Why is it important to avoid having a busy table in research reporting?
To create confusion in the mind of the reader.
To ensure that readers can easily understand the meaning of the table.
To include as much information as possible in the table.
To save space in the report.
Take any tabular data and do the following:

1. Table of the data
2. Make a pie chart of the data
3. Now comment which one do you think displays the data in the best manner.
4. Why do you think this is so?
5. Examine a sample of project work and discuss how the results were presented and
discussed in not more than two foolscap pages.
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UNIT 5 SECTION 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
Dear learner, you are welcome to the last section of this unit. This presentation covers the
final chapter of a project report. Thus, the summary, conclusions, and recommendation
chapter of the report. It also briefly explains the reference materials — citations and
appendices — and how to incorporate them into a project report.
Learning outcomes:
After completing this section, you will demonstrate a clear understanding off:
• how to conclude you study
• how to compile your list of references
• how to effectively show your report's appendixes
Learning indicator:
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• write the conclusion section of your study;
• compile a list of references; and
• appropriately present your appendixes to the report.
This chapter has the heading “Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations”. As suggested
by the header, the chapter contains three major subheadings: Summary, Conclusion, and
Recommendations. This chapter is significant in that those who do not have the time to read
the entire report may choose to read only this chapter. Therefore, it must be well-written to
convey the whole study.
Summary
The summary section of the concluding chapter provides an outline of the report, including
the problem investigated, the methodology utilised, and the findings. This part must be
written concisely as a summary. There should be no new information supplied here.
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Conclusions
Conclusions are summary statements that summarise the answers to the study questions.
Therefore, the conclusion of your investigation is your inference drawn from the results. The
conclusion of your study is what you can say in an appropriate manner regarding the study's
findings. Therefore, conclusions should be restricted to what is explicitly supported by the
findings and what is reasonable under the given conditions.
Avoid including an opinion in your conclusion. Everything you mention here must be
supported by the findings.
Recommendations
This is the final section of the project reports. You must give recommendations related to
the problem explored in terms of the implications for practise in this section. Only
recommendations that are supported by the findings should be presented. That is,
recommendations should not go beyond the study's conclusions.
Enumerating or listing recommendations is a good approach to present them.
Reference Materials
The list of references cited throughout the report is referred to as the reference materials.
These are critical components of any good report and must be handled with care in order to
give the necessary information to support the main body of the report.
List of References
This is a list of the books and publications cited or referred to in the report. You must be
aware that there is a little distinction between a list of references and a bibliography. In
contrast to the list of references, the bibliography covers all sources consulted throughout
the investigation's preparation.
With the University of Education, Winneba's adoption of the APA style for producing
research reports, references are preferred over bibliographies. The heading for this section
is References. All citations must be included in the report. The reference must match the
report's citation in terms of names, spellings, and publication dates.
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The references should be organised alphabetically by the last name (surname) and initials of
the author(s). Every source cited in the report must be listed in the references. In short, the
sources cited in the report and those listed in the references must be identical.
Appendices
Appendices are supplemental materials that help your reader understand your study but are
not necessary to your main point. Appendices are a great way to add more material or
clarification to a research paper, or project without making the final result excessively long.
The following materials are suitable for inclusion in an appendix. Original scales or
questionnaires. If an instrument is protected by copyright, written permission from the
instrument's copyright holders or evidence of purchase is required.
Summary
This is the concluding phase of the action research report. This section has taught you how
to write summary, conclusions and recommendations; in an understandable format
Activity 5.6
1. How should the summary section of the concluding chapter be written?
a. In a long and detailed manner.
b. In a way that includes new information.
c. In a way that is similar to the introduction chapter.
d. In a way that provides a concise summary of the report.
2. Which of the following should be included in the summary section of the
concluding chapter?
a. A detailed analysis of the methodology.
b. A discussion of the limitations of the study.
c. An outline of the report, including the problem investigated and the
findings.
d. New information.
3. Why should opinions be avoided in the conclusion of a study?
a. To ensure that the conclusion is supported by the findings.
b. To make the conclusion more interesting.
c. To provide a balanced view of the findings.
d. To show the researcher's personal biases.
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4. What should be included in the conclusion of a study?
a. Inferences drawn from the results.
b. Information that is not supported by the findings.
c. Personal opinions.
d. Unrelated information.
1. Analyse a sample of project work and explain how the conclusion was derived from
the study's findings.
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UNIT 6: CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH
UNIT OUTLINE
SECTION 1: THE ROLE OF ACTION RESEARCHER
SECTION 2: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 3: STRENGTHS OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 4: LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH
SECTION 5: SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE ACTION RESEARCH PRACTICES
SECTION 6: PROPOSAL FOR ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
Dear learner, we are pleased to welcome you to this course's sixth and final unit. In the
previous course (unit 5), we concentrated on action research report writing. In unit 6, we will
be focusing on critical issues in action research. Let us now examine the unit's learning
outcomes and the indicators that correspond to them.
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed Unit 6, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge, and
understanding of:
• the role of the action researcher;
• strengths and limitations of action research
• what ethics in research is all about
• how action research proposal is done
Learning Indicators
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the roles of the action researcher
• examine four strength and three limitations of action research
• explain the meaning of ethics when conducting action research;
• explain four ethical issues to that relate to action research;
• Write a proposal on an identified problem.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 1: THE ROLE OF ACTION RESEARCHER
Introduction
Welcome to the beginning of Chapter 6! We hope that you are still curious about what we
are about to do. That is, we will continue our discussions on action research by examining
the many roles played by action researchers throughout the process.
Learning Outcome
When you have completed this section, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge, and
understanding of:
• The roles of an action researcher
Learning Indicator
After going through this unit, you will be able to
• discuss four roles of the action researcher
Meaning of Role
The question of roles at the commencement of an action research project is a crucial one.
Roles are patterns of behaviour that individuals anticipate from others who carry out
particular functions or responsibilities Rusaw (as cited by Coghlan & Shani, 2005). That is,
the duties, responsibilities, and expectations connected with a particular job or assignment
are referred to as its role. In the context of action research, the researcher's involvement is
crucial because they are responsible for planning, executing, and assessing the research
project. To make action research effective the researcher has a number of roles to perform.
Roles of an Action Researcher

The following are brief descriptions of the many roles that an action researcher may play
throughout an investigation:
1. Planner: During the first step of the action research cycle, the researcher becomes a
planner. An action researcher's main job is to make the action plan. It involves
making plans for the process and keeping track of the time, people, and logistics. As
a strategist, the researcher comes up with a plan that is realistic and makes good use
of the resources that are available. The researcher writes down all the steps for the
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plan of action. Problems that get in the way of reaching the overall goals are also
looked at. The researcher thinks about what could go wrong and plans the process
around that. The researcher also makes sure that the action plan takes into account
the needs of the community.
2. Leader: Action researcher is credited with identifying the action research problem.
Leading the situation towards improvement is the researcher's primary objective. The
researcher's professional knowledge and judgment aid in recognising the issue with
an emphasis on educational improvement. The researcher identifies the educational
environment’s deficiencies and works to fix it. As a successful leader, the action
researcher has a clear vision for the research.
3. Catalyser: Action research is a way for an action researcher to make things better
by making positive changes in the lives of young people in their academic and life
careers. As a "catalyser," the researcher's main job is not just to explain reality but
also to bring about change. By being in the middle of the research process, he or she
shapes the way people think. The researcher's work brings the systematic search for
a solution to an ongoing problem back to life. As a researcher, the teacher changes
the classroom environment to meet the needs of different students. The practitioner
plans the research to improve the quality of education, which acts as a good catalyst.
4. Facilitator: The main goal of this role is to help the participants understand the
purpose and goal of the study and to help them keep the group processes secure. The
action researcher takes on the role of a facilitator and makes sure that the people
taking part in the research feel at ease. During the action plan's implementation, the
researcher gives the students all the tools they need to do research, keeps track of
their progress, and encourages them to find solutions to their problems. As a
facilitator, an action researcher acts with empathy and pays attention to how the
research subjects see things. During action research, the researcher makes sure that
the students are comfortable with the process.
5. Teacher: Every teacher engages in active research. The teacher is responsible for
gaining an understanding of the issue through self-reflection and the implementation
of adjustments to teaching and learning techniques. In order to have control over
their professional practise, it is vital that teachers, in their role as instructional
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leaders, examine the current practise and identify the necessary modifications. As
teachers, they remain adaptable and tailor their lesson plan to the needs and skills of
their students.
6. Listener: An important part of being an action researcher is being able to listen well.
In action research, from the time the idea is first thought of until the research is
finished, the researcher must listen to information in order to think about it. During
the action plan's implementation, the researcher must be completely open to hearing
the views, opinions, and criticisms of others, whether they are positive or negative.
The researcher has to give the participants a chance to talk about their thoughts and
real observations about the action plan's strategies. The person doing the research
should stay on task and listen with patience to all dialogues, conversations, and
interactions that take place in the research setting.
7. Observer: In action research, observation is the most prevalent qualitative data
collection method. Participants are not always required to share their feelings about
the plan's modalities, comfort, and intensity verbally. Therefore, the researcher must
carefully observe and assess the verbal and non-verbal signs of the participants.
Criticisms given through comments and exchanges between participants and co-
workers may disclose numerous minute information about the organisation of
activities and research obstacles. Therefore, the researcher must engage in direct and
indirect observations to identify them for reflective consideration. In action research,
the researcher also observes changes in attitude, behaviour, and sometimes the whole
person. To do this, he or she must be an active observer.
8. Synthesizer: A synthesizer is someone who uses different methods to gather small
details and then puts them together to make something meaningful. The action
researcher takes all of the research information and puts it all together to draw
conclusions. The researcher puts together the data gotten from the participants, the
interactions with the students and colleagues, and the feedback gotten from
observing, as well as own personal experience.
9. Reporter: Reporting is an important part of action research because that's when the
results are shared with the academic community. In action research, it is important
that the researcher act as a reporter. The whole research process is reported, along
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with the results, to make sure that the research meets its goal or objective. Action
researchers write reports or give oral presentations about what they've found. The
main goal of action research is to find a solution to a problem that keeps happening
in the classroom. Sharing report with the other community saves time and energy for
many practitioners who face similar problems in their fields.
Summary
This section focused on the action researcher's role, which includes roles such as planner,
leader, catalyst, and facilitator. When an action researcher justifiably assumes the
aforementioned roles, he or she can emerge as an effective practitioner. Through teachers'
transformation into action researchers, the quality of teaching and learning could finally be
improved.
Activity 6.1
1. Why is reporting important in action research?
a. To avoid accountability
b. To hide the results from the participants
c. To keep the research process a secret.
d. To share the results with the academic community
2. Who is responsible for reporting the results of action research?
a. The government
b. The media
c. The participants
d. The researcher
3. How does an action researcher act as a planner?
a. By deciding on the research process and keeping track of logistics
b. By identifying the action research problem
c. By making positive changes in the lives of young people
d. By reporting the results of the research
4. What is the main goal of the action researcher as a facilitator?
a. To analyse data
b. To identify the problem
c. To make the participants feel at ease.
d. To write the action plan
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5. Why is the action researcher called a "catalyser"?
a. Because they bring about positive change.
b. Because they explain reality to others.
c. Because they plan the research process.
d. Because they shape the way people think.
1. Discuss any four roles played by the action researcher.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 2: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction
It appears that the term "ethics" applies to all actions involving people. It relates to code of
conduct. Given the importance of research integrity, this section examines the ethical
considerations involved in action research.
Learning Outcome
understanding of:
• ethics in action research is all about
• professional ethical principles
• how to treat respondents and subjects in an ethical manner
Learning Indicator
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain what ethics in action research is all about
• Discuss professional ethical principles.
• Discuss how to treat respondents and subjects in an ethical manner
Meaning of Research Ethics

According to Denscombe (2010) ethics refers to the system of moral principles by which
humans judge their activities as right or wrong, good or bad, and social researchers are
supposed to perform their research ethically. Research ethics are a set of rules governing the
conduct of researchers and study organisations in their interactions with research
participants, other researchers and colleagues, the users of their research, and society as a
whole (Kabir, 2016). In the social sciences, the ethics of initiatives involving human
participants, including surveying, focus groups, and the use of secondary data, are of
particular importance. This implies that researchers must incorporate a moral perspective
into their investigation design and execution.
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Ethical Principles
Educational action research, as one of the valuable tools for various practical solutions, and
strategies in response to growing difficulties in the field of education, should focus on these
widely accepted principles that are relevant to research ethics. They are as follows:
1. Informed consent: The fundamental ethical guideline is that persons who
participate in research should do so willingly and with full understanding of the
nature of the research and its implications for them. Thus, the researcher should tell
the students, parents, colleagues, or any other people who will be involved in the
investigation the actual data to be collected, as well as photos and videos ahead of
time. For the research to be fair and accurate, the people who take part must give
their written permission. If the subject is a child, getting permission from their
parents is important. If the data is to be shared with the real world, the participants
must be asked if they want to stay anonymous or if they want their credibility or
identity to be known.
Guidelines for reasonably informed consent
Check with your institution advisor and find out what expectations exist for informed
consent; do not begin collecting data until this is known.
a. Write a letter seeking permission from parents to use data generated by their
students in your projects. Make sure your institution advisor, mentor, and the
administrator of your school approve your permission letter.
b. Do not use the data from any student where parental permission is not provided.
Confidentiality is the critical issue; make sure you protect all student and school
identities by using pseudonyms.
c. Students who participate in your study should not receive special rewards; nor
should your study be in anyway related to student grades.
d. The letter sent home to parents to gain written permission should include:
o the topic of the project;
o the objective of the project;
o strategies that will be implemented;
o data to be collected;
o a timeline of the project;
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o how the project will be made public;
o why video-taping or picture-taking will occur (if applicable);
o request to use any pictures or videos for presentations (if applicable);
o how confidentiality will be maintained;
o any potential risk to students, or the absence of risk to students;
o a return slip to be signed by the parent.
2. Access and acceptance into the research setting: At an early stage of the research
project, the importance of the principle of informed consent becomes obvious;
however, access to the institution or organisation where the research is to be done
and acceptance by individuals whose permission is required are requirements before
beginning the research. Early access and acceptance offer the best opportunity for
action researchers to present themselves and establish their own ethical position with
respect to their proposed research. Investigators cannot expect access as a matter of
right. They have to demonstrate that they are worthy, as researchers and human
beings, of being accorded the facilities needed to carry out their investigations. There
is the need to gain permission early on, with fully informed consent, indicating to
participants the possible benefits of the research. The first stage involves the gaining
of official permission to undertake one’s research in the target community. This will
mean contacting, in person or in writing, an appropriate official, for example, the
headteacher/principal. At a later point, significant figures who will be responsible
for, or assist in, the organization and administration of the research will also need to
be contacted – the assistant headmaster/teacher for instance, and certainly the class
teacher if children are to be involved in the research. Since the researcher’s potential
for intrusion and perhaps disruption is considerable, amicable relations should be
fostered as expeditiously as possible. If the investigation involves teachers as
participants, propositions may have to be put to the stakeholders and conditions
negotiated.
3. Respecting autonomy: Action research requires the participation of participants and
collaborators on their own volition. It makes sure that their independence is respected
and that they can take part in research with their whole minds and hearts (Burton &
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Bartlett, 2005). They can be given a free and open environment that supports their
freedom, independence, and autonomy. The participants must be able to leave at any
time without getting in trouble. Acceptance of involvement with enthusiasm,
especially if the individual is a student, demonstrates respect for every individual. In
order to eliminate or limit their presence, it is crucial to discuss their coercion and
desire to participate in study during the planning stage. The fact that the researchers
are also the practitioners may not scare the students away from taking part in the
action research process. Most of the time, this principle makes it impossible to lie in
any way. Practitioners have the right to spend their own time and energy on research,
but they can't force others to help them. So, any kind of forced behaviour is bad for
ethics.
4. Confidentiality—The term ‘confidentiality’ means making clear who has the right
of access to the data provided by the participants. Usually, it is the researcher or
researchers alone. One way of protecting a participant’s right to privacy is through
the promise of confidentiality: not disclosing information from a participant in any
way that might identify that individual or that might enable the individual to be
traced. It can also mean not discussing an individual with anybody else or passing on
the information to others in any form that can identify individuals. This means that
although researchers know who has provided the information or are able to identify
participants from the information given, they will in no way make the connection
known publicly; the boundaries surrounding the shared secret will be protected. The
essence of the matter is the extent to which investigators keep faith with those who
have helped them.
5. Minimizing harm: In contrast to other studies, action research participants mostly
consist of learners. So, when researchers plan a study, they usually have to take
certain steps to make sure that the people who take part in the study don't get harmed
in any way. Harm can be seen from a three-dimensional perspective. It may relate to
financial, physical and psychological. The researcher can comply to by asking
oneself whether there is a means to justify or obtain an excuse for the harm that the
research causes to the participants. In teachers' research, which is embedded in the
setting of the classroom, the teacher should incorporate students in the process for
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the noble cause of learning and to shed light on their own learning without exposing
them to any form of harm.
6. Offering reciprocity: Researchers must consider providing appropriate incentives
that can reach young children and occasionally even grown-up children while
collecting data for research purposes. However, care must be taken to ensure that
supplying incentives has no effect on the conclusion of the research. This giving of
reciprocity in exchange for the information they provide just aids in the collecting of
data or increases the rate of data collection.
7. Equitable treatment of participants: The argument here is that the numerous
people and communities with whom a researcher interacts in the course of their
research ought to be given the same level of consideration as one another, in the
sense that nobody ought to be unfairly favoured or discriminated against.
Summary
The unit has educated you on research ethics. You are advised to take research ethics a very
important consideration for an effective and implementable research results. In professional
work, especially teaching, and the learning process, ethics, and quality cannot be separated.
Learners and teachers create a direct and positive impact on the teaching and learning
process through action research. The true meaning of successful action research is when it
is conducted with sincerity, honesty, teachers' and students' interests in mind, and a constant
awareness of the ethical dilemmas surrounding agents' actions and decisions.
Activity 6.2
1. Why is ethics important in research?
a. Because it allows researchers to use any means necessary to achieve their
goals
b. Because it ensures that researchers are financially compensated for their
work
c. Because it guarantees that the research will be successful
d. Because it protects the rights and welfare of research participants
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2. Why is informed consent important in research?
a. It allows researchers to use the participants' data without their knowledge.
b. It ensures that participants receive special rewards.
c. It helps researchers collect data without any limitations.
d. It safeguards participants' rights and clarifies the research.
3. What should be included in the letter sent home to parents to gain written
permission for research involving their child?
a. The name of the school's administrator.
b. The researcher's name and contact information.
c. The student's grade in the class.
d. The topic, objective, and strategies of the project.
4. Which of the following is a way to demonstrate respect for individual autonomy in

action research?
a. Allowing participants to leave the study without trouble.
b. Coercing participants to participate in the research.
c. Controlling the research environment
d. Forcing participants to stay in the research.
5. Why is confidentiality important in research?

a. To disclose information from participants
b. To enable participants to be traced
c. To protect participants' right to privacy
d. To share information with others
6. How do researchers keep faith with participants in terms of confidentiality?

a. By disclosing information publicly
b. By passing on information to others that can identify individuals
c. By protecting the boundaries surrounding the shared secret
d. By sharing information with others
1) Enumerate and discuss four ethical principles in action research.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 3: STRENGTHS OF ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
Dear learner, action research is seen a valuable endeavour for educators for a variety of
reasons. This section discusses some of action research's strengths.
Learning Outcome
understanding of:
• strength of action research
Learning Indicator
• discuss four strength of action research
Clearly, action research is utilised in the realm of education to enhance instructional practise.
The main advantages of action research are outlined below:
1. Promotes professional development: Action research is a strategy for professional

development. Teachers' perceptions are improved and their confidence are
strengthened when they use evidence to inform their teaching practices and
judgments. A good teacher is affected by improved cognitive abilities, self-efficacy,
and attitudes toward the transformation process.
2. Promotes collaborative environment: Teachers are brought together through
action research, which allows them to explore their own teaching styles and strategies
and share their opinions, thereby strengthening their relationship. There is a clear rise
in sharing and collaboration among departments, disciplines, classes, and schools as
a result of action research.
3. Manages change in school environment: Action research, unlike other types of
research, focuses on addressing locally and small-scale problems. In action research,
teachers focus on a single topic or practise and analyse it continuously, allowing for
time for reflection and re-planning based on need and requirement. In a world that is
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constantly changing, action research helps teachers prepare for changes by doing a
literature review to solve a specific problem, comparing and contrasting the situation
to evaluate success, and drawing conclusions.
4. Reflects on own practice: As a self-reflective technique, action research helps the
researcher to have a critical view on his or her own teaching practise in order to effect
significant changes. It offers the teacher with an informal chance to assess current
practise. The learning outcome of students influences the success of teaching, which
affords practitioners the opportunity to evaluate themselves informally in schools.
5. Improves communication: Educators share their questions with one another and
gain knowledge from one another's expertise. The team collaboration within the
school or district brings together a large number of specialists with a same objective
or purpose for advancement. Sharing and interacting with other teachers has a
favourable impact on the patterns of collegiality, communication, and networking.
Summary
This unit focused on the strength of action research. Strength such as promotes professional
development, promotes collaborative environment; manages change in school environment;
reflects on own practice etc. were discussed. We hope that these strengths would guide you
in your action research journey.
Activity 6.3
1. Which of the following is a benefit of using action research for professional
development?
a. Decreased workload for teachers.
b. Improved student test scores
c. Improved teacher cognition and self-efficacy.
d. Increased funding for schools
2. How does evidence-based practice contribute to professional development for
teachers through action research?
a. Empowering teachers to make informed decisions.
b. Encouraging teachers to use their intuition.
c. Providing teachers with predetermined solutions.
d. Requiring teachers to follow strict guidelines.
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3. How does action research promote a collaborative environment among teachers?
a. Allowing teachers to experiment and share their opinions.
b. Assigning individual tasks to each teacher
c. Encouraging competition among teachers
d. Providing rewards to teachers who perform well.
4. Why is action research considered a self-reflective technique?
a. Because it helps teachers improve their cognitive abilities
b. Because it involves collecting data about students' learning outcomes
c. Because it provides teachers with an opportunity to evaluate themselves
informally
d. Because it requires teachers to collaborate with others in their school
1) Enumerate and discuss five strength of action research.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 4: LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
Previously, we examined the benefits of action research. Similarly, any study is subject to
limitations. During their investigation and report writing, action researchers foresee a few
obstacles and problems. To gain a deeper understanding of these limitations, you should
conduct extensive action research. This section introduces the challenges of research.
Learning Outcome
understanding of:
• Limitations that make action research more challenging
Learning Indicator
• discuss four limitations that make action research more challenging.
Any kind of research is subject to limitations. Action researchers also think about a few
problems and challenges they might face as they do their research and write their reports.
Some of the practical limitations are outlined below:
1. Lack of research skills: Teachers' training programmes have provided them with a
knowledge base of action research, but they lack actual research abilities. This
diminishes their confidence and instils uncertainty in their ability to initiate an action
research project. Practitioners with little research experience generate concern about
their research abilities and avoid it.
2. Limited local support: Teachers receive the least encouragement and support from
local authorities and institution officials in their efforts to do action research.
Obtaining approval from headteachers for action research remains a major obstacle
for many teachers.
3. Additional workload: Occasionally, action research adds to the workload of a
teacher in addition to other academic responsibilities. Action research could only be
conducted during a teacher's free time, making it a low priority for many teachers.
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4. Lack of time: Some researchers chose broad topics out of ignorance or curiosity,
which makes it impossible to finish within the allotted time. The study timeframe
conflicts with typical classroom activities such as examinations, assignment
submissions, and evaluations. Managing research stages and school responsibilities
is a difficult task for teachers. As a teacher, maintaining a balance between these two
is a difficult task. Consequently, teaching responsibilities and focusing on students'
usual classroom tasks interrupt research endeavours and impede completion.
5. Lack of material resources and funds: Action research is a system improvement
strategy that necessitates the upgrading of instructional methods, aids, and
technology devices. With the existing resources, the research could only serve a
limited function. Teachers have financial difficulties when obtaining the necessary
study resources. Teachers cannot participate in action research initiatives due to a
lack of financial support from administrators. Teachers who would want to conduct
action researchers are not eligible for government funding, which stifles their
curiosity.
Summary
This section has outlined the different limitations associated with action research. The
problems include the following: lack of research skills, limited local support, additional
workload, lack of time etc.
Activity 6.4
1. Why do teachers lack confidence in initiating action research projects?
a. Because action research adds to their workload.
b. Because they lack a knowledge base of action research.
c. Because they lack actual research abilities.
d. Because they lack support from local authorities.
2. What is a major obstacle for many teachers when attempting to do action research?
a. Lack of research skills.
b. Lack of support from colleagues.
c. Limited funding opportunities.
d. Obtaining approval from headteachers.
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3. How does action research impact a teacher's workload?
a. It does not affect their workload.
b. It is assigned as part of their regular workload.
c. It is conducted during their free time, making it a low priority.
d. It is done during paid work hours.
4. Why is it challenging for teachers to balance their teaching responsibilities with

conducting action research?
a. Additional workload and time constraints
b. Lack of material resources and funds
c. Lack of research skills
d. Limited local support
5. What is one financial challenge that teachers face when conducting action
research?
a. They do not have the required research skills.
b. They receive limited support from local authorities.
c. They lack the necessary materials and funds.
d. They have conflicts with classroom activities.
1. Enumerate and discuss five limitations of action research.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 5: SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE ACTION RESEARCH
PRACTICES
Introduction
Dear learner, in section four of this lesson, we examined how action research is hindered by
numerous practical limitations that discourage practitioners from participating. This section
addresses a few practical ideas or proposals for action researchers that will serve as a guide
to help them foresee obstacles and challenges and effectively overcome them.
Learning Outcome
understanding of:
• Suggestions for the limitations that make action research more challenging.
Learning Indicator
• discuss four suggestions for dealing with the limitations that make action research
more challenging.
Before beginning action research, being aware of the cautions or limitations enables the
researcher to establish thoughtful arrangements that facilitate the study process. Some of
these suggestions include the following:
1. Staying small and staying focused: Staying small and staying focused is a guideline
that action researchers must adhere to in order to overcome crucial practical problems
in conducting research. Teachers should remain focused on a particular area of
concern. Practitioners and stakeholders should only examine challenges that are
doable for action research. Defining the problem more precisely could show potential
remedies. The phenomenon of interest to the researcher should be examined in detail.
Other problems that stem from it should be disregarded or neglected.
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2. Identification of clear research question: The researcher must have a reasonable
understanding of the research questions developed for the study. The research
questions aid the researcher in selecting suitable research methodologies, and tools
to find answers. Only precise questions provide a vivid plan for completing the
research process successfully and without obstacles.
3. Setting a realistic goal: While planning action research, the researcher must set clear
objectives that are relevant, feasible, and realistic. Small changes or improvements
in a system can lead to long-term development. A researcher can effect change or
improvement by adjusting an area of his work surroundings rather than others. This
understanding allows for the establishment of achievable goals.
4. Careful planning: For action research to be successful, it needs to be planned in a
scientific way. The action researcher must begin his or her investigation with careful
planning. To act as a guide during the investigation, the researcher should develop
plan for his or her study and have it reviewed by professionals.
5. Adopting a realistic timeline: To complete research on schedule, the researcher
must establish a timeline. Academic work obstacles must be accounted for when
developing the schedule. The imposition of timelines that does not interfere with
ordinary classroom duties such as examinations, corrections, etc. aids in the timely
completion of research. Try to set timelines that are realistic enough to help you deal
with the unexpected
6. Ensuring a good ethical practice: The action researcher must adhere to ethical
guidelines to ensure the quality of the research. The research must be directed by
moral beliefs and principles. The researcher must adhere to the commonly accepted
elements of doing ethical action research, such as obtaining informed consent from
participants. Participants will also emulate the researchers' ethical behaviour as a
model.
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Summary
This section concentrated on suggestions for enhancing action research. The suggestions
included; staying small and staying focused, identifying of clear research question, setting
a realistic goal, careful planning, etc. In the next section, we will examine another highly
exciting topic: action research proposal. I assume you do not wish to wait any longer. Let
us move on.
Activity 6.5
1. What is the purpose of staying small and staying focused in action research?
To examine a wide range of problems and challenges.
To focus on a particular area of concern and only examine doable challenges.
To neglect the phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
To define problems in a vague manner.
2. Why is it important to define the problem more precisely in action research?
To make the problem seem more complex.
To overlook potential remedies.
To examine the phenomenon of interest in detail.
To ignore other problems that stem from it.
3. What guideline should action researchers follow to overcome practical problems in
conducting research?
Examine a wide range of challenges.
Stay focused on multiple areas of concern.
Disregard the phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
Stay small and stay focused on a particular area of concern.
4. Why is it important to establish a timeline for action research?
a. To complete the research on time
b. To extend the research indefinitely
c. To make the research more challenging
d. To make the research more complicated
5. What academic work obstacles must be considered when developing a timeline?
a. Classroom duties such as examinations and corrections
b. Outside activities not related to school
c. Personal time off
d. None of the above
1. Enumerate and discuss five limitations of action research.
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UNIT 6 SECTION 6: PROPOSAL FOR ACTION RESEARCH
Hellooooo wonderful learner. We hope you enjoyed the previous section. You are welcome
to the last session of this course. This is titled proposal for action research.
Learning Outcome
understanding of:
• How to write a proposal on an identified problem
Learning Indicator
• write a proposal on an identified problem.
The research proposal is one of the most important parts of research. Before a piece of
research can start, it is usually necessary to present and get approval for a formal proposal.
What is a Research Proposal?

Any researcher who wants to do good research needs to make a plan. In research terms, this
plan is called a "research proposal." The proposal for a piece of research is a document that
describes:
• what the proposed research is about;
• what it aims to discover or accomplish;
• how it will go about doing so;
• what will be learned from it and why it is important to learn it.
It is an essential prerequisite document that must be prepared before any research can
begin. The proposal addresses all aspects, including the problem to be examined, the
methodology to be employed, the duration of the study, and its time and cost estimates.
You write the proposal in the future tense. After it is approved, the proposal leads to the
project itself.
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Purpose of the Proposal
Locke et al.(2007) identify three purposes of the research proposal: communication,
planning, and contracting.
1. Communication: The proposal conveys the intentions and research plans of the
investigator to those who provide approval or allocate funds. The document is the
key resource on which the student's review committee (or research committee) must
base its review, consultation, and approval of the research project.
2. Plan: The proposal is also the plan for how the research will be done. The research
plan can't be better than the research report. Consequently, a good proposal describes
the idea in step-by-step detail.
3. Contract: In the context of higher education, an authorised proposal represents a
contract between the student and his or her supervisors, department, or university.
The approved proposal specifies a study that, if completed effectively and
thoroughly, should serve as the foundation for an acceptable project or dissertation.
Consequently, once a contract has been executed, revisions should be limited to those
justified by absolute necessity or compelling desire.
Structure for an Action Research Proposal

The essential components or typical structure of an action research proposal are outlined
below.
1. Title: Like the title of any other kind of research, the proposed title of an action
research should be clear, precise, and show what the study is about. The title
shouldn't be too long, but it should include all the information about the study, such
as the variables, samples, and methods. To get the attention of the people who will
read the project report, the title needs to be catchy and interesting.
2. Background to the study: This section contains the researcher's reasons for
selecting the topic. It is a kind of a narrative of the precise causes of the selected
problem and its unfavourable impact on student development in a teaching-learning
environment. In addition, the psychological, physiological, and societal variables
that contribute to the condition are considered. This section describes the researcher,
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the subject being taught, the students and the school or educational institution where
the research will be conducted.
3. Statement of the problem: After describing the background to the study, the
statement of the problem comes right after. It is a brief description of the problem
that the study is trying to solve and its scope. A research problem is an issue that
necessitates investigation. Therefore, problems come from things that are hard to
understand.
4. Significance of the Study: This refers to the influence of the study findings on
educational practice and academic improvement.
5. Delimitations: Delimitations refer to the boundaries of a study or how your study
was narrowed by conscious exclusions and inclusions, such as limiting your study to
children of a given age or schools from a specific location.
6. Purpose/Objectives: Most proposals have one main purpose that says what you
want to get out of the project as a whole. A set of objectives that are more specific
than the main purpose helps to reach that purpose. Objectives are usually written in
bullet points and start with the word "to." For example, "to develop...", "to
identify...", "to explore...", "to measure...", "to explain...", "to describe...", "to
compare...", "to figure out...", etc.
7. Research questions: The research questions should correspond with the objectives
of the study.
8. Review of related literature: The analysis of earlier studies allows for a fresh view
on the issue at hand. It lets a researcher learn about areas or parts that are already
known and problems that haven't been fully explored or figured out yet. The
proposed study could use the credible studies that were found during reviews and
that are relevant.
9. Methodology: This section is dedicated to discussing the researcher's approaches. It
recommends the method to be used for the study, indicating whether the researcher
will employ a qualitative approach, a quantitative approach, or both. A thorough
explanation of the reasoning behind the decision to use a certain sampling technique
is also provided. The researcher's suggested testing and non-testing tools, such as
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exams, questionnaires, rating scales, observation, and interviews, are supported by a
rationale.
10. Time schedule: The researcher should make a realistic plan for how long it will take
to finish the study. This is done by putting a timeline on top of your methods. This
is usually done in a table or chart. The committee that looks over your proposal will
check to see if your plan is reasonable and can meet any deadlines or time limits.
11. Budget schedule: The proposal must give a clear estimate of how much it will cost
to do the study. The researcher needs to plan the budget using real information. The
researcher needs to be smart and only spend money on things that are important to
the research.
12. References: The researcher is expected to give a list of all the documents and research
papers he or she looked at while putting together the proposal. To avoid plagiarism,
the researcher should make sure to give credit to the right people.
Activity 6.6
1. How does a research proposal provide value to the research process?
a. By describing the personal life of the researcher, including their hopes,
dreams, and aspirations.
b. By outlining the financial resources that will be required for the research,
including salaries, equipment, and supplies.
c. By providing a clear and concise plan for the research, ensuring that it
is well-structured, focused, and achievable.
d. By providing a platform for the researcher to showcase their skills and
knowledge.
2. What is the purpose of the "background to the study" section in an action research
proposal?
a. To describe the researcher's methodology
b. To explain the significance of the study
c. To outline the timeline for the study
d. To provide the reasons for selecting the topic
3. Which section of an action research proposal contains a brief description of the
problem that the study is trying to solve and its scope?
a. Delimitations
b. Review of related literature
c. Statement of the problem
d. Title
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4. What is the purpose of the budget schedule section in an action research proposal?
a. To describe the researcher's methodology.
b. To explain the significance of the study.
c. To give a clear estimate of how much it will cost to do the study.
d. To provide a timeline for the study.
1. Choose an action research topic in your subject area and write a proposal on it
Summary
Congratulations, you have come to the end of this course. We hope you enjoyed it. We do
hope you can now initiate and carry out action research. Also, you can assess and criticize
research work. If you are a classroom teacher, action research can improve the quality of
your teaching and contribute to your point build-up on the National Teaching Council’s
portal for your promotion.
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Inquiry and Action Research Module-1

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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING

INQUIRY AND ACTION RESEARCH FOR

UNIT 2 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

UNIT 3: DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

SECTION 1: DATA ANALYSIS AND PREPARATION OF THE DATA

UNIT 5: WRITING ACTION RESEARCH REPORT

SECTION 1: PRELIMINARY PAGES

UNIT 6: CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH

By the end of this course, you will be able to:

• Explain research, action research, and types of action research.

Unit Learning Indicators

Now read for further explanations

Research Adds to our Knowledge

Research Improves Practice

Research Informs Policy Debates

Question for reflection

Action Research in the Classroom

Individual action research

Collaborative action research

School-wide action research

Question for Reflection

Action research as a disciplined inquiry

Action research as reflective practice

Action research as bridging the gap between research and practice

Question for Reflection

Question for Reflection

Figure 6.1: Action Research Model

Specifying learning Acton planning

Identifying general Considering alternative courses

Question for Reflection

Perceiving a problem for action research

Using reflection to identify a perceived problem.

Diagnosing perceived problem through evidence

During diagnosis of a problem the following need to be followed:

1. Evidence that a problem exists. Information needs to be collected through data

Question for reflection

Question for reflection.

Select appropriate intervention(s)

Arrangement of intervention activities

1. Why are you collecting the data?

Device innovative and creative approaches of intervention

Prioritise intervention activities.

Question for reflection.

Mapping out monitoring plan

Question for reflection

SESSION 5: RATING SCALES/CHECKLISTS

SESSION 6: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT

By the end of this session, you should be able to:

1. explain the meaning data

Meaning and types of data

General data collection procedures and methods

How is data collected in action research?

Live method of data collection

Question for reflection

1. Explain what is data in action research

Phases of Observational Method

Techniques for Recording Observations

Let us now read on ………

One-on-one interview/in-person interviews: In one-on-one interviews, the interviewer talks