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Heart Mechanics
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences,
and Image Analysis
Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—The Complete Guide
Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences, and Image Analysis
Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Advanced Techniques, Clinical Applications, and Future Trends
Heart Mechanics
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences,
and Image Analysis
El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD

Manager of Cardiac MR R&D
GE Healthcare
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Version Date: 20160805
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This book is dedicated to my lovely daughters Nora and
Salma, my wife Enas, and my mother Ebtesam.
Contents
Contents ......................................................................................................................................................................................vii
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................................................................... xi
Preface........................................................................................................................................................................................xiii
Editor and Author .....................................................................................................................................................................xvii
Contributors ...............................................................................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Heart Mechanics with Magnetic Resonance Imaging ................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Heart Morphology, Function, and Diseases .......................................................................................................... 49

Brian P. Shapiro, MD and El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD
Chapter 3 MRI Basics ............................................................................................................................................................ 81

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD and Refaat E. Gabr, PhD
Chapter 4 Introduction to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging........................................................................... 121

Elizabeth R. Jenista, PhD; David C. Wendell, PhD; Igor Klem, MD; El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD;
and Wolfgang G. Rehwald, PhD
Chapter 5 Noninvasive Characterization of Myocardial Fiber Structure Using MRI ......................................................... 179
Christopher L. Welsh, PhD; El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Frank B. Sachse, PhD; and Edward W. Hsu, PhD
Chapter 6 Continuum Mechanics and Mechanical Cardiac Models ................................................................................... 247

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD and Ahmed S. Fahmy, PhD
Chapter 7 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Cine Image Analysis ........................................................................................... 285

Chapter 8 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Feature Tracking...................................................................................... 343

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD and Rolf Baumann, MSc
Chapter 9 Heart Mechanics: From Implanted Markers to Magnetic Resonance Imaging Tagging .................................... 389
El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD, Andreas Sigfridsson, PhD; and John-Peder E. Kvitting, MD, PhD
Chapter 10 SPAMM and DANTE Tagging ........................................................................................................................... 421

vii
viii Contents
Chapter 11 Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization (CSPAMM) Tagging .................................................... 453

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Andrew J. Coristine, PhD; Hélène Feliciano, PhD; Davide Piccini, PhD;
and Matthias Stuber, PhD
Chapter 12 Special Myocardial Tagging Patterns ................................................................................................................. 497

Abbas Nasiraei-Moghaddam, PhD; Daniel B. Ennis, PhD; and El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD
Chapter 13 Advanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques for Measuring Heart Mechanics .................................... 555
Index ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 589

Contents (Advanced Techniques, Clinical
Applications, and Future Trends)
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................................................................... xi
Preface........................................................................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................................................................xxi
Editor and Author ....................................................................................................................................................................xxiii
Contributors .............................................................................................................................................................................. xxv
Chapter 1 Image Acquisition Sequences in Myocardial Tagging ............................................................................................ 1

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Refaat E. Gabr, PhD; and Michael Salerno, MD, PhD
Chapter 2 Tagging Analysis Techniques: Part I..................................................................................................................... 63

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Azza S. Hassanein, PhD; Hui Wang, PhD; and Amir A. Amini, PhD
Chapter 3 Tagging Analysis Techniques: Part II ..................................................................................................................119

Chapter 4 Harmonic Phase (HARP) Analysis ......................................................................................................................181

Chapter 5 Displacement Encoding with Stimulated Echoes (DENSE) ............................................................................... 239

Xiaodong Zhong, PhD; Bruce S. Spottiswoode, PhD; El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD;
and Frederick H. Epstein, PhD
Chapter 6 Strain Encoding (SENC) ......................................................................................................................................319

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD and Ahmed S. Fahmy, PhD
Chapter 7 Myocardial Tissue Phase Mapping (TPM) ......................................................................................................... 383

Bernd Jung, PhD; El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; and Daniela Föll, MD
Chapter 8 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) ........................................................................................... 449

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Simon Lambert, PhD; and Ralph Sinkus, PhD
Chapter 9 Clinical Applications of Heart Mechanics with MRI: Part I .............................................................................. 501
El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD; Sarah Moharem-Elgamal, MD; Nina P. Hofmann, MD;
and Grigorios Korosoglou, MD
Chapter 10 Clinical Applications of Heart Mechanics with MRI: Part II ............................................................................ 595
Chapter 11 Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions in Heart Mechanics with MRI ................................................. 679
El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD and Leon Axel, MD, PhD
Index ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 709
ix
Foreword
It is my pleasure to write this foreword for El-Sayed Ibrahim’s more than 1300 pages covering thousands of references in 24
Heart Mechanics. Magnetic Resonance Imaging—The Complete chapters with about 1400 figures, Sayed managed to provide
Guide. Back in 1987, I worked with colleagues at The Johns a comprehensive reference that is a valuable resource for any-
Hopkins University Department of Radiology on developing and one working in the field of cardiac functional imaging with
validating the concept of MRI tagging pulse sequence as the first MRI. Not only does the book cover recent MRI techniques
noninvasive technique for evaluating intramyocardial deforma- for heart mechanics imaging, it also covers the basic building
tion. Before the invention of the tagging technique, the only way blocks on which these techniques have been built, which pro-
to evaluate regional heart function was through implantation of vides the reader with the big picture and natural development
radiopaque markers, an invasive procedure with limited applica- stages of the different techniques, thus highlighting their simi-
tion to animal models and in open heart surgery. With cardio- larities, differences, advantages and limitations, and guiding
vascular disease remaining a major cause of death worldwide, the reader to the technique most suitable for his or her specific
it became imperative to find new noninvasive imaging tools that application.
would allow for accurate evaluation of heart function that can be With the carefully selected book contributors, who are
implemented in routine clinical practice. The 1980s witnessed key experts in their fields from elite institutions all over the
the introduction of MRI in clinical practice with early applica- world, the reader will appreciate the first-hand experience
tions in cardiac imaging. The introduction of the MRI tagging provided by these investigators on how they developed their
technique opened the door for a new era of cardiac imaging that techniques and contributed in shaping the field. Furthermore,
helped in better understanding and quantifying heart mechan- with the introductory chapters in the book covering basic
ics in both health and disease. This translated into a number of engineering and medical background materials, Heart
technical developments of the MRI tagging technique, combin- Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—The Complete
ing tagging with ultrafast cine imaging, and exploring its clinical Guide comes as a self-inclusive reference that provides the
applications by different groups in the Department of Radiology reader with a comprehensive resource to master the ideas
at Johns Hopkins University as well as from other groups world- behind the covered techniques and understand the clinical
wide. After more than a quarter of a century since the introduc- significance of these quantitative measures of heart function.
tion of the first tagging sequence, MRI tagging sequences are Finally, with the inclusion of two large chapters devoted to
still being developed and implemented in research and clinical clinical applications of the techniques covered in the book,
studies to evaluate a wide spectrum of cardiovascular diseases Sayed managed to provide a balanced coverage that makes
and study the influence of different systemic diseases on cardiac the book appealing to both clinicians and scientists. In sum-
function with unprecedented levels of detail and accuracy. The mary, from his early training at Johns Hopkins University,
importance of these techniques stems from their capability of subsequent research and academic experience, and dedica-
detecting subclinical cardiac dysfunction before deterioration of tion to excellence, I commend Sayed for this important con-
global heart function, symptoms manifestation, and progression tribution to the field.
toward heart failure. Therefore, these techniques would allow
for early intervention in asymptomatic cardiovascular patients Elias Zerhouni, MD
and patients at risk, and potential assessment of novel therapies, Director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
especially in heart failure, the growing cause of cardiovascular 2002–2008
mortality and morbidity worldwide. Executive Vice-Dean, Dean of Research,
Despite the importance of heart mechanics imaging and and Dean of Clinical Affairs, School of Medicine,
the several MRI techniques developed to serve this purpose, a Johns Hopkins University, 1996–2002
literature gap existed with no scholarly work devoted to cover Director of the MRI Division,
this field. Therefore, Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance and Chairman of the Department of Radiology,
Imaging—The Complete Guide nicely fills this gap. With Johns Hopkins University, 1988–1996
xi
Preface
MRI RESEARCH AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY VMD and PhD degrees, which gives her experience in both
clinical and basic science in CMR. Dara was of great sup-
When I started my doctoral program at Johns Hopkins port for providing the animal models, on which we tested our
University (JHU) in Baltimore, Maryland, I studied under developed techniques. Paul Bottomley has worked on almost
a joint program between the Department of Electrical and every aspect of MRI, including CMR. Together with Robert
Computer Engineering and the Department of Radiology. Weiss, they established unique projects for studying cardiac
This was a perfect niche for me considering my background metabolism with MR spectroscopy (MRS), one of the most
in computer engineering and research interest, as well as pre- challenging research areas in CMR. Ergin Atalar and Elliot
vious research work, in medical imaging. After finishing the McVeigh worked early on developing cine CMR techniques
coursework at the Homewood Campus and successfully pass- among many other technical CMR projects. I was lucky to
ing the qualifying exam, I moved to the Medical Campus, take Ergin’s class in MRI, where I learned a lot about MRI
where I spent the rest of the 5-year PhD program. I was fortu- physics and mastered the subject such that I was top of the
nate to work in the Division of Magnetic Resonance Imaging class (~50, mostly grad, students) with A+ grade.
(MRI) Research in the Department of Radiology at JHU. I had two advisors for my PhD program: Jerry Prince
There, I was surrounded by world experts in MRI, with Paul from electrical and computer engineering and Nael Osman
Bottomley, one of the founders (along with Peter Mansfield from radiology. Jerry Prince has a wide expertise in CMR
and Paul Lauterbur) of the early MRI systems in the world, as image analysis and data acquisition techniques. Actually, a
the division head. large number of the famous CMR techniques for measuring
I chose to specialize in cardiac MR (CMR) because of two heart mechanics have been developed in his lab. My advisor
reasons. The first reason is that CMR imaging was a relatively Nael Osman, who is also a former student of Jerry Prince, is
new area of research, with many challenges because of the respi- known worldwide for the harmonic phase (HARP) analysis
ratory motion, heart motion, air in the lungs surrounding the and strain encoding (SENC) techniques that he invented at
heart, and many other difficulties. Further, in contrast to other Johns Hopkins. These techniques revolutionized the field of
imaging modalities, MRI provides for a large number of cardiac tagging analysis by significantly reducing the image analysis
imaging sequences, all combined in one exam. The second rea- time and presenting the results in an intuitive fashion, which
son, or motivation, for choosing to work on CMR is that I was contributed to increasing the popularity of MRI tagging and
surrounded by world experts in CMR whose developed tech- its implementation on a larger scale.
niques, especially in heart mechanics, helped shape the field and Besides my mentors, I had the opportunity to interact with
are being used at major cardiac centers all over the world. This a large number of colleagues from prestigious institutions,
group included Elias Zerhouni, Matthias Stuber, Nael Osman, including Heidelberg University, Berlin Heart Institute, and
Dara Kraitchman, Paul Bottomley, Jerry Prince, Ergin Atalar, ETH Zurich, who were in the same lab with me working on
and Robert Weiss. Of course there are many other key figures CMR. Also, the annual retreat of the MRI Division at JHU
in CMR at Hopkins and worldwide, some of whom I had the was a great gathering opportunity, where I had the chance
privilege to work with later in my career, but the ones mentioned to meet with everyone at JHU affiliated with MRI research,
here are those in my division with whom I directly worked, or at exchange research ideas, and discuss potential collaboration
least worked on projects that they had established. projects.
I hardly overlapped with Elias Zerhouni, as he left Hopkins
in 2002 to become the director of the National Institutes of
MOTIVATION FOR WRITING THIS BOOK
Health (NIH). He is the inventor of the myocardial tagging
technique, which allowed for the first time for noninvasive When I started working on CMR, I had no prior knowledge
quantification of regional cardiac function and opened the of MRI physics or cardiac imaging, let alone CMR. Taking
door for a new area of research. Actually, a large number of the MRI class with Dr. Atalar filled the gap for understanding
the techniques covered in this book stemmed from the tagging MRI basics from the physics and mathematical perspectives.
technique developed by Zerhouni. Matthias Stuber is one of the I augmented the formal coursework by reading as many MRI
early investigators who worked on CMR at the Swiss Federal books as I could to understand the subject from different per-
Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich in collaboration with spectives: pulse sequence design, signals and systems, etc. At
the late Stefan Fischer (who invented the famous complemen- this stage, I discovered a number of valuable books addressing
tary spatial modulation of magnetization (CSPAMM) tag- the MRI theory, and I appreciated the different approaches
ging technique as well as other important CMR techniques). adopted in them. As I started to study the CMR techniques
Matthias also has vast hands-on experience in pulse sequence invented by my mentors, based on which I would start off my
programming, as he worked with Philips for a number of years own research, my task started to become more specific. My
supporting clinical research at Harvard University before advisor Dr. Osman gave me his seminal paper on SENC and
joining Johns Hopkins University. Dara Kraitchman has both asked me to study it and present at the lab’s weekly meeting.
xiii
xiv Preface
When I first read the paper, I started highlighting the words/ a number of these experts kindly agreed to contribute to my
parts that I did not understand so that I could read more about book, so that chapters about different CMR techniques are
them. When I finished reading the paper, I only understood coauthored by the scientists who invented and/or developed
the basic concept of SENC, mainly from the illustrating fig- these techniques themselves, which provides the reader with
ures, and hardly anything else. The pages’ color turned into a first-hand experience of the development stages each of
yellow from too much highlighting. After about three or four these techniques went through. Furthermore, I was lucky to
weeks of working on the paper, I had enough knowledge to have my first job as an assistant professor in the Department
present it on the lab meeting. However, at that time, my CMR of Radiology, University of Florida in Jacksonville, with
knowledge was minimal and I did not grasp the basic CMR Richard White, an expert in cardiac imaging and one of
concepts quite well. the few radiologists who investigated the importance and
In the early months of my work on CMR, I worked on applications of CMR in its early days, as the department
building my knowledge by reading key articles about CMR chairman, from whom I learnt a lot about different CMR
techniques for evaluating heart mechanics as well as articles clinical applications.
about MRI pulse sequence design from different groups all
over the world. Since then, I kept adding to my CMR knowl-
HOW THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN
edge by reading more articles as well as most of the CMR
books available in the market. Finally, besides the theoretical Writing this book was like a second job for me. For more than
knowledge gained from my readings and by attending differ- five years, I would come home from work to start working on
ent seminars and conferences, I received first-hand practical the book for 4–6 hours on a daily basis, in addition to work-
training on machine operation and pulse sequence design and ing on the weekends and holidays! The more I delved into
programming. We were fortunate to have Matthias Stuber in this project, the more I realized how big it was and how much
our division with his vast experience in pulse sequence pro- more work it would take. Nevertheless, the more challenging
gramming, but this may not have been a good thing for him as the project became, the harder I worked and the more deter-
we kept bothering him with our questions! mined I became to finish it and see the end product. From the
The reason for explaining my early encounters with CMR beginning, my goal was clear: I need this book to provide a
is to illustrate the amount of work and efforts I had to make comprehensive coverage of heart mechanics by MRI and to
to understand the complete picture necessary for progress in be useful for anyone working in that field, regardless of the
my career. At that time, I wished there were a book dedicated educational background (engineering or medical), experience
to this area to serve as a complete reference for investigators level (introductory or advanced), or perspective (theoretical
working on evaluating heart mechanics with MRI, especially or practical).
those who are in the early stage of their career. After gradua- I followed a number of guidelines in writing this book: (1)
tion from Johns Hopkins, it came to me that it would be a good Each chapter was written as if it should be the best chapter in
idea to write something that would serve this purpose, espe- the book. Therefore, a lot of time and effort had been spent in
cially that by that time, I had grasped very good understand- writing every chapter, so that the readers would feel that their
ing of the basic and advanced applications of heart mechanics money was well spent buying this book. My ultimate goal is
with MRI from both theoretical and practical perspectives. to see as many scientists and clinicians as possible benefitting
Therefore, I started writing a review article about myocar- from this book. I want this book to save them time and effort
dial tagging techniques for the Journal of Cardiovascular and help them in their studies and practice. (2) The book is
Magnetic Resonance (JCMR). Although I originally thought designed in a modular fashion, such that some chapters can
that writing such a review paper would be a straightforward be skipped, based on the reader’s experience and interest,
task for me, considering my expertise in the field and that I without losing track of the main theme of the book. (3) The
knew what topics to be covered and have already read all key book provides comprehensive coverage of heart mechanics by
papers related to these topics, it turned out to be a time- and MRI, starting from MRI basics all the way to clinical appli-
effort-consuming task. Despite my interest in keeping the cations and future trends in the field. To ensure meeting this
review article as concise, straightforward, and equation-free goal, I started working on the book by conducting a detailed
as possible, it turned out to be a 40-page article that took me literature survey of the different subjects to be covered.
six months to finish! Although I have already covered many articles in the JCMR
The encouraging comments I received from the review- review paper, the larger scope and level of coverage of this
ers of my review article as well as the positive feedback book required a detailed literature survey that I had to repeat
from the readers encouraged me to think of something big- every few months to make sure that the book’s coverage is
ger and more comprehensive: to write a book! Another fac- up to date. In doing so, I ended up with thousands of articles
tor that made this idea appealing to me is that I got to know that I read and classified based on the chapters and sections
key personnel in the field, mainly from attending annual they belong to. This way, I made sure that the book provides a
meetings, especially those of the International Society of complete coverage of the addressed topics and that the chap-
Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM), Society of ters and sections are optimally organized. Furthermore, this
Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (SCMR), and Institute strategy allowed me to add preliminary chapters that are nec-
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Fortunately, essary for readers lacking certain backgrounds, for example,
Preface xv
the heart physiology (Chapter 2) and MRI physics (Chapter 3) chapters’ design and organization throughout the book. To
chapters for engineers and physicians, respectively. achieve the book’s set up goals, each chapter went through a
The second stage of working on the book was to approach number of revisions to keep improving it until it reached its
experts in the field asking for their contribution, which I really final shape. Therefore, I thank all contributors for their flex-
appreciate as I know how busy they are. From that point on, ibility, understanding, and effort that helped make this book
I had two tasks: to write my own chapters and to contribute come out in this wonderful shape.
to and edit the rest of the chapters in the book, which I took One final note is related to the massive amount of literature
care of meticulously. Furthermore, I wanted to avoid a num- covered in this book. Although I made every effort to conduct
ber of caveats in multicontributor books; for example, when frequent literature searches with different combinations of all
(1) the big picture of the covered topic is lost among the foci possible key words to make this book as comprehensive as
of the different chapters; (2) the different chapters have dif- possible, which resulted in thousands of articles that are cov-
ferent levels of coverage; (3) topics are repeated in different ered in the book, it is possible that I have missed some articles
chapters; (4) the authors focus only on their work and do not that did not come up in the search results. Therefore, I encour-
cover others’; (5) the chapters are almost replicas of a few age the readers to contact me and point out potential work to
papers of the authors’; and (6) there is no uniformity in the be included in the next edition of the book.
Editor and Author
Dr. El-Sayed H. Ibrahim is including books, book chapters, book reviews, journal papers,
the manager of Cardiac MR proceeding papers, and conference abstracts. Dr. Ibrahim is a
R&D with General Electric reviewer for more than 30 international journals, conferences,
Healthcare, based in the and grants funding agencies, in addition to being a member of a
headquarters in Wisconsin, number of journal editorial boards. He also serves as organizer,
USA. Dr. Ibrahim earned moderator, and guest speaker in a number of international
his master’s and doctoral meetings/events. Dr. Ibrahim received many awards and nomi-
degrees in computer engi- nations for distinguished accomplishments as well as research
neering from Johns Hopkins funding grants for different projects on medical imaging. He
University under a joint pro- is a member of a number of international societies, including
gram between the Depart- the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine
ment of Electrical Engineering and the Department of (ISMRM), Society of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
Radiology. After graduation, he joined the University of Florida (SCMR), and the Institute for Electrical and Electronics
as an assistant professor of radiology for five years before mov- Engineers (IEEE). On the educational side, Dr. Ibrahim has
ing to Mayo Clinic, University of Michigan, and then switch- been teaching both medical and engineering students at the
ing to Industry. Dr. Ibrahim’s research interests include medical undergraduate and graduate levels for more than two decades.
imaging and image processing with special emphasis on MRI He also serves as an external expert/committee member for a
and cardiovascular imaging. He has more than 150 publications, number of graduate students.
xvii
Contributors
Rolf Baumann, MSc John-Peder E. Kvitting, MD, PhD
TomTec Imaging Systems Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery
Munich, Germany Linköping University
Linköping, Sweden
Andrew J. Coristine, PhD
Department of Radiology Abbas Nasiraei-Moghaddam, PhD
University of Lausanne Faculty of Biomedical Engineering
Lausanne, Switzerland Amirkabir University of Technology
Tehran, Iran
Daniel B. Ennis, PhD
Department of Radiology Davide Piccini, PhD
University of California Department of Radiology
Los Angeles, California University of Lausanne
Lausanne, Switzerland
Ahmed S. Fahmy, PhD
Department of Medicine
Wolfgang G. Rehwald, PhD
Harvard University
Siemens Healthcare
Boston, Massachusetts
Malvern, Pennsylvania
Hélène Feliciano, PhD
Frank B. Sachse, PhD
Department of Radiology
Department of Bioengineering
University of Lausanne
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
Refaat E. Gabr, PhD
Brian P. Shapiro, MD
Department of Radiology
Department of Medicine
University of Texas
Mayo Clinic
Houston, Texas
Jacksonville, Florida
Edward W. Hsu, PhD
Andreas Sigfridsson, PhD
Department of Bioengineering
Department of Clinical Physiology
University of Utah
Karolinska University
Salt Lake City, Utah
Stockholm, Sweden
El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD Matthias Stuber, PhD
GE Healthcare Department of Radiology
Waukesha, Wisconsin University of Lausanne
Elizabeth R. Jenista, PhD
Department of Medicine Christopher L. Welsh, PhD
Duke University GE Healthcare
Durham, North Carolina Waukesha, Wisconsin
Igor Klem, MD David C. Wendell, PhD

Department of Medicine Department of Medicine
Duke University Duke University
Durham, North Carolina Durham, North Carolina
xix
1 Introduction to Heart Mechanics
with Magnetic Resonance Imaging
CONTENTS
List of Abbreviations..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 MRI and Heart Mechanics ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 About This Book and Its Value ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Cardiovascular Disease ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Heart Physiology.................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Myocardial Fiber Structure ................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Mechanical Heart Modeling ................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.6 Global and Regional Measures of Cardiac Function ........................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Imaging Modalities for Evaluating Cardiac Function ......................................................................................................... 9
1.7.1 Echocardiography .................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.7.2 Computed Tomography ........................................................................................................................................... 9
1.7.3 Nuclear Medicine..................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.8 Magnetic Resonance Imaging ............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.8.1 Scanner’s Hardware and Software........................................................................................................................... 9
1.8.2 MRI Advantages and Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 10
1.9 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance................................................................................................................................. 11
1.10 Cine Imaging ..................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.11 Cine Image Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.12 Myocardial Feature Tracking ............................................................................................................................................ 13
1.13 Myocardial Marker Implantation ...................................................................................................................................... 14
1.13.1 Radiopaque Markers and Sonomicrometers .......................................................................................................... 14
1.13.2 Markers’ Limitations and Advantages................................................................................................................... 14
1.14 MRI Tagging ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.15 Tagging by Magnetization Saturation................................................................................................................................ 15
1.15.1 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.15.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.16 SPAMM ............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.16.1 Importance ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.16.2 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.17 DANTE .............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.18 CSPAMM .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.18.1 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.18.2 Slice-Following CSPAMM .................................................................................................................................... 19
1.19 Special Tagging Patterns ................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.19.1 Localized and Variable-Density Tagging .............................................................................................................. 19
1.19.2 Radial and Circular Tagging ................................................................................................................................. 20
1.20 Data Acquisition Sequences .............................................................................................................................................. 20
1.20.1 Gradient Echo ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
1.20.2 Echo Planar Imaging ............................................................................................................................................. 21
1.20.3 Steady State with Free Precession ......................................................................................................................... 21
1.20.4 Other Data Acquisition Strategies ......................................................................................................................... 22
1
2 Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences, and Image Analysis
1.21 Tagging Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................... 22

1.21.1 Active Contour Methods ...................................................................................................................................... 22
1.21.2 Optical Flow Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 23
1.21.3 3D Tagging Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 24
1.21.3.1 Active Contours in 3D Tagging Analysis............................................................................................. 24
1.21.3.2 Finite-Element Modeling ..................................................................................................................... 24
1.22 HARP ................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
1.22.1 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.22.2 Validation............................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.23 DENSE............................................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.23.1 Basic Idea and Advantages .................................................................................................................................. 26
1.23.2 Concept of Work .................................................................................................................................................. 26
1.23.3 Developments....................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.24 SENC ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.24.1 Basic Idea and Advantages .................................................................................................................................. 27
1.24.2 Concept of Work .................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.24.3 Developments....................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.24.4 Applications ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.25 Tissue Phase Mapping ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.25.1 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.25.2 Practical Considerations ...................................................................................................................................... 28
1.26 MR Elastography ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
1.26.1 Historical Background ......................................................................................................................................... 29
1.26.2 Basic Idea ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
1.26.3 Cardiac MR Elastography ................................................................................................................................... 30
1.26.4 Current Status and Future Directions .................................................................................................................. 30
1.27 Applications of Heart Mechanics with MRI ..................................................................................................................... 31
1.27.1 Regional LV Function .......................................................................................................................................... 32
1.27.2 Regional RV Function ......................................................................................................................................... 33
1.27.3 Ischemic Heart Disease ....................................................................................................................................... 33
1.27.4 Myocardial Infarction .......................................................................................................................................... 33
1.27.5 Dilated and Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathies ...................................................................................................... 33
1.27.6 Interventricular Dyssynchrony ............................................................................................................................ 34
1.27.7 Valvular Heart Disease ........................................................................................................................................ 34
1.27.8 Congenital Heart Disease .................................................................................................................................... 34
1.27.9 Myocardial Elasticity ........................................................................................................................................... 34
1.27.10 Other Heart Diseases ........................................................................................................................................... 34
1.28 Book Contents.................................................................................................................................................................... 35
1.28.1 Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences,
and Image Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 35
1.28.1.1 Preliminary Chapters ........................................................................................................................... 35
1.28.1.2 Myocardial Fiber Structure and Mechanical Heart Modeling ............................................................ 35
1.28.1.3 Heart Function from Cine Images ....................................................................................................... 35
1.28.1.4 Basic Tagging Techniques.................................................................................................................... 35
1.28.1.5 Special Tagging Patterns...................................................................................................................... 36
1.28.2 Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Advanced Techniques, Clinical Applications,
and Future Trends ................................................................................................................................................ 36
1.28.2.1 Imaging Sequences and Tagging Analysis .......................................................................................... 36
1.28.2.2 Advanced Tagging Techniques ............................................................................................................ 36
1.28.2.3 Tissue Phase Mapping.......................................................................................................................... 37
1.28.2.4 MR Elastography ................................................................................................................................. 37
1.28.2.5 Clinical Applications ........................................................................................................................... 37
1.29 Summary and Key Points .................................................................................................................................................. 38
1.29.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 38
1.29.2 Key Points ............................................................................................................................................................ 38
References ................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Introduction to Heart Mechanics with Magnetic Resonance Imaging 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS sf-SENC Slice-following SENC

sf-fast-SENC Slice-following fast-SENC
Abbreviation Meaning SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
1D One-dimensional SPAMM Spatial modulation of magnetization
2D Two-dimensional SPECT Single-photon emission computed tomography
3D Three-dimensional SSFP Steady state with free precession
4CH Four-chamber STE Speckle-tracking echocardiography
4D Four-dimensional STEAM Stimulated echo acquisition mode
AC Alternating current TE Echo time
AHA America Heart Association TM Mixing time
C-SENC Composite SENC TPM Tissue phase mapping
CAD Coronary artery disease TR Repetition time
CMR Cardiovascular magnetic resonance VBOF Variable brightness optical flow
CMR-FT CMR feature tracking
CRT Cardiac resynchronization therapy
CSPAMM Complementary SPAMM 1.1 INTRODUCTION
CT Computed tomography 1.1.1 MRI and HeaRt MecHanIcs
CVD Cardiovascular disease
DANTE Delay alternating with nutations for tailored Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been established as
excitation a valuable modality for measuring heart mechanics. Besides
DC Direct current evaluating global heart function, for example, ventricular
DCM Dilated cardiomyopathy ejection fraction (EF), it allows for measuring regional myo-
DENSE Displacement encoding with stimulated cardial deformation, for example, myocardial strain, strain
echoes rate, and torsion. Cine cardiac MRI images have been used for
DTI Diffusion tensor imaging deriving cardiac functional parameters through geometrical,
DWI Diffusion-weighted imaging probabilistic, statistical, and mechanical modeling. Further,
ECG Electrocardiogram feature-tracking techniques have been recently implemented
EF Ejection fraction for measuring myocardial deformation directly from the cine
EPI Echo planar imaging images. Nevertheless, the invention of MRI tagging in the late
FEM Finite-element modeling 1980s allowed for visualizing transmural myocardial move-
FOV Field of view ment for the first time without having to implant physical
FT Fourier transformation markers in the heart.
Gd Gadolinium The invention of myocardial tagging opened the door
GRE Gradient echo for a series of developments and improvements that con-
HARP Harmonic phase tinue up to the present day. Different tagging techniques
HCM Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy are currently available that are more extensive, improved,
HFNEF Heart failure with normal EF and sophisticated than they were 25 years ago. Current
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus MRI techniques for measuring heart mechanics include
HT High-tuning tagging by magnetization saturation, spatial modulation of
LAX Long-axis magnetization (SPAMM), delay alternating with nutations
LISA Linearly increasing start-up angles for tailored excitation (DANTE), complementary SPAMM
LT Low-tuning (CSPAMM), harmonic phase (HARP) analysis, displace-
LV Left ventricle ment encoding with stimulated echoes (DENSE), strain
LVEF LV ejection fraction encoding (SENC), tissue phase mapping (TPM), and MR
MESA Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis elastography (MRE). These techniques can generally be
MI Myocardial infarction classified as either magnitude-based or phase-based tech-
MRE MR elastography niques, based on the way in which the myocardial defor-
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging mation information is encoded (either in the MR signal
NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance magnitude or phase, respectively).
PC Phase-contrast Although most of the developed techniques have been
PET Positron emission tomography invented by separate groups and evolved from different per-
RF Radio-frequency spectives, many of them are in fact closely related to each
ROI Region of interest other, and they represent different sides of the same coin. The
RV Right ventricle development of some of these techniques even followed paral-
SAR Specific absorption rate lel paths, as illustrated later in the book. Besides, each of these
SAX Short-axis techniques has different versions that provide improved reso-
SENC Strain encoding lution (spatial or temporal), enhanced signal-to-noise ratio
4 Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences, and Image Analysis
(SNR), three-dimensional (3D) imaging capability, reduced sequence is described along with the improved versions that
scan time, and composite data acquisition (e.g., myocardial have been developed based on it. The different versions of
strain and viability). Further, as each technique has its own each technique are grouped based on the primary develop-
advantages and limitations, efforts have been made to com- ment goal, for example, SNR enhancement, scan time reduc-
bine different techniques for improved image quality, 3D cov- tion, or 3D extension. Different postprocessing algorithms
erage, or composite data acquisition. that have been developed for each technique are also covered
along with the major applications and studies that have been
conducted using these techniques. As different techniques
1.1.2 about tHIs book and Its Value
have distinctive advantages and limitations, some efforts
Despite the valuable information provided in a number of review have been made to combine different techniques for improved
articles (Zerhouni 1993, McVeigh 1996, Rademakers and image quality or composite data acquisition. These efforts
Bogaert 1997, Reichek 1999, Masood et al. 2000, Axel 2002, are also covered along with the similarities and differences
Castillo et al. 2003, Axel et al. 2005, Petitjean et al. 2005, Gotte between different techniques.
et al. 2006, Pai and Axel 2006, Shehata et al. 2009, Ibrahim There are a couple of notes about this book. First, I
2011, 2012) and cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) adopted a modular design strategy in this book. So, the
books (Higgins and de Roos 2002, Nagel et al. 2004, Lee reader may find a few topics repeated in different chapters.
2005, Pohost and Nayak 2006, Biederman et al. 2007, Kwong This was not an oversight or due to the contributions from
2007, Lardo et al. 2007, Grizzard et al. 2008, McGee et al. different people. Rather, I tried to make every chapter as a
2008, 2015, Manning and Pennell 2010, Bogaert et al. 2012, complete unit, such that the readers familiar with certain
Myerson et al. 2013, Constantinides 2014, Ordovas 2015), no chapters can skip them and jump to the chapter of interest
book has been dedicated to heart mechanics by MRI. This without much interruption or the need to go back and forth
topic is usually covered in one or two chapters at most, despite between different chapters. However, the reader will find
the breadth and depth of the work that has been done in this that the “repeated” topics are not copied and pasted; they
field. Although a number of review articles were dedicated to are rather covered at different levels and from different per-
this subject (Zerhouni 1993, McVeigh 1996, Rademakers and spectives based on the chapter in which they are covered.
Bogaert 1997, Reichek 1999, Masood et al. 2000, Axel 2002, So, even the reader who reads the book starting from first
Castillo et al. 2003, Axel et al. 2005, Petitjean et al. 2005, chapter onward will find that he or she gains more under-
Gotte et al. 2006, Pai and Axel 2006, Shehata et al. 2009, standing about the topics that are covered in more than one
Goergen and Sosnovik 2011, Ibrahim 2011, 2012, Jeung et al. chapter by looking at them from different angles. The sec-
2012, Simpson et al. 2013, Tee et al. 2013, Jiang and Yu 2014, ond note is that in the references in the end of each chapter,
Modesto and Sengupta 2014, Tavakoli and Sahba 2014, Lorca the reader may find more than one reference for the same
et al. 2015), these reviews typically focus on certain aspects work. Again, this was not an oversight; rather, investigators
(e.g., pulse sequences or image analysis) or provide a general usually publish their work first as a conference abstract or
overview without delving into detailed mathematical formu- technical paper, followed by a full paper in a clinical jour-
lation, pulse sequence description, or algorithms analysis or nal, technical journal, or both. I therefore included different
without covering the various clinical applications of the devel- references such that the reader can get the reference that he
oped techniques. Another point is that current-day techniques or she finds more suitable (or even accessible) to him or her,
for measuring cardiac mechanics are so advanced and com- considering that some publications are freely available on
plicated that they are hard to comprehend without reviewing the Internet and others are not.
the basic blocks on which they have been built and following One advantage of gathering all MRI techniques for mea-
the incremental developments that led to the present-day tech- suring the heart mechanics in these two books is that it helps
niques. Therefore, this book comes to fill this literature gap. shed the light on their similarities and differences and explore
It should be noted that some parts and figures of the tagging the parallel paths of development that these techniques went
review in this chapter are adapted from the review paper by the through by different research groups. When looking at the
author (Ibrahim 2011). big picture, one observes that although some techniques have
This book, together with Heart Mechanics: Magnetic been separately developed by different investigators whose
Resonance Imaging—Advanced Techniques, Clinical Applications, ideas stemmed from different perspectives, there exist some
and Future Trends, covers different techniques and clinical relationships among many of these techniques. Therefore,
applications for measuring heart mechanics by MRI that have these books provide a plethora of ideas and techniques with
been developed over almost the past three decades. Different thousands of references that motivate the reader to think about
developments in MRI pulse sequences and related image pro- the future of using MRI for measuring cardiac mechanics
cessing techniques are described along with the necessities in particular and for comprehensively evaluating the heart
that led to their invention, which ensures smooth flow and function in general. Further, the clinical application chapters
easy-to-follow presentation of the covered topics. Besides (Chapters 9 and 10 of Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance
technical coverage, most of the clinical studies that used these Imaging—Advanced Techniques, Clinical Applications, and
techniques for measuring heart mechanics are also summa- Future Trends) summarize most of the clinical studies that
rized. For each of the covered techniques, the basic pulse used heart mechanics derived by MRI. This would be a very
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graceful lines of a mountain, or even the crystal curves in a fountain,
without dwelling on that form which, of all created, is undeniably the
most beautiful without any of its associations, and dwelling on it, too,
with somewhat other feelings than those expressed by the Italian
priest when he remarked, in a tone of reproof, to a friend who wished
to call his attention to a fair lady at an assembly—
“Una bella creatura di Dio!”
Thus I do think that if this celibacy is to be continued, it would be a

great improvement to enjoin the study of pure mathematics on
college Fellows, with examinations at intervals to prove that their
time is only taken up in contemplating the affinities of triangles, and
the love of the angles (not of the angels). The whole series of classical
literature ought to be forbidden them for the time; ditto all galleries,
pictures, and statues, all music and poetry; and they ought, as a final
measure, to be relegated to that monastery mentioned by Mr Curzon,
somewhere in the Acroceraunian mountains, where there were some
Greek monks who had never seen a female face, and had even
forgotten their mothers. One of them asked him whether women
were like the Madonna. The poor fellow had better not have seen that
Madonna. Even now, some men in their undergraduate life grow
tired of the exclusively masculine aspect of the University, and some
very good lines on that subject, of which I only recollect the end,
were written by a now eminent poet, when he was an undergraduate
—
“As I am one who feels the full divinity
Of a fair face in woman, I protest
I’m sick of this unvaried regularity
Of whiskered cheeks and chins of black barbarity.”
And one painful consequence of the present system is, the violation
of the good old adage, “Happy’s the wooing that’s not long a-doing:”
the notorious evil of long engagements becomes, in this case,
exaggerated to a painful degree. There being no absolute, but only a
conditional prohibition, and the prospect of a living, certain though
distant, appearing to justify the formation of such ties, engagements
are formed in early life, the ratification of which seems ever near, but
never actually comes, till both parties have passed their meridian,
and the fulfilment takes place, if it is thought worth while that it
should take place at all, rather as a matter of course, than because
the parties really now desire it. The hope deferred which “maketh the
heart sick,” embitters the masculine temper, and withers the
feminine frame, even before their natural bloom would have
disappeared. The courage which, in earlier life, would have taken a
bold step, and dared the world to do its worst, becomes irresolution
and timidity; and as it often happens that those who have been kept
without food too long, only know the sensation of hunger through a
general faintness of the system, so the vacuum of the affections too
long kept up by circumstances, becomes at last a chronic disease,
which, to the end of life, remains irremediable. At the same time, the
life of the common-room, and the extreme ease with which material
wants are provided for, acts on the mind as opium acts on the
system, till at last it ceases to care for anything but the drug which
has become a habit. It may be with some of those who have felt the
enduring influence of this soporific regime, as with the lotos-eaters
of Tennyson; they even come to dread a change, and cling to the
indolence from which at first they would have fled:
“Our island home
Is far beyond the sea, we will no longer roam.”
But, on the other hand, it may be urged that the immediate

happiness of those concerned is not so much contemplated in the
foundations as their usefulness, and that they must be content to cull
the flowers which grow beside the path of duty. This may be
answered by urging that, in certain cases, a man’s usefulness is
diminished instead of being increased by his being denied certain
sources of happiness. The best workman is ever the man who is best
fed and clothed, and made most generally comfortable; even so in
the great work of human life is that individual most efficient whose
legitimate wants, both of body and soul, are satisfied. The motives
which actuated the founders of the Roman Catholic colleges were no
doubt, as most human motives are, of a mixed nature. On the one
hand, they wished their money to fructify and do as much good as
possible; on the other hand, they wished it to fructify in such a way
as to redeem their own souls from purgatory, by providing a
succession of those who should sing masses for them for all time; at
the same time, it was the prevailing notion in these times, and is
now, among Romanists, that celibacy, if not the happiest, is the
holiest state of man.[4] If there be any truth in this, even to the most
limited extent, there is something to be said for the system; but if the
poor founders have been cheated out of their masses, and may
remain, for all the present generation care, boiling and broiling in
purgatory to the end of time, it seems purely hypocritical to lean on a
notion which has no better foundation than the ruling opinions of
founders. All the great and imposing faith is gone which would
support a heavy burden with the supernatural sinews of religion, and
the burden remains still to be borne as it best may by human muscle
alone. But it may be also said, the fellowships of colleges are in
themselves eleemosynary institutions, and poverty was in most cases
made a condition of the enjoyment of them; and just as, under the
new poor-law system, we imagine that a man, though he has a right
to existence, has no right to encumbrances which others must
support, so some would argue that the charity of the founders ought
to be thankfully accepted under all its conditions. But in the first
place, the question may be asked, whether apparent necessity, rather
than humanity, did not suggest the new poor-law system? In the next
place, whether that can strictly be called eleemosynary of which
merit is made a condition? We give to a beggar sometimes, although
we know him to be utterly worthless, merely because he is destitute;
and even the utterly worthless have a certain claim, in right of their
Maker’s image; but we give to a good man as a tribute to his virtue,
and the application of these foundations to proficiency in knowledge
is to those who accept them usually accounted peculiarly honourable,
just as a national pension is to the wounded soldier. Besides, it might
be said that all bequests are in a manner eleemosynary, because the
legacy is not a payment for labour in most cases, but a free gift from
the testator to the legatee; nor is its character materially altered by
the fact of its having been given under conditions. It appears to some
that the college property is as much real property to those who have
the use of it, as any property bequeathed subject to conditions; such
as, for instance, the law of entail in England. Indeed, a case has been
mentioned, in which, for some peculiar reason, a very rich man
inherited his estates subject to this very condition of celibacy. And
eleemosynary institutions, strictly so called, are commonly
administered by trustees, not by those who reap the benefits of them,
as is the case with college fellowships. I think I have now, as well as I
can, stated the arguments, both pro and con, though perhaps it is
easy for you to see to which side I lean. I confess that I should regard
the repeal of celibacy as a conservative change, because it would give
individuals a more enduring interest in their University. I dread
innovation, and especially from profane hands; at the same time, I
feel the necessity of such wholesome repairs in the constitution of
Alma Mater as shall secure for her, as far as possible, a perpetuity of
youth, or at least a green old age. How other changes, such as the
admission of Dissenters, can be brought about without ignoring the
entire history, associations, and character of the University, I do not
well see. If Dissenters are admitted at all, Roman Catholics must be
admitted with the rest; and they may perhaps lay claim to a
participation in the good things of the University, seeing that the
ancient foundations were undoubtedly made in their favour; and if
this participation be allowed, the rights of the foundation will be
again disturbed; and they may push their claim to the entire
exclusion of all other communities, for, unless there be a reason for
disfranchising them, they will ask why others should share
advantages originally intended for them alone. They are not like the
Jews, a sect who keep to themselves, and seek not to domineer over
others; but universal dominion is as much the policy of pontifical as
of imperial Rome. Thus they will be sure to take every advantage.
Thus there is a primâ facie danger in mooting any integral question
concerning the constitution of the University, lest an opening should
be unwarily made which would destroy everything on which its
existence depends; and this is, in my opinion, the most plausible
argument in favour of continuing the celibacy of Fellows. But averse
as all well-wishers to Oxford would be to any change in the way of
subtraction or diminution of her privileges, no such one could look
with coldness on any proposed additions to her area of efficiency,
and especially on extensions which seem suggested by her natural
aptitudes. As Cambridge seems to possess the soil in which
everything connected, however remotely, with science, is destined
especially to thrive, such as natural history in its various branches, so
does Oxford appear to be that University which should assume a
prominently artistic character. The foundations of a new museum
have been laid, which is to be built on a grand and imposing scale. Is
its chief attraction, when completed, to consist in a collection of
dried beetles and stuffed humming-birds, or even a complete
skeleton of the megatherium, if such a thing is to be had; or is an
attempt to be made to bring together, by every possible means, a
collection of works of art which would really do credit to the
University? It must be remembered that we have in England no
national gallery worthy of the name; not that the pictures composing
the collection in Trafalgar Square are to be despised—far from it; but
the building which contains them shows them to so little advantage,
and is altogether so inadequate, that it presents few temptations to
large additions, either by purchase, gift, or bequest. The very
atmosphere of London is an argument against building a new
national gallery in the neighbourhood of any of the centres of
metropolitan life. Trees may be blackened, but flourish under the
soot; but the purity of the marble, and the freshness of the canvass,
are liable to be permanently discoloured by the constant action of an
air impregnated with smoke, in a manner far other than that in
which they receive the mere mellowness of age. This would be
conclusive against a central situation, and if such a building is to be
placed in the suburb, to arrive at it would cost a sacrifice of time and
effort little short of that necessary to arrive at a site at a moderate
railroad distance from the metropolis. As it is, Oxford is a great point
of attraction to all strangers, and no Englishman who had not seen it,
could pretend to an average knowledge of his own country. It is even
placed within reach of the working-classes of London by excursion-
trains, who are thus led in the pursuit of pure air to a place full of
associations, which are in every way likely to do them good. It seems
to me that it is worth considering whether the national gallery of
England might not with advantage be placed at Oxford, and
combined in some way with the scheme of the new museum. A
school of art would probably spring up around it, to which the
University would naturally present many advantages, and to which it
might well extend peculiar privileges. The present is not the worst
time to consider this matter, when the existence of a great war
postpones the execution of all plans of subordinate importance. It is
quite certain that everything cannot be concentrated in London; and
this being the case, it is well to consider what other places are
calculated, in their own way, to become capital cities. Oxford has
already received some of the Muses as its inmates, and it is
abundantly spacious to receive them all. With respect to the natural
scenery of its environs, very much might be said in favour of its being
suited as a residence for an artist. The banks of its rivers are
especially fertile in subjects for the brush, and though its upland
scenery is generally stamped with that mediocrity which seems
peculiar to the central counties of England, there are spots here and
there which, from their wildness or woodiness, are well adapted for
the sketcher. I am sorry to see many of the wild places round Oxford
either already enclosed, or in course of enclosure; but what I saw
with most regret was, that Bagley Wood had been surrounded with a
fence, and placed under a most rigorous taboo to the public in
general. Now, there is some excuse for bringing land into cultivation
which may be made available for the wants of the community, and
can only become so if enclosed; but when the better preservation of
game is the only object, to exclude the public from a place where they
have been accustomed for years to expatiate and “recreate
themselves,” and an intelligent public, such as that of the University;
—to exclude them from one of the spots which Arnold mentioned as
giving him especial delight on his return to Oxford, and as being one
of its chief glories,—this, though perfectly justifiable according to
law, is scarcely consistent with that Aristotelian equity which ought
to be above law, especially in the neighbourhood of those brought up
in his precepts, and whose philanthropy might naturally be expected
to be more expansive than that of other men. It appears, however,
that this mischief has been done for some time; and the only
compensation the public gain is that a fine wide road has been made,
which certainly makes the walk round the wood complete—a poor
consolation, indeed, to those who, like myself, look upon walking
along a road as one of the dreariest duties imaginable, and have an
irreclaimable vein of the savage in their composition. Why, to me the
sight of the stiff hedges and mathematical drains of Bagley Wood
would spoil half the pleasure of shooting there; but, of course, those
who have that privilege may say that the grapes are sour. I may
mention that on the walk which crosses the railway, and cuts across
into the Abingdon road, which leads through Bagley Wood, a large
reservoir has lately been made, which in one place is crossed by a
bridge, that seems as if it had been put there on purpose to give the
best near view of the city. The best distant views I consider to be
those about the Hinksey fields, near the spot where Turner, with
singular ignorance of the customs of the University, painted
gownsmen in their academicals among the haycocks; and at a place
near Elstree, called Stow Wood, well known as a fox-cover. But
perhaps the most characteristic view of all is that of the towers of
Oxford, seen reflected in the flooded surface of Christchurch meadow
under a red sky. This view is suggestive of Venice, especially if the
boats are magnified by a slight effort of the imagination into sea-
going ships, or softened into gondolas. I have mentioned the
advantages which an artist might derive from residence in Oxford,
alike from the models that might be placed there, the architectural
beauties of the place, and the natural scenery. To the second of these
advantages would belong the excellent studies of interiors that some
of the rooms present. The rooms of one of my friends, which were
those at first intended for the Head of the College, are quite a gem in
the profuseness of decoration, especially as applied to the ceiling.
The halls of many of the colleges are also remarkably fine, as
presenting studies of interiors of peculiar magnificence. Occasionally
the internal decoration of the rooms themselves, in which individual
taste has perhaps taken a wider range than in any other place I know,
would assist a painter in his composition. Pictures and engravings,
profuse in quantity, if not always good in quality, decorate the rooms
of most of the junior members, and a marked improvement has of
late years taken place in this matter, engravings from good masters,
and really good original pictures by modern artists, having taken the
place of trumpery hunting-prints and portraits of the nymphs of the
ballet. Other rooms are hung round “with pikes, and guns, and
bows,” now obsolete, and seemingly made, at the time of their
construction, for this ulterior object of ornamenting a room, which
they fulfil so much better than any modern invention. But perhaps
the most extraordinary rooms of all are those of a friend of mine, in
one of the most picturesque colleges. The whole centre of his room is
taken up by a kind of immense Christmas tree, formed by his own
labour and ingenuity, on which is hung every imaginable article that
would be chosen in an old curiosity-shop from mere oddness in form
or nature. It is a rare collection of what the French call specimens of
“bêtises,” ironically, as I suppose, considering the extreme cleverness
which imagined them all. There are, if I rightly remember, gods from
the Sandwich Islands and fetishes from Africa, clubs from New
Zealand and bows from Tartary, stuffed birds, pipes of all kinds and
sizes, skins of snakes and crocodiles, skulls of men and animals, and
everything, in fact, that ever entered into a skull to devise. The walls
are papered with engravings, and engravings are hung from the
ceiling because there is no room for them on the walls. There is a
collection of divers plants, native or exotic, flourishing in stands or
trailing over the windows, in each of which is a kind of caravanserai
for wild birds (not aviary), for the amiable proprietor does not detain
them there longer than they wish to stay, but invites them in by
abundant proffers of their peculiar kinds of food; and as he sits or
reclines by his fire (for he has abundant facilities for assuming either
position) by the motionless silence which he purposely observes—has
constant opportunities of watching their flittings and hearing their
twitterings, and studying their little habits with the gusto of a
naturalist. That such an inventory, which entirely passes my memory
to describe, should have been amassed in a single room by any
amount of time and trouble, is a marvel to me, only to be explained
by the perfect and lotos-eating repose of a college life. Long may our
friend enjoy his quaint and instructive rooms! Travellers see strange
things, but few can say that they have seen stranger than those that
are enshrined in the colleges of Oxford.
You see that I have carefully abstained in what I have said from
making invidious comparisons between Oxford and the sister
university; nor have I spoken of the universities of the north, with
which I am but little acquainted, but which I should imagine to hold
an intermediate place between the English and the German system.
On the whole, it appears to me that the function of education,
comprising theology, philosophy, science, and belles lettres, is to
impress upon the mind images of Beauty and Truth, and to enable
the mind which has received these impressions to act in like manner
through life. If education cannot make a man’s actions truthful and
beautiful, he remains to the end a savage, or rather, I should say, the
scion of a vulgar civilisation, even if he knows all the poets by heart,
or can discourse with the acumen of an Erasmus or a Crichton. That
Beauty and Truth are one and the same in that perfect sunlight which
our eyes cannot see, and from which all lesser lights proceed, few will
deny. But here on earth they may be considered as in a measure
apart, and as exciting, each for good in its way, separate influences
on the moral life of man. Men incline to one or the other light
according to their natural bent or the bias of their education. It
seems to me that if a distinction is to be made between our
universities, the tendency of Oxford studies is to look at Truth
through Beauty, while that of Cambridge studies is to look at Beauty
through Truth. It is therefore that I have laid so much stress on the
capabilities of Oxford as a school of Art. I confess that I am anxious
to gain a closer insight into the nature and life of your German
universities. Probably they are with us but imperfectly and unfairly
understood. If it be true that the Bursch preserves, under his
outwardly rough exterior, any remains of that antique chivalry of
thought which is so fast dying out in this country, he preserves a
treasure which is of inestimable value, and which ought to be secured
to him at any price. At the same time, I think you will allow that our
system has certain superiorities of its own, which deserve at least
careful study, if not active imitation. We, at least, are successful in
affixing an ineffaceable stamp to the character of the great majority,
while you seem only to succeed in permanently impressing the
nature of a few, and impressing only a limited part of that nature.
May you live and lecture many years, Herr Professor; and may your
brimming Rhine flow on for ever, free and German as of yore; and
may the vine-blight spare the clusters that yield that molten gold
which, unlike the morbid production of Australia and California,
brings nothing but innocent joy to the soul of your Fatherland. Vale!
and believe me,
Your loving friend,

Tlepolemus.
THE ANCIENT COINS OF GREECE.[5]
Father Hardouin, a learned French Jesuit of the seventeenth

century, lived to the venerable age of eighty-three years, and died, as
he had lived, in the full persuasion that the only authentic
monuments which we possess of classical antiquity are comprised in
coins, a few Greek and Latin inscriptions, with the Georgics of Virgil,
the Satires and Epistles of Horace, and the writings of Pliny and
Cicero. Out of these materials he held that certain ingenious
“falsarii,” in the thirteenth century, whom he styles the “architects of
annals,” compiled those multifarious productions of poetry and
prose which we have been accustomed to regard as a most precious
legacy bequeathed to us by ancient Greece and Rome. This fact we
mention to our readers, not with any view to shake them in their old
and orthodox convictions upon the subject, but simply to show them
what a vast amount of matériel this learned Father had discovered in
the study of ancient numismatics. A coin indubitably presents,
within the smallest compass, the fullest view of ancient times that we
possess. Though silent, it is always waiting to communicate
knowledge; though small, it is always ready to teach great things.
“Inest sua gratia parvis,” is the motto of the Cabinet. It would be
difficult, indeed, to say what department of ancient lore—whether in
mythology, or economics, or politics, or chronology, or geography—
may not be elucidated and explained by the study of coins. A series of
coins are, in fact, a series of illustrative engravings, of
contemporaneous date with the literary works of Greece and Rome,
and of the noblest school of art. We may realise much of what we
read by turning to designs executed by artists who lived in those very
countries, and at that very period. The lordly oak is uprooted by the
tempest, the lowly willow is spared. While the temples of the gods
and their concomitant myriads of statues have been reduced to
unintelligible fragments, those coins which formed the medium of
ordinary traffic—the tetrobolus, the soldier’s daily pay—the drachma,
that of the mariner—and the tetradrachmon, which, by virtue of the
archaic visage of Pallas, with her rigid smile, passed current among
merchants of every state and province,—these have remained safe in
their hiding-places under the soil, and may be found in nearly the
same condition in which the Greeks handled them more than two
thousand years ago.
Cities have been built with the express intent of perpetuating the
glory of a founder, and after all the founder’s intent is achieved, not
by the enduring testimony of edifices and streets of marble, but by
that of its coins. Thus the Emperor Augustus thought to immortalise
the fame of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, by
erecting a city on the shores of the Ambracian Gulf, which city he
called by the appropriate name of Nicopolis. It was supplied with the
usual complement of public edifices; a gymnasium and a stadium
were built in a sacred grove in the suburb; another sanctuary stood
on the sacred hill of Apollo, which surmounted the city. It was
admitted by the Emperor’s desire into the Amphictyonic council, and
was made a Roman colony. Sacred games were instituted,
accompanied by a sacrifice and a festival, equal in dignity to the four
great games of Greece. Coins of the city were struck: and in
commemoration of a favourable omen which had presented itself on
the morning of the day of battle, a group of bronze statues,
representing an ass and his driver,[6] were placed, among other
dedications, in the temple of Apollo Actius.
Such were the forward-looking expedients of the conqueror to
perpetuate his fame;—and what has been the result?
“Look, where the second Cæsar’s trophies rose,
Now,—like the hands that made them, withering.”[7]
A long succession of ruined edifices, in one part converted into a

sheep-pen. In fact, before four centuries had elapsed, a
contemporaneous author tells us that the town of Nicopolis had
fallen into lamentable decay. The palaces of the nobles were rent; the
aqueducts crushed; everything was smothered with dust and
rubbish.—The bronze statues of Eutyches and Nicon, after being
removed first to Rome, and then to adorn the Hippodrome at
Constantinople, were at last melted down by the barbarous Latins on
their capture of the city in A.D. 1204. All is gone of Nicopolis except
the coins. The coins may be seen in the cabinet of the numismatist,
by time as yet uninjured; and we find upon one of them the head of
Augustus himself with the description of Κτίστης or founder, and the
appropriate figure of Victory holding a garland in her extended right
hand.
In connection with this city of Nicopolis, we may mention the fact
that one of the most important transactions in Colonel Leake s
diplomatic career—namely, a conference with the celebrated
Albanian Vezír, Ali Pasha, which led to the ratification of a peace
with the Porte in 1808—took place on the sea-beach, near the ruins
of the ancient aqueduct of the city, on a stormy night in the winter of
1807. The crafty Vezír, in order to throw dust into the eyes of the
French consul, who was watching the proceedings with much
jealousy, had previously got up a sort of scene in his presence,—
receiving an English messenger, whom he had himself instructed to
ask for permission to purchase provisions, with affected sternness,—
haughtily refusing to grant his request,—and declaring that the two
nations were still at war;—although he had already made with
Colonel Leake a private arrangement to give him the meeting that
same evening on the beach. As the day declined, the weather became
so threatening that the captain of Colonel Leake’s ship was afraid to
anchor off the coast; and so dark was the night, that had not Ali
himself caused muskets to be discharged, the appointed place of
rendezvous on the beach could not have been discovered. At length
the boat neared the land, and the Vezír was found seated under a
little cliff attended by one or two of his suite, and a few guards. Dr
Johnson might seem to have anticipated this scene, in his tragedy of
Irene, where he describes an interview between the Greek Demetrius
and the Vezír Cali in these words:—
“He led me to the shore where Cali sate,
Pensive, and listening to the beating surge.
There, in soft hints and in ambiguous phrase,
With all the diffidence of long experience,
That oft had practised fraud, and oft detected,
The veteran courtier half revealed his project.”[8]
During the two hours the conference between Colonel Leake and
the Vezír lasted, the surf rose considerably; and it was not without a
good drenching from the rain and the sea, and some difficulty also in
finding the ship, which they could hardly have done without the aid
of the lightning, that the boat returned on board. The ship then stood
away from the coast.[9]
But to return to our subject. Every one who feels a thirst for
knowledge, must value coins as the medium of acquiring knowledge:
every one who has an eye for grace and beauty, must value them as
presenting unrivalled specimens of grace and beauty: every one who
is susceptible of the charms of fancy, must love to study the hidden
meaning of those imaginative devices, which sometimes, as Addison
says, contain as much poetry as a canto of Spenser. Let not the study
be condemned as dry and crabbed, for Petrarch was a numismatist.
Let it not be condemned as connected with only a bygone and
obsolete school of art, for Raffaelle and Rubens, Canova, Flaxman,
Thorwaldsen, and Chantrey, delighted to refresh their powers by it.
Condemn it not as beneath the notice of the philosopher, for Newton
and Clarendon were among its votaries. Say not that men of active
pursuits can find no time for it, when you hear of the collections of
Wren, Mead, and Hunter.
There were numismatists among the ancient Romans. Admirers
and collectors, as they were, of the other productions of Greek art, we
should conclude that they were admirers and collectors of Greek
coins also, even if we had no direct evidence upon the subject.
Suetonius, however, expressly informs us that the Emperor Augustus
was accustomed—probably at the Saturnalia—to distribute among
his guests a variety of valuable and interesting gifts, and, among the
rest, pieces of money—not modern money, but of ancient date—not
Roman, but foreign; and some of it the coin of ancient kings. May we
not recognise in this description the beautiful coins of Greece and
her colonies—the coins of Syracuse and of Tarentum—of the
Seleucidæ and other Asiatic kings—of the kings of Macedonia,
Epirus, and Thrace? A facetious friend of ours professes to enrol
Horace also in the list of numismatists; and we have often smiled at
the mock solemnity with which he argues his point. He holds, for
instance, that the passage,
“Nullus argento color est avaris
Abdito terris”—
refers, not as we have been taught to interpret it, to the unwrought
silver lying hidden as yet in the mine, but to those choice productions
of ancient art—Syracusan medallions, for instance, or the rarer
tetradrachms of the Seleucidæ—which blush unseen in their
subterranean lurking-places, and are kept out of our cabinets by that
churlish miser the earth. And he holds that the poet very
consistently, in the same ode, assigns the regal diadem, and the
laurel crown of virtue, not to the man who is simply master enough
of himself not to covet his neighbour’s money-bags,
“Quisquis ingentes oculo irretorto
Spectat acervos,”
but rather to the noble self-denial of that numismatist, who can pass
from the contemplation of the well-stored cabinet of his rival without
one sidelong glance of envy.
And in that well-known passage where Horace says, in a rather
boastful strain, that the fame of his lyric poetry will be more durable
than bronze, our friend observes that if the poet alluded to the
statues of bronze which met his eye at every turn in the city of Rome,
it did not follow that his lyric fame would be of any long duration; for
of all articles of bronze the statue was doomed to the earliest
destruction, and but few, in comparison with the number of marble
statues, have come down to our time. Many a graceful figure which
Horace had seen and admired in the palace of Mecænas, for instance,
ere many centuries had elapsed was melted down by greedy
plunderers, and played its part a second time in the brazen caldron
of the housewife. But the medal of bronze survives the wear and tear
of centuries full a score. The medal it is,
“Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impotens
Possit diruere, aut innumerabilis
Annorum series, et fuga temporum.”
Our observation has been drawn by some modern writers to the

supposed existence of a sacred character or quality in the coin of the
ancients. It is the opinion of the most experienced numismatists that
the Greek coin was invested with a character of sanctity, arising from
the head, or figure, or symbol of some deity which it usually bore;
that the ἐικών or image upon it was really and truly an idol. We
believe that such a notion prevailed, to a certain extent, both among
the Greeks and the Romans. Not that we regard the worship of Juno
Moneta as a case in point. We think that the worship of Juno Moneta
was the worship of a deity who was supposed to have admonished
the Romans that there are other things in the world much better
worth attending to than money, and that money would not be
wanting to them, so long as the weapons they fought with were the
arms of justice. At the same time, there was indubitably a reverence
paid to the coin, even down to the Roman times, for the sake of its
religious symbol or device. The people of Aspendus, in Pamphylia,
professed to hold in such reverence the effigy of the Emperor
Tiberius upon his coin, that they found a certain fellow-citizen guilty
of impiety, simply on the ground of his having administered a little
wholesome chastisement to a refractory slave who happened to have
at the time one such coin in his pocket.
It has been thought that the practice which prevailed among the
Greeks, of placing a piece of coin in the mouth of the corpse,
originated in this notion of its sanctity, inasmuch as it was supposed
to insure the protection of the deity, whoever it might be, to whom
the coin was attached by the symbol it bore. But we must confess
that, for our own part, we still cling to the old story of the fee
required by the Stygian ferryman. Hercules informs Bacchus, in the
Ranæ of Aristophanes, when he is meditating a visit to the shades
below, that he will arrive at a wide unfathomable lake, and that an
old man who attends for the purpose will ferry him and his
companion across it, on receiving the fee of two oboli. Lucian, too,
has a joke about Charon’s complaining that, in consequence of the
slackness of his trade, he cannot raise money enough to supply the
necessary repairs for his boat. The mouth was so commonly used as a
purse by the Greek in his lifetime, that we can scarcely wonder at this
method being adopted for his carrying money into the other world
with him when dead. Colonel Leake mentions the discovery of a coin
of Motya in the mouth of a skeleton in the island of Ithaca, in a tomb
of the first century before Christ.
At the same time, although we believe that the myth of Charon was
more closely connected with this practice in the minds of the
common people than any other consideration, we doubt not that the
sanctity of the coin was also taken into account. We find that notion
of sanctity prevailing, not only among the Greeks and Romans, but
among other nations, to a considerable extent. The Mohammedan
coin bears invariably a passage from the Koran, or some other
religious text, quite sufficient to insure its reverential treatment by
the faithful Mussulman; and we read in Marsden’s Numismata
Orientalia of a certain class of very rare gold coins of ancient date, to
which the Hindoos avowedly paid religious worship. Of this coin the
Rajah of Tanjore was so fortunate as to possess two specimens.
Whether the sect of gold-worshippers is yet extinct is a question
which we must leave moralists to settle among themselves. It has
been remarked by an accomplished scholar and excellent
numismatist,[10] that “gold has been worshipped in all ages without
hypocrisy.” That there were many in ancient times who held the coin
in reverence for the sake of an indwelling sanctity connected with the
symbolic representations which it bore, we fully believe; and that
there may be some in modern times who hold it in reverence,—
ἀισχρου κέρδους χάριν,—we are by no means disposed to deny.
There is no doubt that pieces of antique coin have been frequently
carried in the purse or in the pocket as a sort of charm or amulet; but
we question whether this notion of their supernatural power has any
connection with the supposed sanctity of the legends or symbols with
which they are impressed. We should ascribe it rather to the same
feeling which induces some old women, and young ones too, to carry
a crooked sixpence in their purse—the charm being supposed to
reside, not in any device or legend of the coin, but simply in its
curvilinear shape. So in the cases we have just alluded to, the charm
lies in the mystery of the coin’s unknown and ancient origin—“omne
ignotum pro magnifico est.” Stukeley tells us that, in the
neighbourhood of one of the ancient Roman sites which he visited in
his “Iter Curiosum,” Roman coins were known among the peasantry
by the appellation of “swine pennies,” from the fact of their being
often turned up by that indefatigable excavator in his search after
something more succulent. To the mighty Cæsars this was truly a
degradation. But at Dorchester he found the same coins known by
the name, assigned with more semblance of respect, of “Dorn
pennies,” after some mythical king Dor, whom tradition states to
have once resided there. The rustic antiquary is wont to labour under
a sad confusion of ideas. The Roman he confounds perpetually with
the Roman Catholic. We remember ourselves—after visiting a sort of
bi-linguar monument near Hadleigh in Suffolk, which marks the spot
of the martyrdom of Dr Rowland Taylor, under Queen Mary—to have
asked a passer-by whether a certain antiquated mansion by the road-
side had ever been inhabited within his recollection; to which we
received the oracular reply that, to the best of our rustic friend’s
belief, it had never been inhabited since the Romans occupied it, in
the days of Dr Taylor!
This, however, is rather a digression. We learn from Trebellius
Pollio that, in the fourth century, the coins of Alexander the Great
were supposed to insure prosperity to any person who was prudent
enough to carry one of them constantly about his person; and we find
this, and all other such notions, strongly condemned by Chrysostom.
An Italian traveller tells us that, in 1599, the silver coins found in the
fields in a certain district in the island of Crete were called by the
people after the name of St Helen; and that the story went that this
saint, being in want of money, had made a number of coins of brass,
endowing them, at the same time, with such miraculous properties,
that the brass, in passing into the hands of another person, was at
once changed into silver; and, moreover, that any such silver coin
being held fast in the hand, will cure the falling-sickness. Mr Pashley,
who visited Crete in 1830, found that the possession of an ancient
coin is looked upon as a sovereign charm against maladies of the
eyes. In the year 1366, the discovery made by some children at play
of a number of ancient coins, at Tourves, near Marseilles, threw the
whole community of the district into a state of alarm and
consternation. The coins were some that had been struck at
Marseilles at that early period when, under the name of Massalia, it
ranked among the most thriving colonies of ancient Greece. They
bore on the one side a head of Apollo, and on the other a circle
divided into quadrants. In the chronicles of Provence, where this
discovery is recorded, they are described as bearing on the one side a
Saracen’s head, and on the other side a cross. This was interpreted
as bearing some portentous allusion to the Crusades. And the devout
writer intimates that, while one part of the community look upon it
as an omen of good, and the other part as an omen of evil, Heaven
only knows how it will turn out.
We believe that some persons, sedulously devoted to other
branches of the study of classical antiquity, are deterred from
availing themselves of the aid of coins, by a fear of being imposed
upon by forgeries. This is an easy, but an idle mode of putting aside
that which we have not courage to investigate. We shall add a few
remarks upon the subject.
In the first place, we shall venture to ask these anti-numismatic
sceptics, whether they think we ought to cease to read and to admire
the dramas of Shakespeare, because it is questionable whether one or
two of those which pass under his name were really of his
composition?—or, whether we shall shut our eyes before all pictures
which pass under the names of the Old Masters, because spurious
ones have been palmed off upon the self-dubbed connoisseur?—or
whether all autographs of illustrious men are to be condemned as
trash, because Ireland attempted to impose upon the public with
some that were not genuine?—or whether all currency is to come to
an end, because clever knaves have succeeded in counterfeiting it?
Everything, in short, which is valuable, offers, in proportion to its
value, a temptation to ingenious and unscrupulous men to show
their cleverness by imposing upon the world with an imitation of it.
The Holy Scripture itself has not escaped.
And after all, in regard to coins as well as in regard to the other
subjects which we have mentioned, although forgers may be clever,
detectors are clever also. The numismatic phalanx of investigators
are more than a match for the “falsarii.” The skill of Cavino,
Gambello, and Cellini, has been met with equal skill on the part of
the numismatist. The eye that has been accustomed to wander over a
well-selected cabinet acquires a power of ready discrimination,—a
power difficult to teach by theory, but not so difficult to gain by
practice. Solitary instances may occur of a solitary numismatist
fondly persuading himself that some clever forgery which he
possesses is a genuine coin, but we would not give much for his
chance of beguiling others into the same belief. Unwilling he may be
to have the “gratissimus error” extracted from his own mind, but he
never will succeed in engrafting it upon others. Never does the eye of
man exert so much jealous vigilance as when it is employed upon the
coin of a rival numismatist claiming to be genuine upon insufficient
grounds, The House of Lords sitting upon a claim of some peerage in
abeyance is nothing to it. We apprehend that scarcely an instance is
on record of a forged coin having enjoyed for any length of time,
unquestioned, the honours of a genuine one. Nor do we think that
there are many instances of a forger’s attempting to falsify history.
He generally aims at making his invention tally with historical fact as
closely as he can. And if his inventive powers are not at all brought
into exercise, but he simply produces a coin which is a fac-simile or
reproduction of a genuine one, for purposes of study that fac-simile
will be equally available with the genuine coin, and no further harm
is done than the abstraction of a few shillings more than its value
from the pocket of the unwitting purchaser.
At the same time we would not let the forger go unpunished.
Though the evil actually done be small, the intention is bad. We
would have him tried by a jury of numismatists. Or if the offence
should have been committed in a country where the power of
punishing the offence resides in one magistrate, we should say that
that one magistrate ought to be a numismatist. It is said that a
distinguished archæologist who possessed this power in virtue of his
office as Her Majesty’s consul at Bagdad, very recently exercised it by
directing that a Jew “falsarius” should be bastinadoed. We applaud
his Excellency’s most righteous judgment. The man who had
counterfeited the famous sequins of Venice, and had aggravated his
crime by doing it badly,—
“Che male aggiusto ’l conio di Vinegia,”
is represented by Dante as worthy of an especial notice among those

sinners against laws divine and moral with whom he has peopled the
shades of his Inferno.
Seriously, however, we think that any clever work of art is worthy
of being preserved, and none the less for its having taken in some
who set themselves up as judges. Even in Pliny’s time a counterfeit
denarius of superior workmanship was sometimes thought cheap at
the price of sundry genuine denarii. The tasteful device of Cellini, or
of some cunning artist of Padua, must not be thrown to the dogs,
merely because it was produced with the intention of rivalling the
work of ancient artists, and of testing the acumen of the cognoscenti.
Those figures of Cellini, for instance, which some one brought and
exhibited to the artist himself as antiques, and respecting which the
nobleman who was their proprietor declared, when he saw a smile
playing upon the conscious visage of Cellini, that there had not lived
a man for these thousand years who could have wrought such;—
would not those figures have been worth preserving? And in like
manner a coin which, by the excellence of its workmanship, has
raised a doubt whether it may not have been really of ancient origin,
ought by no means to be treated with contempt, even though it
proves to be modern.
The learned work of Colonel Leake, now before us, has supplied a
desideratum in the archæological literature of our country. It is the
first work of the kind upon Greek coins which has been published by
an Englishman, and those of our readers who are acquainted with his
character will agree that no Englishman could have been found to do
it so well as Colonel Leake. The vast amount of knowledge which he
has been laying up for more than half a century, in regard to the
literature, the mythology, the political and social history, and the
geography of ancient Greece, supplies an infinity of streams which
flow over the pages of his work in the form of notes. No longer shall
we blush under the well-grounded reproach that all the standard
works upon Greek coinage are written by foreigners. Already, indeed,
we observe that Professor L. Müller, in his Numismatique
d’Alexandre, just published at Copenhagen, has made ample use of
Colonel Leake’s volume, which must necessarily become a text-book
in this branch of Greek archæology. For the convenience of those
who may consult it, not only is every ordinary variety of index
supplied to the coins themselves, but we observe that, in an
appendix, an index is added to the valuable information contained in
the notes. We observe, also, in the appendix, a very interesting and
learned dissertation upon the weights of Greek coins, in which
Colonel Leake traces the Attic didrachmon—which seems to have
been a sort of standard or unit in the monetary scales of Persia and
Lydia, as well as of the cities and colonies of Greece—to Phœnicia,
and from Phœnicia to Egypt. It would scarcely be in accordance with
our usual practice to enter into the more erudite part of this
important subject, and we shall therefore conclude our remarks by
making one reference to the work, in order to show how successful
its author has been in availing himself of the light which a coin may
throw upon the more obscure portions of ancient geography.

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Heart Mechanics: Magnetic Resonance Imaging. (Volume 1), Mathematical Modeling, Pulse Sequences, and Image Analysis 1st Edition El-Sayed H. Ibrahim

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Heart mechanics : magnetic resonance imaging.

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

Heart mechanics : magnetic resonance imaging 1st

Magnetic Resonance Brain Imaging Modeling and Data

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Vasudevan Ramesh

Systems science and population health 1st Edition El-

Magnetic resonance technology hardware and system

Neural Engineering Techniques for Autism Spectrum

Ocular Fluid Dynamics Anatomy Physiology Imaging

El-Sayed H. Ibrahim, PhD

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-6368-8 (Hardback)

Chapter 1 Introduction to Heart Mechanics with Magnetic Resonance Imaging ................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Heart Morphology, Function, and Diseases .......................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 3 MRI Basics ............................................................................................................................................................ 81

Chapter 4 Introduction to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging........................................................................... 121

Chapter 6 Continuum Mechanics and Mechanical Cardiac Models ................................................................................... 247

Chapter 7 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Cine Image Analysis ........................................................................................... 285

Chapter 8 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Feature Tracking...................................................................................... 343

Chapter 10 SPAMM and DANTE Tagging ........................................................................................................................... 421

Chapter 11 Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization (CSPAMM) Tagging .................................................... 453

Chapter 12 Special Myocardial Tagging Patterns ................................................................................................................. 497

Index ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 589

Chapter 1 Image Acquisition Sequences in Myocardial Tagging ............................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 Tagging Analysis Techniques: Part I..................................................................................................................... 63

Chapter 3 Tagging Analysis Techniques: Part II ..................................................................................................................119

Chapter 4 Harmonic Phase (HARP) Analysis ......................................................................................................................181

Chapter 5 Displacement Encoding with Stimulated Echoes (DENSE) ............................................................................... 239

Chapter 6 Strain Encoding (SENC) ......................................................................................................................................319

Chapter 7 Myocardial Tissue Phase Mapping (TPM) ......................................................................................................... 383

Chapter 8 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) ........................................................................................... 449

Index ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 709

Igor Klem, MD David C. Wendell, PhD

1.21 Tagging Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................... 22

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS sf-SENC Slice-following SENC

Thus I do think that if this celibacy is to be continued, it would be a

But, on the other hand, it may be urged that the immediate

Your loving friend,

Father Hardouin, a learned French Jesuit of the seventeenth

A long succession of ruined edifices, in one part converted into a

Our observation has been drawn by some modern writers to the

is represented by Dante as worthy of an especial notice among those

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