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Thomas Teffri-Chambelland

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КНИГА ИЗ ЗАКРЫТОЙ
БАЗЫ
БИБЛИОТЕКИ PRO
ОТ
BEAUTIFUL FOOD
 Preface by Chad Robertson

'Levain' from the traditional French baking practice-a fermenting paste or

dough made of flour, water, and wild yeasts working in symbiosis with lactic
bacteria used to leaven bread and other baked goods.
Any baker who has managed to add a bit of natural leaven to recipes in the
family of enriched doughs such as panettone, brioche, and laminated viennoiserie
will swiftly and surely recognize their good fortune with certain discoveries.
First off-improved depth of flavor and generally more supple, moist texture; and
then significantly extended shelf-life or 'freshness', and finally, and increasingly
more important considering today's modern farming practices-that of increased
overall digestibility. Many years ago, at Tartine, we began to incorporate our
levain into this family of baked pastry favorites in addition to our breads and
there was no turning back. In some cases, we were rediscovering ancient tradition
that had been all but lost. In other cases, like so many elegantly articulated in
this book, bakers have built on this tradition by applying these principles and
techniques in new ways.

Thomas Teffri-Chambelland delves deep into the history, theory, microbiology,

science, and practice to more thoroughly illuminate the seemingly invisible art
of baking with sourdough. In doing so, he places the natural leaven tradition
firmly back as both foundation and crown of our most beloved baked goods;
a place where history had since replaced it with the more convenient and pain­
fully compromised practice of straight commercially yeasted dough baking.
Thomas-a generous teacher, scientist, master baker and miller-presents these
innovations/'retro-innovations' with a collection of recipes richly coloring the
story with the various different approaches of a handful of select chef bakers
who have mastered baking with sourdough in their own distinctive ways.
With this book, one gains the knowledge to restore both these lost traditions
with all the benefits they bring to product quality-flavor and texture, longevity
and digestibility-together with the know-how and accompanying confidence to
push innovation forward in the practice of sourdough baking.

7
 Introduction

�he panettone and sourdough v iennoiseries presented in this book are all excep­
t1o�al pro ducts requ i r ing specialist know-how shared by just a few hundred
�rt1sa� bakers worldw ide. They are re markably tender with an intense aroma,
mcred1ble softness, and long shelf life (some types of panettone stay fresh for
several months).
The Holy Grail for a new type of baker working with natural leaven (or sour­
dough starter), these products have sparked a veritable passion a mong bakers
and an increasing number of connoisseurs and food lovers. It is our hope that
this book can help increase thei r popularity by making their preparation more
generally accessible.

Traditional or modern?
This book looks at sourdough v iennoiseries in the general sense, a field of baking
that is both ancient and modern-a paradox which merits a br ief explanation.
Let us start with a simplified history of baking in countries where wheat is
the staple bread gra i n. For centuries, all over the world people's daily bread was
enhanced for celebrations by adding sugar, eggs, fat, or dried fruit depending on
what was available. This orig i nal enriched bread became what is now known
as " brio che" in some areas of France and by various other weird and wonder­
ful regional names such as Proven\al oil pu mp (pompe a l'huile proven\ale),
Romans pogne, Landes pastis (pastis landais) and Corsican canestru (canestre
corse). No era or area of France is without its specialty celebrat ion bread.
This history of celebration breads, which has yet to be researched and written,
is the story of people. It tells of their joys and sorrows, thei r far m ing, their
trading, and their social classes. There is the Landes past is w i th spices and
rum that evokes the region's overseas trade; the buttery Parisian br ioche with
egg replacing all the water in the original bread dough recipe, a symbol of the
opulence and luxury specific to the Parisian elite of the late 19th and early 20th
century; and the Proven�al pompe a l'huile, which conta i ns no eggs or butter

9
I'\ I ROIH ( f!O

. · ally poor region of Provence had to settle for olive oil

at all smce the h.istonc .
from usmg fl our to clean the oil. mill . s.
Legend even has 1·t the specialty arose
1 g • This oily dough
· d'n
. ter gnn became the I oca 1 "bnoc ' h 1· 5
· he, " wh1c
after the wm .
nal Christmas desserts eaten to . day. The pompe
st1.11 one of the th1'rteen traditio . ·
· the olive harvest an d 01 · 1 pro d uct1on, the need
a 1 'hU1-1e gives U S a gl ·
i mpse of
. ,
to 1et noth.mg g0 to waste , the poverty of the reg10n s people, but also their
.
. functio
determma · t.10n to maintain their dignity. For that was one of the main ns
• . .
of these enriched breads throughout all these reg10ns: provi ding pleasure and
fueling a proud fight against poverty.
The 20th century, however, brought an excess of food to Western countries,
leading to the seemingly permanent disappearance of �amine �nd the scourg� of
obesity. The traditionally positive image of recipes ennched with substances hke
fat and sugar has changed over recent decades. And rich French cuisine has been
influenced by Asian flavors, uses more vegetables and less fat, and has carved
out a new place in today's world by taking modern issues into account. Enriched
bread doughs no longer play the same role as in the early 20th century, but they
still make an appearance on Sundays and special occasions like Christmas and
Easter as a vestige of tradition in our modern world.
Finally, we should note that prior to the late 20th century, all bakery products
were fermented with natural leaven (or sourdough starter), which is a set of
microorganisms made up of yeast and bacteria.

Note: The purified yeast that is now used in nearly all bakery fermentations only became
widespread in the early 20th century. This is an absolutely key point. It is important to
understand that before the end of the 19th century, all bread dough, whether plain or
enriched, was fermented with leaven. The products had virtually nothing in common
with the ones we are familiar with today such as croissants and Parisian brioche.

These items, which we call viennoiseries, appeared with the use of yeast. In
a way, yeast brought them into being. So they are relatively modern products,
having only been around for just over a hundred years. We also need to bear in
mind that there are at least two very different types of products grouped under
the name "viennoiseries." Although they all arose from a tradition of enriching
bread dough, some have maintained their original natural leaven fermentation
through the ages while others were developed in the 20th century with the use
of yeast, without any real roots in the history of sourdough products.
A final point on this notion of tradition and modernity is that it is clear that
the type of products we have today-which depend greatly on the quality of
the flour used-has changed greatly over time. While the first traces of Itali n
panettone seem to appear in the Middle Ages, the product at that time
nothing like the one we make today since wheat has changed so much.

10
 I I , I II

Thoroughly modern!
Thi book offers a resolutely modern take.
Steeped in an often-ancient past, all the viennoiseries featured in this book
are fermented with natural leaven. That is something unique. Some of these
viennoiseries, such as the iconic panettone, have always been fermented with
sourdough. That is what makes panettone so interesting. Other products, such
as the sourdough croissant, are thoroughly modern concoctions since leavened
puff pastry came about with the introduction of yeast in the late 19th century.
So giving the croissant a contemporary twist by fermenting it with leaven is
not a return to an ancient form but an interesting way of moving forward and
shaking up tradition!

.-
S are often made using the following process
OURDOUGH VIENNOISERIES
outlines.
Work begins with a starter management phase, which lasts at least one day
and produces the leaven. The next step is to mix the first dough in the evening
of the first day. For the simplest products, such as brioche, the dough is then
divided, shaped, and left to rise overnight before being baked the following
morning. In more elaborate recipes, like for panettone, this first dough is used
to seed a second dough on the morning of the second day. It is this second dough
that will be divided, shaped, and left to rise for 6 to 8 hours before baking.

SOURDOUGH VIENNOISERIE PRODUCTION CYCLE

L..______ __ Da_ y
_ l_ _______ ll._____ D_ay_2 _____.
Refresh the starter First dough
ONE DOUGH
� � �
refreshment refreshment refreshment
�
M / D / 5 -----� B
���

_____________
.___ Day 1 _ II Day 2
Refresh the starter First dough Second dough
TWO DOUGHS
���
refreshment refreshment refreshment
�
M � M � D/5 � B
1 2
�\}_/\_:_)

M:mix S: shape
0: divide B: bake

15
 IE W O F S O URDOUGH STARTERS
AN OVERV
G TOGETHER
ST A N D BA CTERIA WORKIN
YEA

flour and water and populated with wild yeasts

A starter is a dough made from
ays lactic acid bacteria. It is used as a fer­
and bacteria, which are nearly alw
menting agent to seed other doughs.
not totally accurate-the yeast and
In "natural" starters-although the term is
in a targeted way by the baker.
bacteria are not introduced intentionally or
nce as a result of competition
They develop naturally, self-select and find a bala
ent in the environment.
and coop eration with strains which are naturally pres
ng characteristics.
This complex flora of yeasts and bacteria has several stro
another. It is
First of all, the populations are highly stable in relation to one
tions
difficult to desta bilize the composition of a starter if the ecological condi
of the fermenting agents are stable, i.e. mainly the dough temperature and
hydration as well as the food availability and pH range in which they develop.
Next-and this is one of the key points-the yeasts and bacteria each produce
different fermentations in the dough.

Dough is a great environment to live in

Sourdough, which is mainly a mixture of flour and water creates an environment
that �ulfils the ecological needs of bacteria and yeast;. The dough hydration
· and yeasts, both of w h'1ch
fh
level 1s perfectly suited to the development of bactena
feed 0� the 1. 1e sugars (maltose, glucose, fructose, etc ) which are plenti ful
. m the oug� · ese simple sugars come directly from th� flour and indirectly
from the breakdown of the starch.
Starch, which is the main comp on ent of. a ll fl ours, is made up of a strin� of
sugars connected in a chain so I ng that it cannot be used by the fermentmg
agents It is broken <lown b� amyfase (an enzyme that occurs naturally in flour)
when �ater is added ' formmg sh orter usable sugars. Th·1s process kno n as
starch hydrolysis ' is the key pro cess that
' produces 8hort-cha1n . sugars. Thes
short-chain sugars are the starting pom . t for a 1 l fermentations in ourdou h.
 i\ OVI RVlfW or SOURT)OU(,11 .,., Aln ,�RS: YI.AS I I\NI} IIAC I I !{IA

STARCH HYDROLYSIS

STARCH
complex sugar which cannot be used
by the fermenting agents
• •

+ AMYLASE
•
Dd GLUCOSE

o--d
•: WATER

MALTOSE
•

0-0.
·oo
•
GLUCOSE

SIMPLE SUGARS
which can be used by
the fermenting agents

The three standard starter fermentations

Bacterial fermentations usually produce acids through lactic acid fermentation.
We distinguish between homofermentative and heterofermentative pathways.
The yeasts mainly produce alcohol through alcoholic fermentation. In addi­
tion to the description given below, more details on lactic acid fermentation are
provided in the technical information box on page 26.

17
rnr TllfURY

. , homofermentative pathway (also called the "EMP

m nt ati on
1. L actic acid �er � s, E mbden-Meyerhof-Pa. rnas) . .
its di sco ver er
pathway" .for . . out oxygen) fermentation, the bactena essentially
. .
(with
Durmg. this anaerob1c into lact ic acid , prod ucm g aromat ic residues
m th e su ga rs .
m t h e dough
transfor .
a by-pro du ct of th e reaction.
as

SUGARS � LACTIC A
CID + AROMATIC RESIDUES

by homofermentative bacteria and facultative hete-

Note: Th.IS pathway IS· only used are fermented usmg this
· e bacterI·a • Only sugars with 6 carbon atoms
rof ermentattv . . of v1e . . .
ly gluco se and fructo se). As the vast �a10�1ty �n01sene starter
pathway (main
n 1s not particularly relevant
bacteria are strictly heterofermentative, this fermentatio
to us and will not be described further in this book.

2. Lactic acid fermentation, heterofermentative pathway (also called the "6-PG/PK

pathway")
During this fermentation, which is also anaerobic, the bacteria transform the
sugars in the dough into lactic acid, acetic acid, and e thanol, producing a large
number of by-products such as aromatic residues but also small amounts of
gas (CO 2).

SUGARS => LACTIC ACID + ACETIC ACID + AROMATIC RESIDUES + ETHANOL + CO2

Note 1: This pathway is only used by heterofermentative bacteria (strict or facultative).

Sugars with five and six carbon atoms are fermented by this pathway (mainly glucose,
fructose and all pentoses).
Note 2: The production of acetic aci'd bY the 1 ·
act1c acid bacteria in the starter must
not be confused with acetic ferme n t ation ·
· activated bY acetobacter bacteria. The latter,
. .
wh'ich are used m vmegar production, are aerobic.

3. Alcoholic fermentation
While bacteria cause homolactic
and hetero lactic fermentatio
ponsible for a third type·• ale n, yeasts are res-
0 h o 1.1c f erm ent
transforme d into alcohol (etha . a t ·
100 , durm· g which the sugars are
. . no I) wit .
d 10x1de (CO2). h t h e co nco m1tant product1. 0n of car bon

SUGARS � ETHANOL + CQ2

18
 When fermenting agent populations are active in the dough, a certain number
of visible or measurable phenomena occur.
Yeasts (a�d to a lesser ex�ent heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria) produce
CO2, makmg the dough rise as the expanding gas is trapped by the airtight
gluten network. The dough's increased volume thus indicates yeast activity.
_
At the same time, the a�cumulation of lactic and acetic acid in the dough,
_
which can be measured with a pH meter, indicates the fermentative activity of
the bacteria. The activity of a leaven's fermenting agents thus (nearly) always
results in the dough increasing in volume and acidity (lower pH).

Lactic acid bacteria produce exopolysaccharides (EPS)

Independently of their fermentative activity, in some conditions, lactic acid
bacteria can produce long-chain sugars called EPS, whose role is fundamental
to the quality of sourdough products.
EPS are produced by a bacterium "assembling" the simple sugars to produce
longer chains of sugars. This process is described as the bacterium synthesi­
zing the EPS from simple sugars, a process which could be understood as the
opposite of hydrolysis.
The EPS are distinguished by their type (the type of simple sugars assembled:
glucose, fructose, maltose, etc.), their length (according to the number of sugar
units bonded to one another, from a few to tens of thousands), and their location
inside or outside the cell. There are numerous different biological functions and
synthesis pathways for EPS, but the majority have biological resistance functions
in stress conditions (desiccation, unsuitable pH, osmotic stress, etc.).
The EPS that interest us in this book are dextrans composed solely of glucose.
They are secreted outside the bacterium, forming a protective "gel" around it.
Their synthesis is catalyzed by glucansucrase-type enzymes and always uses
sucrose as a substrate. Dextran production is a response to osmotic stress in
particular.
These points are fundamental, and they greatly influence sourdough vien-
noiserie recipes, which always contain large quantities of sugar. We now know
that the presence of dextrans in dough considerably improves the volume of the
finished product (by up to 30%), as well as its softness and shelf life. Control­
ling the conditions in which the starter's bacteria produce dextrans is therefore
extremely important when making sourdough viennoiseries.

19
!Hf IHH)R".t

. .
Refreshing or feeding the starter
An animal population left to grow without being fed will eventually starve
and die out.
In baking, the star ter is fed with flour and water, followed by a phase of grow in
the populations that comprise it (once it �as been tra1;1sformed into a leaven, thi!
process is known as "refreshment"). Dunng the feedmg or refreshment process
the volume of starter increases and its pH decreases. Each fermentin g agen;
which multiplies �u�ing. thi� phase splits or cleaves into t wo n:w fermenting
agents. This mult1phcat1on 1s therefore a form of perpetual reJuvenati on for
them, hence the term "refreshment."
It is important to perform the successive feedings or refreshments correctly;
otherwise the starter or leaven will contain ageing, inactive populations. When
a starter is fed by adding flour and water to an already activated strain which
has produced acidity through fermentation, the acidity is diluted in the "new"
environment. Feeding a starter always increases its pH, before it drops again
during the subsequent fermentative activity.

CHANGE IN pH LEVEL DURING REFRESHMENTS

Population
of fermenting
agents

l
refreshment 2

refreshment 1

......
\
\
\.
---- Time

pH
- - - - lf no refreshment 2

20
 \ l\'lll\'lt OJ Ollll<Hl,H'il,l\lll'.-1:Yl,!tl l>HAC lkl

Acidification of starters and doughs

olum in rease and acidification occur in the leaven refreshment phases, a
th y do during the final fermentation of bread dough.
This is one of the fundamental points of sourdough bread making: the combi­
nation of the resulting acids and aromatic molecules improves the taste, shelf
life and digestibility of the product.
However-and this is very surprising indeed-anyone who has tasted a panet­
tone worthy of the name or a professionally made sourdough viennoiserie will
have noticed that there is no trace of acidity! How can a product made with
a sourdough starter have no acidity? As important as this question is, it is not
covered in any current publications.
It is this simple question that prompted the research that led to this book!
--------

ON THE NOTION OF ACIDITY

How do we measure the acidity of a dough?

Lactic acid bacteria produce acids during homolactic and heterolact
ic fermenta­
tion. The change in the quantities of these two acids in the dough tells us
about
the activity of the bacteria populations and of course influences the taste and
structure of the finished product.
An organic acid such as lactic acid or acetic acid is a large molecule with a
radical and a carboxyl function (Coo- H +). This unique part of the molecule
is made up of a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms by a single and dual
bond respectively.

WHAT IS AN ACID?

8 -C

'------.......,.---) "--v,-)
TTA measurement pH measurement

The total acidity measurement is called TTA, which stands for Total Tit_ra-
. . .
· If and is a time-consummg
table Ac1d1ty. This concerns the act•d mo1 ecuIe 1tse
. . • is therefore usua IIY
measurement that 1s difficult to per form m a bak ery. Act· dity
.
measured with a pH meter, wh1c · much qmc
• h 1s · k er and simpler than TTn. ' A The
pH (potential of Hydrogen) measures the hYd rogen (H ) released by the act'd
+

23
 )R\l\ltO '
tLJ{fH LR 1,H

. indirec t measurement of acidity

cid m 1 ec 1 e 1·tself. It is an
rather tha n the a
o u
ff .
ffect e d b th e bu ffer e ect . .
whi. ch 1. s a 14. The med ian valu e on this scale 1 s 7, which
c l r n Yges f o Oto
The pH s a e a
� � Values lower than 7 indicate acidity while values
corresponds to a � u �
r � �e basicity ( or alkalinity). A go od example of a highly
over 7 on the s�a e m ic�
cidi c pr od uct is l em on JU ice ' which has a pH value of 2, while caustic soda is
pH close to 13.
a
a very basic product with a

Acid dissociation
in water to become lactates and
L actic and acetic acids naturally dissociate
acetates, resp ectively.
+
lactic acid <=} lactate- + H +
lactic acid <=} acetate- + H
The state of dissociation is an important characteristic a s it modifies the pH
value and affects biological activities.
When the pH of bread or viennoiserie dough decreases, acetic acid dissociates
more quickly than lactic acid. The pKa of acetic acid i s 4. 76 while it is 3.9 for
lactic acid. (The pKa value can be understood a s the pH value at which the
acid is at equilibrium between its n ative and diss ociated form. In ou r case,
with a pH of 4.76 there are as many acetate molecules in the dough as acetic
acid molecules).
The acetate migrates very easily into the yeast cells and deactivates them.
Kazachstania candida humilis is, for example , not very sensitive to pH but is
highly sensitive to acetate. Any increase in acetic acid (decrease in fermentation
quotient) will have a significantly negative effect on alcoholic fermentation and
therefore the dough volume increase, pa rticularly at pH< pKa
.
Belo w pH< 4 • 76 the activity of Ka z achstania candida
humilis is therefore
significantly impaired.

PH and f�rmenting agent activity

Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis
has an optimal d�ve1opment pH of ar��nd 5.
Kazachstania candida humilis 1.. s .
no� v�r y sen s1t1ve to pH bu t is sens1t1ve to
ace tate. Below pH = 4 · 76
· the disso
s1gm·ficant, so that at around pH - ciation of acetic acid in acetate becomes
real competitive advantage over 4 · 5 Lactobactllus sanfranciscensis has a
yeast flora
When the pH is high the develo
m
sella, Streptococcus' E�terococc P ent of opportu nistic bacteria of the Weis-
us, Lactococcus, L
types is facilitated. euconostoc and Ped.zococCUS

24 ------------------
 In panettone leaven, for warm refreshments at
· · · relatively high P H values, there
is an· sk of c�ntammation durmg the daytime phase (3 warm refreshments
with
the pH varymg between 5 and 4.2 for each).
There are two ways of preventing this type of contamin ation:
_ adequate seedi ng �equal proportion of starter and flour, 1/1) so fermentation
can start at a sufficiently low pH (5 or lower) and in an environ ment almo st
saturated with fermenti ng agents;
- a night-time purification stage enabli ng the TTA to be increased significantly
and the pH to decrease to around 3 .9 resulting in a decreased population whose
development was opportun istic at a high pH.

Fermentation quotient
The fermentation quotient (FQ) describes the relative proportion of lactic acid
and acetic acid in the dough. The formula used to compare the number of
molecules of each acid takes i nto account the molar mass of each acid (90 and
60 respectively for lactic and acetic acids).

lactic acid
(in g per kg of dough)/90
FQ=------­
acetic acid
(in g per kg of dough)/ 60

Lactic and acetic acids in fluence the taste of the final product in very different
ways. Lactic acid is present i n yoghurt a nd has a less harshly acidic taste than
acetic acid. Acetic acid is present i n vinegar and has a more powerful, sharper
taste which usually triggers salivation .
The standard FQ values i n baking range from 1 to 7. . . .
A low FQ i ndicates a strong prevalence of acetic acid while a hig� FQ mdt­
cates a high relative proportion of lactic acid. Products thus have a milder taSte
when the FQ is higher.

25
 ATION -
rllRTHFR I 'FORM

NS AND EPS
ON FERMENTATIO

Details on the heterolactic fermentative pathway (or 6-PG/PK pathway)

Heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria prod uce xylul ose 5-P from glucose
or maltose. This step consumes energy (1 ATP) and requires the reduction of
2 NAD molecules. Note that it produces a CO2 molecule. This CO2 mole cule
is the lactic bacteria's only contribution to the dough rising.
The xylulose 5-P is then converted into acetyl-1-P and glyceraldehyde-3-P
and the glyceraldehyde-3-P is transformed into lactate in several steps. This
produces energy (2 ATP).
What happens to the acetyl-1-P is less certain. The most energy-efficient route
is the production of acetate (1 ATP) but the overall count is deficient in NAD.
Also, unless the NAD is regenerated via other mechanisms, fermentation will
be oriented towards the production of ethanol with regeneration of the two
NAD used at the beginning of the process.
This ethanol production does not enable fermenting agents to produce energy
(beyond NAD regeneration). Acetate production is therefore closely bonded to
the potential to regenerate the NADH into NAD.
The most frequent NAD regeneration mechanisms use the transformation of
fructose int� m�nnitol �nd the transformation of o2 dissolved in the dough into
.
H2 0. The aim 1s to ox1d1ze the NADH in NAD by reducing a third molecule:
fructose, or 02 in this case.

Fructose

NADH + W NADH + W

Mannitol

--- -- ---- - -- ------ 26 -------------

 It could therefore be argued that the presence of fructose, on the one hand,
and the presence of oxygen, on the other, facilitate acetate production and
reduce the fermentation quotient by enabling NAD regeneration.
In addition to its influence on the taste of the products, acetate is very harmful
for yeast activity. It also has a strong negative influence on the structure of the
gluten networks since it decreases the pH quickly, thus activating proteases, an
enzyme that breaks down gluten.
Generally speaking, yeasts have the ability to hydrolyze long-chain sugars in
the environment and to break down the sucrose with invertase, with a corre­
lative production of fructose (sucrose=> glucose+ fructose).
The yeasts' action thus indirectly causes the production of acetic acid (acetate).
Acetic acid production is naturall reduced in cold temperatures or above
32 to 35 ° C as the yeasts are less active in these temperature ranges.
Note that, in general, strict heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria such as
Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis produce, via the heterolactic fermentative pathway,
an equimolar quantity of lactate and acetate or ethanol.

EPS (exopolysaccharide) production

EPS formed by the assembly of a single type of sugars are called homo­
polysaccharides (HoPS).
Generally speaking, we distinguish glucans, formed by assembling glucose
molecules, from fructans, which are formed by assembling fructose molecules.
Dextrans are a specific type of glucan. They have a strong affinity for water
and improve gas retention in the dough, thus improving the volume increase.
Their interactions with the components of the dough (starch, gluten) sharply
reduce the retrogradation of starch and are therefore extraordinarily effective
at keeping baked products from going stale.
Glucan and fructan synthesis is catalyzed by glucansucrase or fructansucrase
enzymes respectively. It always occurs from sucrose. This means that glucan­
sucrase and fructansucrase enzymes have the capacity to first hydrolyze the
sucrose into glucose + fructose before synthesizing the HoPS molecule. Note
that the glucose + fructose mixture is what we call "inverted sugar" in the
food industry. In addition to its higher sweetening power compared to sucro e
inverted sugar has a strong affinity for water, thus improving the softness and
shelf life of the finished product.

27
 FOR�I -\TIO,
fLRTHFR l�

THWAY)
P K PAT HWAY (HETEROLACTIC PA
E 6-PG/
DETAILS OF TH

Maltose
Sucrose C12
C1 2

�
Glucose

l
Fructose c6

l
c6 Outside the bacterium

1nside the bacterium

Maltose
/ C 12
NADH
) Fructose Glucose Jc" "-....� Glucose 1-P
c6 -lATP C5
NAD CG
-lATP ergy}
/
�energy) �
�
Glucose 6-P
Mannitol Fructose 6-P
c6

)+
C5

2NAD C:
CO2
2NADH �
t

Xylulose 5-P
Cs

Acetyl-P

I 2NADH (
C2

I )
I NADH Fructose
2 NAD or if
)
NAO
--1,
Mannitol

Ethanol Acetate Lactate

+lATP +2ATP
(energy) (energy}

I
Note: All the sugars and resulting org

II
anic molecules are built on a carbonated base,
The nu mber of carbon atoms that
make up the described mol
For example, xylulose contains 5 ecule is indicated b . n.
carbon ato ms ( Cs), It w
fermentation to produce a 3-carbon ill be decompo d durmg
(C3) lactate and a 2-
carbon (C2) th no! or etat ·

28
 O • I PP. 11 I A I It SA r> I I'

GLUCANSUCRASE CATALYSES THE FORMATION OF DEXTRAN FROM SUCROSE

Sucrose
00
00
00
Glucansucrase activity
hydrolysis of sucrose ( · hydrolysis of sucrose
· polymerization of glucose

0
0 o Glucose

Oo 0 -.__..?I
polymerization of glucose
)
000·
Fructose Dextran undergoing synthesis

Since fructose plays the role of electron acceptor in NAD regeneration (see details
of the "6-PG/PK pathway"), significant production of acetic acid can result from
the glucansucrase activity and therefore from the formation of EPS.
This is the case of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis glucansucrase activity, for
example. The benefit to the volume increase caused by HoPS production tends
to be counteracted by the increase in the acetate level, which indirectly lowers
the pH and activates proteases.
One key point concerns Weisse/la-type bacteria, which do not transform
fructose into mannitol and are thus an exception to this rule. This means that
the production of dextrans by Weisse/la-type bacteria aids volume increase,
making these bacteria a key component of viennoiserie starter flora!

29
 SOURDOUGH VIENNOISER
IES
BASIC INITIAL APPROA
CH

If we had to summarize the technical part of this book in one page, this is
what
we would say: the sta�ters used for viennoiseries behave normally during the
.
refreshment phas�s, with the bacteria and yeasts developing in a standard way.
But when producmg the final dough, which always has a high sugar content
(sugar is the cornerstone of sourdough viennoiserie recipes), the bacteria are
"deactivated" so they no longer produce acidity.
On the other hand, the yeasts that are naturally present in the starter and
leaven show a high level of activity. When they are provided with optimal tem­
perature conditions and long fermentation times (26 to 28 ° C for 12 to 36 hours),
the dough rises perfectly.
As the dough does not become acidic, long fermentation times can be used
with no fear of damaging the gluten networks which normally suffer from the
destructuring activity of proteases in an acidic environment during sourdough
fermentations.

In other words, making sourdough viennoiseries essentially consists in deacti­

vating the starter's bacteria through high sugar concentrations and leaving
the dough to ferment thanks to the starter's naturally occurring yeasts.

This rather simplistic approach works perfectly. The theory is expla�n�d on

page 49, where it is referred to as the "universal method." Not only 1s it the
basis of all the recipes in this book it makes it possible to achieve superb,
non-acidic, well-risen products usin; practically any starter. But it is hard to
understand why, if not to demonstrate that it can be done, we should go t� such
lengths to produce a yeast domma . · true that, if made without
• n ,. It 1s
nt fermentatio
· · . have no
· lar care or a sc1ent1fic approach, these sourdough vien no1senes
part1cu
pro ducts
real ben efit in terms of texture or shelf h'fe compared tO equivalent
fermented directly with commerci al yeast .

31
Jill !HIOH.Y

e . u s su b t let.1e s
detailed later in this book com. e into
th e u ro
This is whe re do not prod uce ac1.d.tty, agam play
n m
cten a a th o u g h they
play. We learn th at ba 'du
1 ion of dextrans in part1cu
ct . l ar.
ro u gh the p ro
a major role th

nique flora
. nn01. sen. e starters have u vien noiseries always have certain characte-
V1e
d ough
The st�rters used for sou r
they can be used to produce sourdough bread,
ristics m �on:i mon . Alth o gh
� -a star ter u sed to make bread is not ne cessarily
the opposite 1s not a1ways :1'ue.
suitable for making vien no1senes . rs used by Italian panettone
Genetic. stud.ies conducted on nume. rous starte . . .
t thel· bacter ial flora 1s massiv ely domin ated by L actobacillu s
bakers show tha r

san11,rancz·scensts· (more than 99% of bacteria. .present), wh 0· 1 hetri e t · yeast flora

are dominated by Kazachstania candida humtlts (93 to 99.9 ¼ of yeast present).
Some strains of Saccharomyces such as Saccharo myces bayanus may also be
present in these starters. Note that the prevalence of S�cchar?m�c�s cerevisiae
in some starters may indicate voluntary seeding, a practice which ts intellectually
dishonest for this type of product.
At first glan ce, it may seem that the composition of panettone starters could
be simplified to the following: Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis for the bacterial
flora and Kazachstania candida humilis for the yeas t flora. To do so, however,
would be a very unfortunate approximatio n. In fact, this dominant flora is
supplemented by over a hundred species of bacteria, which form a tiny mino
­
rity population since, taken together, they generally constitut
e less than 1% of
the star�er's b�c!eria. The same is true for yeasts, wit
h over a hundred species
present m addition to the d ominant flora, alth
oug h not all are fermentative.
Some of these minority bacteria are rem
. ark able and wi ll play a major role
m the rest of the process · These
. are the dextran producer s, particularly the
Wetss ella, Leuconostoc and Strepto
coccus genera.

Lea�ens which behave no

rmally
During the refreshment . .
phases ' viennoise ne leaven s behave like any other
leaven. In particular, the .
. success1ve refresh . . .
wh1ch can be measu ments inc
• rease 1n volume and actd1ty,
. red bY a decrease .
the pH 1s close to 5 (4 1n pH · At t he start
.8 <pH 5 l) b of each refreshment
3 to 4 hours at a tem f re dropping to betwee
n 4 .1 and 4.2 in
. perature:/26 t: � o
Durmg these differen C.
t O
agents rem ains relat refresh ments the population
ively un h n d balance of the fermenting
ns and Kazachs t:/ ge ·The high prevalence of Lactob illu
s anfran cisce is
ta candtda hu
milis can be observ
ed t e ch

32
 SOllRDOUC,H Vlf '01<,f:Rll·<i: BA',I , I 11
IAI Al'l•l!()A ti

A dual revolution in the presence of sugar in the final dough

Althou�h the leavens �e�ave normally �uring the refreshment phas
_ es, unique
fermentmg agent actlvity IS observed durmg the fermentation of the final doug
hs
(first and possibly second dough) .
The first extrao�dinary fe�ture is the absence of acidification in the dough,
_
while the second IS the s1gmficant production of EPS, especially dextrans. It
is important to note that all sourdough viennoiserie doughs have a high sugar
content-usually betwee n 11 % and 13 % of the dough's weight (not including
additional ingredients such as candied fruit, raisins, or chocolate). Most of them
also have a high fat, egg, or egg yolk content.
At temperatures of 24 to 30 ° C, depending on the recipe, the fermentation
time of the first dough is around 12 to 16 hours, which is particularly long
compared with fermentations for a bread dough or starter with a similar seeding
and temperature. More surprising still than this slow fermentation is the absence
of acidification, which shows the fermentation inactivity of Lactobacillus
sanfranciscensis. The pH of the first dough usually decreases from 5.5 at the
end of mixing to 5.35 at the end of the rise 12 hours later. The second dough
shows an equivalent change, from around pH= 5.5 at the end of mixing to
pH= 5.35 when it is put in the oven 6 to 8 hours later.

Example of steps and timings involved in the production of sourdough viennoiseries

Preparation Fermentation
Day Time Step Ingredients time + time ro initial pH Final pH
500g starter
6a.m. Bagnetto + 3000gwater at 22° C 20 min + 0 min 28 ° ( 3.8-3.9 3.8-3.9

--- + 6g sugar -�- --

500g drained starter
+ 500g flour 15 min + 3h15 28° ( 4.8 4.15
6:30 a.m. }
st
refreshment (Rl)
+ 175gwater

1000g Rl starter 4.15

l0a.m. 2 refreshment (R2) + 1000g flour 15 min + 3h 15 28 °( 4.9
D + 500gwater

2000g R2 starter 5 4.15

1:30 p.m. + 2000g flour 15 min + 3h15 28 °(
3rd refreshment (R3)
+ 1000g water

300g R2 starter 5 3.8-3.9

1:45 p.m. Purification refreshment + 300g flour 15 min + 16h 18 ° (
+ 150g water
5. 5 5.35
4:30 p.m. according to the recipe 4 5 min 12-14h 25-26°(
First mixing +

5.5 5.35
D+l 4:30- 45-60 min + 6-Bh 26-28 °(
6:30 p.m. Second mixing according to the recipe

33
 I 'I
I HI 'I 111 O

ITY
CTERIAL DENS
N RELATION To BA
H I
CHANGE IN P HASES
NG TH E DI FFERENT P
DURI

5.5

4.15

3.8-3.9 j
pH

that when
In addition to the near- absence of acidification, it can be shown
lation
there is a high sugar content, the Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis popu
ties.
decreases considerably in favor of bacterial strains which were initially minori
We are able to write about this exce ptional point here f or the first time thanks
to a quantitative a nd qu alitative de scription of the bacterial and yeast flora
prese nt in the doughs at differe nt stages of production-analyses that are based
on two compleme ntary experiments:
- DNA extractions, followed by their amplification and the analysis of D A 165:
- culturing to count the live yeasts and bacteria in the dough at the different
stages of production (see technical details p. 43).
The a� alys�s show that Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis stop multiplying,
become mactiv� a nd finally die in the first dough stage.
At t�e same time , so�e strains which are present in minute quantitie in tar­
ters with an overw�elmmg pre vale nce of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis 99 0
(> .
of t�e total bacterial flora) b e ne fit from the resulting space to develop. Thi 1
. . · fla, streptococcus and Leuconostoc g n ra f
particularly true of the w;etsse
bactena, which are known for produci·ng dextran
s.
Th'is reveal_s the unexp ected and fundamen ul ti n
tal role that minorit
can play durmg the process.

34
 Remember that Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis, which reigns supreme in the
different refreshments, is inhibited when large quantities of sugar are added.
This inhibition of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis enables other minority
strains of bacteria, which were dominated by it, to take advantage of the
resulting vacuum and develop.
Despite their strong development, the total bacterial density remains low
compared to that of the leavens, which largely explains the low acidifica­
tion of the final viennoiserie doughs. We rely on these minority strains to
produce dextrans, which are key to the consistency and shelf life of the
finished products.

The twofold question of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis inactivation and

dextran production should drive changes in the artisan production of sour­
dough viennoiseries and the associated theoretical models, which previously
lacked an objective basis. It should also improve our understanding of empirical
production data, which are currently abundantly documented but ultimately
not very informative.

Which bacteria produce dextrans?

We currently know of a small number of dextran-producing bacteria. Most of
them belong to the Leuconostoc, Weisselia and Streptococcus genera.
This is where the importance of a detailed analysis of the bacterial flora of
viennoiserie starters and detection of productive bacteria becomes clear. The
differences in flora observed from one starter to another could partially explain
the different practices of artisan bakers, particularly Italian bakers. Conversely,
these different practices could, over the long term, explain the development of
different minority strains from the same original starter.
These different practices and strains could also explain the variations in the
shelf life of the finished products observed among the various producers. Note
that these producers all pay special attention to the behavior of their starters
when they feed them. However, and this is a fun fact, although only Lactoba­
cillus sanfranciscensis is super-active, it is not this bacterium which actually
produces dextrans or gives the final dough its specific qualities.
It is crucial to understand that, contrary to all the studies conducted up to
now, it is much more relevant to analyze the final dough just before baking
to determine its bacterial composition than to analyze the starter or leaven at
any stage!
This is the only way of knowing which of the formerly minorit y populations
have developed. These are the strains which give the baked goods their specific
properties. While both of their starters are heavily dominated by Lactobacillus

35
·1 HF ntrOR\

.scensis EIDB's panettone is, for exa mple, particularly rich in Weis-
sa fra nc� any but has an overwhelmin
� ' ra ndin's does not contain
selta, while Mauro M g
o
to e Pa lm ae in th e fin al dough.
ma1·ority of Leuconos usi ng diff erent f
. .
ermentmg agents implies tailored
.
ti n
As .m cheese produc ff ' nt fim. s hed products. In add'1t1. 0n to dextran pr -
o
di ere o
practi. . ces and 1eads to bac
.
teria 1 stra m
.
s, wh .1ch w1·11 event
of minority ually be
ductton, the i. mportanee .
of the b ak e d pro d uct, mu st also
ional quahty be exa-
responsi'ble for the except h spec1 'fi c qua 1·
.
1t1es of v 1ennois. erie
.
.
mmed m . more depth · We understa nd th. at t e
of bactena wh i. ch, at the starter stage, represents
starters rest'de 1·n th'is minority
. '
less than 1% of the popu1 at1on.

Which conditions are favorable to dextran production?

The production of EPS in general and dextrans in particular is relatively well
documented today due to their use in the pharmaceutical industry, for eye drops
for example. The most thoroughly studied bacterium in this field is Leuconostoc
mesenteroides which is found in certain viennoiserie starters.
There are surprising parallels between dextran production by Leuconostoc
mesenteroides in a lab oratory setting and the empiricism that prevails in the
production of sourdough viennoiseries and panettone in bakeries!
Dextran production in a lab oratory requires a high sugar content of over 10%
in the culture media, with around 15 % being optimal. This production also
shows that the m ost effectively transformed sugar is sucrose and the tempera­
tures most favorable to dextran production are between 26 and 30 ° C. Finally,
pro�ucti�n is always slow, often taking 15 to 24 hours to become significant.
.
It is stn kmg to see how close traditional panettone production processes are
to these_ sta�dard practices in terms of technique. The slow rate of dextran
production is the key to understanding certain recip
es. Bacteria need time to
accumulate dextran_s in the final dough. The
more time they have, the more
they produce. That is why a sourdough
brioche, made with one dough which
has fermented for around 15 h ours, ·ts
. not as soft and does not keep as we11 as
a panettone made usm g two doug h s wh.1ch have fermented
por once, bakers, ms .
. 1st for o ver 20 hou rs.
ence on th e overa1 I length of the ' . a
marketing ploy •, 1ta1.1an artis pro cess isn t 1ust
· . an bak ers Of . ti. me-up
ten
to 30 hours m some cases-as a s·ign f qu . qu ote the fermentation
°
using not two but three doughs a1 1tr Pan ett_one production processes
. m� ke sen se m that light, as part of a quest to
increase the overall fermenta
t1on tim e and th e final
Of course it is clear that on 1 dextran concentration.
y the fermentation time
dough is important · The 1 eav . of the final wee. te·ned
en ref reshment tim
during which there is no de es before the final mt. ing,
xtran product· n ho
fermentation times. Rememb 10_ , s uld not be counted m
er that excessiv · the �e
e qu antities of ugar in hibi t th

36
 SOI ,mo '·"VII·.: 'C,J I JI,'); l,A I(. I n IAJ Al'P ,A( f-1

a tivity of microorganisms! In fact, this is the process used to preserve products

lik candied fruit and jam, etc.
So if we want to produce a large quantity of dextrans, we cannot add an
excessive quantity of sugar to the first dough without inhibiting all biological
activity, which would stop the dough from rising and would not produce any
dextrans!
This is why the sugar must be added in several steps when making panettone.
Although the bacteria need to be in an osmotic stress situation to produce dex­
trans, the conditions must not be lethal to them.
More sugar can be added as the sugars are transformed into dextrans or fer­
mented, mainly by yeast. This several-step method (first and second doughs)
maintains a sugar content of around 10% to 15% in the dough, thus ensuring
Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis inhibition and dextran production by the bac­
teria concerned (mainly the Weissella, Streptococcus and Leuconostoc genera).
Finally, as the natural production of dextrans in the dough is a complex
art which is relatively difficult to master, for some time now there has been
interest in the industry in adding exogenous dextrans directly into the dough.
In October 2000, the European Commission Scientific Committee on Food
ruled that it was safe to use exogenous dextrans in bread products at levels of
less than 5% of the final composition. The addition of exogenous dextrans is
obviously not compatible with the spirit or purpose of this book.
 RIN G T HE L EAVEN
PREPA
MENT CYCLE
THE REFRESH

rs, refreshing the leaven rejuvenates the yeast and

As is the case for all starte
them, and ensures their activity for the final
bacteria populations, multiplies
leaven, the process involves adding flo ur
phases of production. And like for any
wing it the necessary time to multiply
and water to an initial starter, then allo
y to pop ular belief, successive
in favorable temperature conditions. Contrar
ns of yeast and bacteria
refreshments only slightly change the relative proportio
time. This makes
but do significantly reduce the fermenting agent multiplication
the leaven quicker to work with (see INRA analysis, "Further information on
flora development through the different stages of production," p. 43).
Beyond these general aspects, the traditional Italian management of viennoi­
serie starters and leavens is relatively complex, alternating phases of activity
and rest (or purification).

Basic rules for getting started

1. St�rters are always made from strong white wheat flour (350 <W <400)
iCf. ,
Choose your flour carefully," p. 57).
. Starters �lways hav� a low level of hydration (45% <% hydration<50%)
3 . T he relative proportions of star ter
and fl our for refreshment are usually 1 to 1.
For example, 1 kg of starter 1 kg of fl our and 4 50
'. to 500 g of water.
4 . All the refreshments are mix ed f . . . .
. . or 5 to 7 minutes in a mixer with a hook or
m a mixer on the first settmg then the · ·
until a perfectly smooth doug' h i. s f or
mixture is usually laminated and foIded
m ed.

38
Three key steps: long refreshment, bagnetto (soak) and short refreshments

Creating a leaven that is ready for use is one of the trickiest parts of making
sourdough viennoiseries. It takes at least 10 hours and usually 48 to 72 hours
of fermentatio� and se_veral refresh�ents._ These refreshments will eventually
give the leaven its specific characteristics.
Although the mixing processes and proportions of flour, water and starter
are always virtually identical, there are two types of refreshment which precede
the working phases:

Long refreshment: the "rest," "purification,, or "storage/maintenance,, phase

This usually lasts 12 to 16 hours. The starter is stored at a temperature of around
l8 ° C, usually overnight. Once refreshed, it is kept tightly wrapped in cloth,
sometimes with an extra layer of plastic (the environment becomes completely
anaerobic). The lack of oxygen disrupts the development of yeasts, and the
relative proportion of yeasts compared with bacteria reaches a low point. The
yeasts represent around 4.5% of the total fermenting agents at the end of this
phase (compared with around 5.4% at the end of the first short refreshment
cycle). The temperature of 18 ° C still enables significant acid production and
a considerable concentration at the end of the phase. (The TTA is close to 7.5
and the pH between 3.7 and 3.9). Essentially, the role of this "high" acidity
will be to purify the starter of unwanted strains.

The bagnetto
After each long refreshment-usually in the morning-the starter is soaked in
sweetened water before the subsequent refreshments. This is called the bagnetto.
The bagnetto is performed after each long refreshment and before the first
short refreshment of the day. It enables some of the acidity which built up in the
dough overnight to be transferred into the bagnetto water, thus "deacidifying "
the starter. Excessive acidity would be detrimental to yeast development during
the first refreshment. (In technical terms, the TTA value drops by around half a
point during the bagnetto, without any measurable variation in the pH, which
is characteristic of the buffer effect at these pH values). The bagnetto also raises
the temperature of the starter quite quickly, from around 18 to 28 ° C (depending
on the recipe).
In practical terms, after the long refreshment, the starter first has its external
film reinoved, is cut into 1.5 cm-thick slices, and is then soaked in lukewarm
water (22 to 35° C depending on the recipe) and lightly sweetened (1 to 5 g of
sugar per liter depending on the recipe).
After between 5 and 30 minutes (depending on the recipe), the pieces of tarter
have some of the water squeezed out of them by hand and are then used in the

39
THI' TtlfOR'l

first short refreshment of the day, produ cing the initial leaven.
. Note thats·Ince
. .
the starter 1s. sl 1"ghtly rehu midified m this case, the proportio n of water us
ed
for the first refresh ment should � e reduce d to aro: nd 301/o
0
of the w eig ht f
o the
flour to mam • tai·n a fina l hyd rati on of aro und 501/ o.

Short refreshments (multiplication acceleration p hases)

These are usually carried out in the daytime, ��ery 3 to 4 hou rs, and left to rise
t 30 0 c in an open container in aerobic cond1t1ons. It has been shown that the
:elative yeast/bacteria proportions vary little during these refreshments.
On the other hand, and this is doubtless the fundamental expectation for t hese
refreshments, the growth rate of the fermenting agents (bacteria and yeasts)
increases. Between the first and third short refreshments, the bacteri a growth
rate is doubled and the yeast growth rate is multiplied by one and a half. The
overall population therefore has a high reproduction rate and a high level of
activity at the end of the three short refreshments.

Note: Long refreshments for long storage.

Like all starters, if they are not for use in production, starters for viennoiseries can
be stored in the fridge for long periods without being fed. In this case, we carry out
the same process as for a long refreshment but the vacuum-packed starter is kept in
the fridge at 5 ° C rather than l8 ° C. If the planned storage time is longer than a week,
double the proportion of flour used. The following starter/flour/water proportions are
used for feedings: 1 / 2 / 1.

The classic refreshment

The ready-to-use leaven is obtained at the end of the
three short refreshments
(3 refreshments lasting 3¾ hou rs in the diagram belo
w, i.e. 3 x 3¼h). The first
doughs for viennoiseries are always mixed at
the end of the day. This mixing
therefore takes place no less than 9½ to 10
hours after the bagnetto. This, of
course, makes t�e schedule for making
this type of product particularly long.
If the starter 1s used to produce a leav
en directly after a time spent in the
fridg�, you will need to allow at least 48
hours or 2 full refreshment cycles before
startmg to produce sourdough vienno
iseries, an d more usually 3 or 4 cycle s.
 ON FLORA DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH THE DIFFERENT STAGES
OF PRODUCTION

For a more in-depth understanding of the biological phenomena at play during

the different stages of production, two complementary lab experiments are
described below.

Counting live yeast cells and bacteria

in the different stages of production
The principle of the experiment is relatively simple. At the end of each fermen­
tation stage, a few grams of dough are removed and diluted in a physiological
liquid. Different dilutions are obtained and spread onto culture media in Petri
dishes then placed in a sterilizer. The live fermenting agents in the dough develop
so that after a few days, the colony resulting from the development of a bacte­
rium or yeast cell becomes visible to the naked eye, enabling it to be counted.
If no colony can be seen in the Petri dish, the dilution is too high. If all the
colonies are touching each other, the dilution is not high enough. We usually
aim to count several dozen or hundred colonies in each dish. Once the dilu­
tion and quantity of liquid spread on the culture medium are known, we can
accurately determine the number of bacteria or yeast cells per gram of dough
when the sample is taken.
The analyses presented here were carried out at France's National Research
Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment, INRAE, in Montpellier under
the supervision of Delphine Sicard from 10 to 12 March 2020. The dough samples
were diluted in 9 times their weight of Tryptone salt before being homogenized
then diluted and spread using an easySpiral Dilute®.
Each Petri dish was seeded with 0.5 g of solution. Two types of culture media
were used to distinguish between bacteria and yeasts:

- MRS 5 medium in anaerobic conditions to study bacteria development;

- YPD medium in aerobic conditions to study yeast development.

The results are listed below.

------ 43
 These results tell us about population development during refreshments
. But
the most extraordmary · findmg
• comes from the interpre tation of
the results
from final doughs (dough 1 and dough 2).
The yea�ts grow sig�ificantly in dough 1, with nearly 5 reproduction cycles
in the period and a h igh growth rate, close to one c ycle every two hours on
average. (We do not take the exponential then stationary development phases
into account here).
However, t�is repro�u�tion is practically halted in dough 2 due to the high
starting density (4.5 million yeast cells/g) and low nutritional re source content
(little flour in partic ular).
The results for the bac teria are, however, staggering. While the growth rate
was high during the short refreshments, bacteria development was zero in the
first dough. There were no live bac teria in the c ult ure during the counting
experiment.
This astounding re sult must be qualified with the following elements: the
MRS 5 culture me dium enable s us to study the development of lactobacillus in
general and Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis in partic ular in the leavens, but it is
not ne cessarily suitable for other bac teria to develop effe ctively in the leaven.
We therefore had to use the other analyses detailed below t o count the minority
bacteria.

DNA extraction and barcoding

The general principle of the analysis consists in extracting DNA from the samples
then purifying and growing it (PCR te chnique).
DNA 16S, which has very distinct sequence s, is then analyzed, enabling all
the spe cie s of bacteria and yeas ts in the sample to be determined as well as
their relative prop ortions.
The re sults obtained show the pre s ence of dozens of different yeasts but
the prevalence of Kazachstania Candida Humilis at all stages of production.
Bearing this point in mind, the analyse s below therefore only concentrate on
bacteria populations.
The analyses also show the pres enc e of hundreds of different bacteria and the
prevalence of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis at all stages of starter and leaven
.
maintenance. They also highlight the extraordinary de crease in the Lac�obaal/us
sanfranciscensis population in dough 1 and dough 2 in favor of sp ecies of the
Weisse/la, Streptococcus and Leuconostoc genera initially present in the starters
but also of the Lactococcus genus, which was initially absent from the starter
and was introduced by the butter in the final dough (see below).
This analysis alone cannot be fully interpreted. The DNA extr� ction does
not sp ecify whether the DNA was taken from living or dead orgamsms. From
 ON HORA Of VFI OPME 1 nmo (,fl I llf f)JFI I.Rf· 'T STA<,J <,
<JI Pk.OD C f

We obtained the following results.

Fermenting agent identification and counts via DNA 165 analysis

Refreshment 3 Dough 1 Dough 2

Final total in millions Number of Final total in millions Number of Final total in millions
96 reproduction cycles of bacteria/ g dough Respective 96 reproduction cycles of bacteria lg dough
of bacteria lg dough Respective Respective "

l
I
Lb sanfranciscensis
56,300,0 00
10,706
99.920%
0.019%
0
8.42
t 5,630,000
365,882
t 86.570%
5.626%
0
2.63
t 3,128,000
1,261,328
t 48.80%
19.68%

l'"""""'
Streptococus
12,396 0.022% t 7.90 295,320 4.541% 2.83 1,163,578 18.15%
Weissella
0 0% 4,331 0.067% 7.03 313,441 4.89%

I t = dead fermenting agents

Interpretation of results
During the refreshments, hundreds of minority bacteria cohabit with Lacto­
bacillus sanfranciscensis but constitute less than 1 % of the bacteria occurring
in the starter.
When doughs 1 and 2 are mixed, the Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis population
dies, leaving room for certain minority fermenting agents to develop, particu­
larly species of Weissella, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc and Lactococcus genera.
The density of live bacteria is very low at the end, on the order of 2 to 3 million
bacteria/g of dough, or 20 to 30 times less than in the starters. This makes it
easy to understand why the final doughs acidify so little. (The pH of the final
doughs usually changes from 5.4 at the end of dough 1 mixing to 5.2 when
dough 2 is put in the oven, after around 20 hours of fermentation at 28 ° C!)

47
Note:
al bakery methods and recipe ana-
I have never found tradition
centage or baker's percentages
lysis indicators like hydration per
sourdough viennoiserie
by flour weight really satisfactory for
just flour and
baking. As soon as recipes contain more than
water, these percentages become tricky to use. How should you
handle the eggs in a recipe, for example, when you are looking
for the dough's moisture content? Treating them as water is an
obvious mistake since they are not entirely made up of water.
To resolve those questions, I began to develop what I called the
universal method by breaking down each ingredient and going
back to the basics: solids and total water.
The method is simple and uses 3 familiar indicators which
have been slightly modified: a hydration percentage, a sugar
percentage, and a sugar concentration.
In order to avoid confusing these indicators with others, I have
added a small " u " for " umve
· rsal"-the name of the method' which
I believe is more ob·Jeer·1ve th an t
he methods we previously used.
I hope that you will fin d t
h'1s umversal method as useful as I do!
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “You told me that you had been a mechanic in the works before
your rheumatism got bad. Have you worked at any of those
duplicators like what was packed in the crate?”
“I worked at all kinds of erecting works—duplicators an’ files an’
indexes an’ addressing machines an’ all the rest o’ them. I knows
them all.”
“Good! Now I want you to come round to the store and show me
the different parts of a duplicator.”
Gurney led the way from the boiler-house.
“Don’t switch on the light,” French directed. “I don’t want the
windows to show lit up. I have a torch.”
They passed through the packing-shed and into the completed-
machine store adjoining. Here French called a halt.
“Just let’s look at one of these duplicators again,” he said.
“Suppose you wanted to take one of them to pieces, let me see how
you would set about it. Should I be correct in saying that if five or six
of the larger pieces were got rid of, all the rest could be carried in a
handbag?”
“That’s right, sir.”
“Now show me the bins where these larger parts are stocked.”
They passed on to the part store and across it to a line of bins
labelled “Duplicators.” In the first bin were rows of leg castings.
French ran his eye along them.
“There must be fifty or sixty here,” he said, slowly. “Let’s see if
that is a good guess.”
On every bin was a stock card in a metal holder. French lifted
down that in question. It was divided into three sets of columns, one
set showing incomes, the second outgoes, and the third the existing
stock. The date of each transaction was given, and for each entry
the stock was adjusted.
“Not such a bad guess,” French remarked, slowly, as he
scrutinised the entries. “There are just fifty-four.”
The card was large and was nearly full. French noticed that it
went back for some weeks before the tragedy. He stood gazing at it
in the light of his torch while a feeling of bitter disappointment grew in
his mind. Then suddenly he thought he saw what he was looking for,
and whipping out a lens, he examined one of the entries more
closely. “Got it, by Jove! I’ve actually got it!” he thought, delightedly.
His luck had held.
One of the entries had been altered. A loop had been skilfully
added to a six to make it an eight. The card showed that two
castings had been taken out which either had never been taken out
at all or, more probably, which had been taken out and afterwards
replaced.
Convinced that he had solved the last of his four test problems,
French examined the cards of the other bins. In all of those referring
to large parts he noticed the same peculiarity; the entries had been
tampered with to show that one more duplicator had been sent out
than really was the case. The cards for the small parts were
unaltered and French could understand the reason. It was easier to
get rid of the parts themselves than to falsify their records. The fraud
was necessary only in the case of objects too big and heavy to carry
away.
French was highly pleased. His discovery was not only valuable
in itself, but he had reached it in the way which most appealed to his
vanity—from his own imagination. He had imagined that the fraud
might have been worked in this way. He had tested it and found that
it had been. Pure brains! Such things were soothing to his self-
respect.
He stood considering the matter. The evidence was valuable, but
it was far from permanent. A hint that suspicion was aroused, and it
would be gone. The criminal, if he were still about, would see to it
that innocuous copies of the cards were substituted for these
dangerous ones. French felt he dare not run such a risk. Nor could
he let Gurney suspect his discovery, lest unwittingly the old man
might put the criminal on his guard. He therefore went on:
“Now all I want is to make a sketch of each of these parts. The
duplicator which went out in the crate may have been taken to
pieces and I want to be able to recognise them if they’re found. I
suppose I could get a sheet or two of paper in the storeman’s desk?”
In one corner a small box with glass sides constituted an office
for the storeman. French led the way thither. The door was closed
but not locked. The desk, which he next tried, was fastened. But
above it in a rack he saw what he was looking for, a pile of blank bin-
cards. He turned back.
“It doesn’t matter about the paper, after all,” he explained. “I see
the desk is locked. I can make my sketches in my notebook, though
it’s not so convenient. But many a sketch I’ve made in it before.”
Chatting pleasantly, he returned to the bins and began slowly to
sketch the leg casting. He was purposely extremely slow and
detailed in the work, measuring every possible dimension and noting
it on his sketch. Gurney, as he had hoped, began to get fidgety.
French continued talking and sketching. Suddenly he looked up.
“By the way,” he said, as if a new idea had suddenly entered his
mind, “there is no earthly need for me to keep you here while I am
working. It will take me an hour or two to finish these sketches. If you
want to do your rounds and to get your supper, go ahead. I’ll find you
in the boiler-house when I have done.”
Gurney seemed relieved. He explained that it really was time to
make his rounds and that if French didn’t mind he would go and do
so. French reassured him heartily, and he slowly disappeared.
No sooner had his shuffling footsteps died away than French
became an extremely active man. Quickly slipping the four faked
cards from their metal holders, he carried them to the office. Then
taking four fresh cards from the rack, he began slowly and carefully
to copy the others. He was not a skilful forger, but at the end of half
an hour’s work he had produced four passable imitations. Two
minutes later he breathed more freely. The copies were in the
holders and the genuine cards in his pocket. Hurriedly he resumed
his sketching.
French’s work amounted to genius in the infinite pains he took
with detail. In twenty minutes his sketches were complete and he
effectually banished any suspicion which his actions might have
aroused in Gurney’s mind by showing them to him when he rejoined
him in the boiler-house. Like an artist he proceeded to establish the
deception.
“Copies of these sketches sent to the men who are searching for
the duplicator will help them to recognise parts of it if it has been
taken to pieces,” he explained. “You see the idea?”
 Gurney appreciated the point, and French, after again warning
him to be circumspect, left the works.
The problem of what he should do next was solved for French by
the receipt of a letter by the early post. It was written on a half sheet
of cheap notepaper in an uneducated hand and read:

Ashburton.
12th October.
Dear Sir,
If you would come round some time that suits you I have
something I could tell you that would maybe interest you. It’s
better not wrote about.
Lizzie Johnston.

French had received too many communications of the kind to be

hopeful that this one would result in anything valuable. However, he
thought he ought to see the ex-parlourmaid and once again he made
his way to her cottage.
“It’s my Alf,” she explained. “Alf Beer, they call him. We’re being
married as soon as he gets another job.”
“He’s out of a job, then?”
“Yes, he was in the sales department in the works; a packer, he
was. He left there six months ago.”
“How was that?” French asked, sympathetically.
“He wasn’t well and he stayed home a few mornings, and Mr.
Berlyn had him up in his office and spoke to him something wicked.
Well, Alf wouldn’t take that, not from no man living, so he said what
relieved his feelings and Mr. Berlyn told him he could go.”
“And has he been doing nothing since?”
“Not steady, he hasn’t. Just jobbing, as you might say.”
“Hard lines, that is. You say he had something to tell me?”
The girl nodded. “That’s right,” was her original reply.
“What is it, do you know?”
“He wouldn’t say. I told him you was in asking questions and he
seemed sort of interested. ‘Wants to know about Berlyn and Pyke
and Mrs. Berlyn’s goings-on with Pyke, does he?’ he sez. ‘I thought
some one would be wanting to know about that before long. Well, I
can tell him something,’ he sez.”
“But he didn’t mention what it was?”
“No. I asked him and he sez ‘Value for cash,’ he sez. ‘He puts
down the beans and I cough up the stuff. That’s fair, ain’t it?’ he sez.
‘Don’t be a silly guff, Alf,’ I sez. ‘He’s police and if he asks you
questions, why, you don’t half have to answer them.’ ‘The devil I
have,’ he sez. ‘I ain’t done no crime and he hasn’t nothing on me.
You tell him,’ he sez, ‘tell him I know something that would be worth
a quid or two to him.’ And so I wrote you that note.”
“Tell me why you thought I was police,” French invited.
Miss Johnston laughed scornfully.
“Well, ain’t you?” she parried.
“That’s hardly an answer to my question.”
“Well, everybody knows what you’re after. They say you think
Pyke was murdered on the moor and that Berlyn murdered him.
Leastways, that’s what I’ve heard said.”
This was something more than a blow to French, and his self-
esteem reeled under it. For the nth time he marvelled at the amazing
knowledge of other people’s business to be found in country districts.
The small country town, he thought, was the absolute limit! There he
was, moving continually among the townspeople, none of whom
gave the least sign of interest in his calling, yet evidently they had
discussed him and his affairs to some purpose. The garrulous
landlady, Mrs. Billing, was no doubt responsible for the murder of
Pyke becoming known, but the belief that he, French, suspected
Berlyn of murdering him was really rather wonderful.
“It seems to me,” he said with a rather sickly smile, “that your
townspeople are better detectives than ever came out of Scotland
Yard. So your young man thinks I’m police and wants to turn an
honest penny, does he? Where am I to find him?”
“He’ll be at home. He’s living with his father at the head of East
Street—a single red house on the left-hand side just beyond the
town.”
In the leisurely, holiday-like way he had adopted, French crossed
the town and half an hour later had introduced himself to Mr. Alfred
Beer. Lizzie’s Alf was a stalwart young man with a heavy face and a
sullen, discontented expression. French, sizing him up rapidly,
decided that the suave method would scarcely meet the case.
“You are Alfred Beer, engaged to Lizzie Johnston, the former
servant at Mr. Berlyn’s?” he began.
“That’s right, mister.”
“I am a police officer investigating the deaths of Mr. Berlyn and
Mr. Pyke. You have some information for me?”
“I don’t altogether know that,” Beer answered, slowly. “Just wot
did you want to know?”
“What you have to tell me,” French said, sharply. “You told Miss
Johnston you had some information and I’ve come up to hear it.”
The man looked at him calculatingly.
“Wot do you think it might be worth to you?” he queried.
“Not a brass farthing. You should know that witnesses are not
paid for their evidence. Don’t you misunderstand the situation, Beer,
or you’ll find things mighty unpleasant. Come along now. Out with it.”
“How can I tell you if you won’t say wot you want?”
“I wouldn’t talk to you any more, Beer, only, I think you don’t
understand where you are,” French answered, quietly. “This is a
murder case. Mr. Pyke has been murdered. If you know anything
that might help the police to discover the murderer and you don’t tell
it, you become an accessory after the fact. Do you realise that you’d
get a good spell of years for that?”
Beer gave an uncouth shrug and turned back to his digging.
“I don’t know nothing about no murder,” he declared,
contemptuously. “I was just pulling Lizzie’s leg.”
“You’ve done it now,” French said, producing his card. “There’s
my authority as a police officer. You’ve wasted my time and kept me
back from my work. That’s obstruction and you’ll get six months for
it. Come along to the station. And unless you want a couple of years
you’ll come quietly.”
This was not what the man expected.
“Wot’s that?” he stammered. “You ain’t going to arrest me? I ain’t
done nothin’ against the law, I ain’t.”
“You’ll soon find out about that. Look sharp now. I can’t spend the
day here waiting for you.”
 “Aw!” The man shifted nervously. “See, mister, I ain’t done no
harm, I ain’t. I don’t know nothing about no murder. I don’t, honest.”
“I don’t want to be hard on you,” French answered. “If you tell
your story without any more humbugging I’ll let the rest go. But I
warn you, you needn’t start inventing any yarn. What you say will be
gone into, and Heaven help you if it’s not true.”
“I’ll take my davy it’s true, mister, but it ain’t about no murder.”
“Well, get along sharp and let’s hear it.”
“It was one night about six months ago,” said Beer, now speaking
almost eagerly. “Me and Lizzie were walking out at that time. Well,
that night we’d fixed up for to go for a walk, and then at the last
minute she couldn’t get away. Mrs. Berlyn was goin’ out or
somethin’, and she couldn’t get off. We’d ’ad it fixed up that when
that ’appened Lizzie would come down to the shrubbery after the
rest ’ad gone to bed. Well, I wanted to see ’er that night for to fix up
some little business between ourselves, so I went up to the ’ouse
and gave the sign—three taps with a tree branch at ’er window. You
understand?”
French nodded.
“Well, I went back into the shrubbery for to wait for her. It was
dark, but a quiet night. An’ then I ’eard voices an’ steps comin’ along
the path. So I got behind a bush so as they’d not see me. There was
a man and a woman, an’ when they came close I knew them by their
voices. It was Pyke and Mrs. Berlyn. I stayed still an’ they passed me
close.”
“Go ahead. Did you hear what they said, or what are you getting
at?”
“I ’eard wot they said when they were passing. ‘I tell you ’e
knows,’ she said. ‘I’m frightened,’ she said. ‘You don’t know him. If ’e
once thinks you’ve played ’im false ’e’ll make a ’ell of a trouble.’ An’
then Pyke says: ‘Nonsense!’ ’e said. ‘ ’E’s not that sort. Besides,’ ’e
said, ‘ ’e don’t know anything. ’E knows we’re friends, but that’s all.’
‘No,’ she said, ‘I’m sure ’e knows or ’e guesses, anyway. We’ll ’ave to
separate,’ she said. ’E said they ’ad been careful enough, and then
they went past an’ I didn’t ’ear no more.”
“That all?”
“That’s all,” said Beer, disgustedly. “Ain’t it enough?”
 “Nothing to boast about,” French replied, absently. He
remembered that the man had been dismissed by Berlyn and he
wondered if this statement was merely the result of spite. He
therefore questioned him closely. But he was unable to shake him
and he formed the opinion that the story was true.
If so, it certainly had a pretty direct bearing on the theory he was
trying to evolve, for there could be little doubt as to who “ ’e” was. As
he considered the matter he was surprised to find how complete that
theory was and how much of it had been definitely established.
There were gaps, of course, but there was no doubt as to its general
correctness.
As French now saw it, the affair stood as follows:
Stanley Pyke and Phyllis Berlyn, friends during childhood, find
that they love each other when they renew their acquaintance in later
years. But it is then too late for the course of true love to run smooth
and a clandestine attachment follows. Berlyn learns of this some four
months before the tragedy and as a result of his interference the two
decide to discontinue their meetings—in public, at all events. The
flirtation with Colonel Domlio is possibly deliberately undertaken by
Mrs. Berlyn to prove to her husband that her interest in Pyke is over.
But the two find that they cannot give each other up and the
intrigue is continued secretly. Berlyn, however, is not hoodwinked.
He sees his friend betraying him and he determines on vengeance.
His first move is to get an accomplice to assist in the details.
Here French admitted to himself that he was out of his depth. He
could not imagine who the accomplice was or why he should have
been required. But if Berlyn were guilty, the murder was clearly a
two-man job. Simultaneous activities in different places proved it.
The arrangements about the crate are next made. French was
aware that these had not yet been properly followed up; other
matters had been more urgent. But they represented a second string
to his bow which he would develop if necessary.
Then comes the night of the crime. While Berlyn and Pyke are at
Tavistock, the accomplice drugs the watchman’s food. He then waits
for the car. Pyke is sandbagged and his body carried into the works.
One of the men then unpacks the crate, and taking the duplicator to
pieces, returns the larger parts to stock. He has already doctored the
cards, as well, necessarily, as the corresponding books. He then
strips the recognisable clothes off the body, puts the latter in the
crate, smashes in the face, closes the crate, and leaves all as
before. Finally he escapes with Berlyn’s outer clothes and the
smaller parts of the duplicator. He has only to get rid of these and his
part in the ghastly business is complete.
In the meantime his confederate has driven the car out to a lonely
part of the moor, changed the magneto, and made the tracks leading
from the road.
The facts which pointed to Berlyn’s guilt were sixfold:
1. Berlyn in all probability was consumed by jealousy, one of the
strongest of human motives for crime.
2. Berlyn had an unparalleled opportunity for the deed, which
only he could have arranged.
3. It was not easy to see how anyone but Berlyn could have
handled the magneto affair.
4. Berlyn had the necessary position in the Veda Works to carry
out the watchman and stock-card episodes.
5. Berlyn answered the description of the man who had called for
the crate.
6. Berlyn had disappeared, an incomprehensible action if he were
innocent.
As French thought again over the accomplice, he recognised that
here was the snag in his theory. Motives of personal jealousy and
private wrong leave no room for an accomplice. Moreover, it was
incredible that a man who had shown such ingenuity could not have
devised a scheme to carry out the crime single-handed.
But though French recognised that there were points in the case
as yet unexplained, he saw that his own procedure was clear. He
must start the search for Berlyn and he must learn the identity of the
accomplice.
The first of these was easy. He had compiled a pretty accurate
description of the junior partner and Daw had got hold of his
photograph. A note in the Police Gazette would start every police
officer in the country on the search.
The second problem he found more difficult. Rack his brains as
he would, he could think of no one who might have helped Berlyn.
 He thought his next plan would be an enquiry into the
whereabouts at ten o’clock, on the night of the crime, of everyone
whom it was possible to suspect. That, coupled with an investigation
as to who was in London when the various letters were posted,
should yield results.
The fact that a number of possible suspects had been at Mrs.
Berlyn’s party from eight to eleven on the fatal evening seemed to
rule them out. But French thought he should get some more definite
information on the point. Accordingly, he went up to the works and
asked for Mr. Fogden, one of those whom Lizzie Johnston had
mentioned as being present.
“I heard a peculiar story about Mrs. Berlyn,” he said a propos of
nothing special when they had talked for some time. “I was told she
had a premonition of Mr. Berlyn’s death and was miserable and
upset all that evening of the crime. A peculiar thing, if true, isn’t it?”
“Who told you that?” Mr. Fogden asked, sceptically.
“A chance remark in the bar of the Silver Tiger; I don’t know the
speaker’s name nor, of course, do I know if his story was true.”
“Well, you may take it from me that it wasn’t. I was at Mrs.
Berlyn’s that evening and there was nothing wrong with her that I
saw.”
This gave French his lead. When he left the office he had
obtained all the details of the party that he wanted. On the day
before the crime Mr. Fogden had had a telephone call from Mrs.
Berlyn saying that Berlyn was to be out on the following evening and
that she would be alone, and asking if he and one or two of the
others would come and keep her company. Eight people had turned
up, including himself, Cowls and Leacock from the works, a Dr.
Lancaster and his wife, and two Miss Pyms and a Miss Nesbitt from
the town. All these people were very intimate and the party was quite
informal. Some of them had played billiards, and the others bridge.
This information seemed to French to eliminate Fogden, Cowls,
and Leacock, as well, of course, as Mrs. Berlyn herself. He spent the
remainder of the day in racking his brains for other possible
accomplices and in thinking out ways to learn their movements on
the night in question.
 Next morning he took up the matter of the whereabouts of all
suspects when the incriminating letters were posted in London.
Fortunately, the enquiry presented but little difficulty. A further
application to Mr. Fogden revealed the fact there was an attendance
book at the works which all the officers signed, from Mr. Fogden
himself down. This book showed that everyone concerned was in
Ashburton on the dates of posting. Even Stanley Pyke, who was
absent five days out of six on his rounds, had been there. Further,
Mr. Fogden’s diary showed that he had had interviews with Colonel
Domlio on the critical days. From Lizzie Johnston, French learned
that Mrs. Berlyn had also been at home during the period.
French was more puzzled than ever. It looked as if someone
must have been mixed up in the affair of whose existence he was
still in ignorance.
Just as he was about to step into bed that night an idea struck
him which gave him sharply to think. As he considered it he began to
wonder if his whole view of the crime were not mistaken. He
suddenly saw that the facts could bear a quite different interpretation
from that which he had placed upon them, an interpretation,
moreover, which would go far towards solving the problem of the
accomplice.
Once again he swung from depression to optimism as, chuckling
gently to himself, he decided that next morning he would embark on
a line of enquiry which up to the present he had been stupid enough
entirely to overlook.
 Chapter Thirteen: The Accomplice?
French’s new idea had been subconsciously in his mind from the
very first, but probably owing to his theory of the guilt of one of the
two men supposed to be lost, he had never given it the consideration
he now saw that it deserved.
Suppose that on the night of the tragedy the lines of footprints
had not been faked. Suppose that after leaving the car the two men
had walked across the moor and reached Domlio’s. Suppose that
Domlio was the moving spirit in the affair and Berlyn merely the
accomplice.
This idea, French thought, would account not only for the facts
which his previous theory had covered, but also for nearly all of
those which the latter had failed to meet.
As before, the affair hinged on the fatal attractiveness of Phyllis
Berlyn, but in this case Domlio was the victim. Suppose Domlio had
fallen desperately in love with Phyllis and that she had encouraged
him. So far from this being unlikely, the facts bore it out. Different
witnesses had testified to the flirtation and Mrs. Berlyn herself had
not denied it.
Domlio then would see that there was a double barrier to the
realisation of his desires. There was of course Berlyn, but if Berlyn
were out of the way there was still Pyke. How far Mrs. Berlyn loved
Pyke, Domlio might not know, but their “affair” was common
knowledge and he would want to be on the safe side. If murder were
the way out in one case, why not in both? The risk was probably no
greater, and once both his rivals were out of the way, his own
happiness was secured.
His plan decided on, he would approach his friend Berlyn with
insidious suggestions as to the part Pyke was playing with his wife.
Gradually he would let it be known that he also had occasion to hate
Pyke—obviously for some quite different reason. He would feed the
other’s jealousy until at last Berlyn would be as ready for the crime
as he was himself. Then he would put forward his proposals.
Pyke was a cause of misery in both their lives; they would
combine to remove his evil influence.
Between them they would obtain and damage the spare
magneto, then arrange the visit to Tavistock and the ordering of the
crate and crane lorry. Berlyn would require Pyke to accompany him
to Tavistock. All would be done without raising suspicion.
On the fatal night Domlio would go to the works and drug
Gurney’s supper. Later on, during the run back from Tavistock,
Berlyn would stop the car and pretend to Pyke that it had broken
down. He would suggest looking up Domlio, who would certainly run
them into Ashburton in his own car. A light in the colonel’s study
would lead them direct to his French window and Domlio would
admit them without letting his servants know of their call.
Domlio would immediately get out his car and they would start for
the town. A sandbag would be in the car and on the way Pyke would
be done to death. The two men would then leave the car in some
deserted place, and carrying the body to the works, would pack it in
the crate. When the ghastly work was done they would return to the
car, taking with them Pyke’s suit and the small parts of the duplicator.
These they would get rid of later. Lastly they would change the
magneto on Berlyn’s car.
So far French was well pleased with his new theory, but he
realised that it contained a couple of nasty snags.
In the first place, it did not account satisfactorily for the
disappearance of Berlyn. Presumably Domlio had manœuvred his
colleague into such a position that he could give him away to the
police with safety to himself. Berlyn would therefore have to do the
other’s bidding, which would be to disappear and to get rid of the
crate. This was possible, but there was not a shred of proof that it
had happened.
Secondly, the theory did not explain how the letters were posted
in London. However, though French was not entirely satisfied, he
grew more and more convinced that he was on sure ground in
suspecting Domlio. At all events, his next job must be to test the
point.
 First he decided to find out what Sergeant Daw could tell him
about the colonel and early next morning saw him at the police
station. The sergeant greeted him with a peculiar smile.
“I suppose, sir, you’ve heard the rumor that’s going round?” he
asked at once.
“What’s that, Sergeant?”
“They say you’ve found out that Mr. Berlyn murdered Mr. Pyke
out on the moor that night. Mrs. Billing, Pyke’s landlady, is supposed
to have recognised the underclothes.”
French smiled.
“Well it’s quite true,” he admitted. “I didn’t mean to keep it from
you, Sergeant, but I went off to London as soon as I discovered it. I
warned Mrs. Billing not to talk, but I hardly believed she could help
herself.”
The sergeant was evidently upset.
“I’m sorry about the whole thing, Mr. French. I should have
thought Mr. Berlyn was the last man who would do such a thing.”
“You may be right. Indeed, it’s a matter arising out of that very
point that I want to see you about. I have a notion there was a
second person in it—some one who might even have taken the lead.
Tell me”—French’s voice became very confidential—“what sort of a
man is Colonel Domlio?”
The sergeant looked shocked.
“Colonel Domlio?” he repeated. “Surely, sir, you don’t mean to
suggest that the colonel was mixed up in a murder?”
“You don’t think it likely?”
“I don’t, sir, and that’s a fact. The colonel’s a very quiet man and
peculiar in some ways, but he’s well respected in the district.”
“So was many a murderer.”
The sergeant was clearly sceptical, though anxious to be polite.
He said he was sure Mr. French would not speak without good
reason, but his own view was evident.
“Well, tell me all you know about him, anyway.”
Domlio, it appeared, was a man of about forty-five, short,
thickset, and dark. (Not the man who called for the crate, thought
French.) He was very well off, and since his wife had died some six
years earlier, had lived alone with his servants in his house on the
moor. He held sufficient Veda stock to give him a controlling interest
in the firm, acted as consulting engineer, and was usually referred to
as the senior partner. Entomology was his pet hobby and it was
believed that he was writing a book on the insect life of the moor.
He had four servants. Inside was John Burt, valet, butler, and
general factotum, and his wife, Sarah Burt, who combined the offices
of cook and general servant. Outside was an ex-service man named
Coombe, who acted as chauffeur and general handy man, and an
old gardener called Mee. Mee lived with his wife and daughter in the
gate lodge and Coombe boarded with them. All, so far as the
sergeant knew, were reliable people of good character.
“I’ll go out and see the colonel after lunch,” French announced.
“Could you lend me a push bicycle? I don’t want all my movements
reported on by the driver of a car.”
“I can borrow one for you, but it’ll not be much use on these hilly
roads.”
“It’ll do all I want.”
A couple of hours later French set out. When near Colonel
Domlio’s gate he hid the bicycle in the brushwood and approached
the house on foot. It was a smallish, creeper-covered building, L-
shaped, with thick walls and heavy overhanging eaves. At least a
hundred years old, French thought. It stood some two hundred yards
back from the road and was approached by a drive which wound
between clumps of stunted trees and shrubs. In front was a small
lawn of mown grass, while between the trees to the right French
glimpsed the roofs of outbuildings. The place had a cared-for
appearance. The woodwork of the house had been freshly painted,
the flower beds were tidy, and the grass edges had recently been
cut.
The door was opened by an elderly man in butler’s dress, honest
and kindly-looking, but rather stupid. John Burt, evidently. He asked
French to step inside while he took his card to his master.
The hall was of fair size, with a large, old-fashioned fireplace and
lead-lighted windows. French had not much time to observe it, for
Burt called him almost immediately into a room on the left of the hall
door.
 It was long, low, and delightfully furnished as a study. Bookcases
lined the walls and a couple of deep saddle-bag armchairs stood on
the soft Chinese carpet in front of the fireplace. A collector’s
entomological cabinet was in one corner, with close by a table
bearing books and a fine microscope. The room was evidently in the
corner of the house, for there were French windows in adjacent
walls. In one of these was a leather-topped desk and at the desk
was seated a shortish man with a strong, clean-shaven face, iron
grey hair, and a not too amiable expression. He rose as French
entered.
“Inspector French of Scotland Yard, is it not? I have heard that
you were in the town.”
“That’s correct, sir,” French answered, taking the chair to which
the other pointed. “You’ve probably heard enough, then, to guess my
business?”
Colonel Domlio squared his shoulders.
“I heard you were investigating the deaths of Mr. Berlyn and Mr.
Pyke. I don’t know the object of this call.”
“I’ve come, Colonel Domlio, in connection with my investigation. I
want to ask for your help in it.”
“What do you wish me to do?”
“Two things, sir. In the first place, I want any information you can
give me about either of the two gentlemen you mentioned or
anything which might throw light on the tragedy. Secondly, I would be
obliged if you would answer the purely formal question that we
inspectors have to ask all who were in any way connected with the
victim of such a tragedy. Where were you yourself at the time of the
occurrence?”
The colonel raised his eyebrows.
“Do you suspect me of murdering Mr. Pyke?” he asked, drily.
“I think, sir, you needn’t take up that line.” French’s tone was also
a trifle dry. “I have explained that my question is a formal one,
invariably put. You are not bound to answer it unless you wish.”
“If I don’t you will suspect me in reality, so I don’t see that I have
much option. I was here, in this room.”
“Between what hours?”
 “During the whole evening. I finished dinner about eight or a
quarter past. Then I came in here and stayed here until I went to bed
between one and two.”
“And no one came in during that time?”
“No one came in. I take nothing after dinner except a little whisky
going to bed, and I have everything I want in the cupboard there. I’m
writing a book at present and I don’t like to be disturbed in the
evenings.”
“Then in the face of what you’ve said I presume I needn’t ask you
if you heard any sound at the door or windows?”
“You need not.”
“And—excuse this question—you didn’t sleep at all during the
evening? No one could have knocked while you were asleep?”
The Colonel smiled slightly.
“Ingenious,” he remarked, “but unproductive. No, I didn’t sleep at
all.”
“Thank you,” said French, “that disposes of one question. Now
the other. Can you tell me anything likely to be helpful to me about
either of the two gentlemen?”
The colonel regretted that in this case also he could do nothing to
oblige. He would answer Mr. French’s questions so far as he could,
but he had nothing to volunteer. And French found that after half an
hour’s interrogation he had learnt just nothing whatever.
“There is one other matter to which I must refer,” he said. “I regret
the necessity, as it’s somewhat delicate. Common report says that
Mrs. Berlyn was on very intimate terms first with Mr. Pyke and then
with yourself. Would you tell me how far that is true?”
The colonel squared his shoulders again and French presently
saw that it was an unconscious nervous trick.
“Is it really necessary that Mrs. Berlyn’s name should be dragged
in?” he asked, stiffly.
“I’m afraid so. You will recognise that I am trying to find motives.”
“I don’t think you will find one there.”
“On the contrary, Colonel Domlio, I have evidence that Mr. Berlyn
was acutely jealous.”
But the colonel was not to be drawn.
“That is news to me,” he declared.
 “Well,” said French, doggedly, “I should like to have your definite
statement as to whether such jealousy would or would not have
been justified, in so far, at all events, as you yourself were
concerned.”
The colonel smiled sardonically.
“I should say that it would not have been justified.”
“Very good, Colonel. I have now only one other request to make.
I should like to interrogate your servants. Some of them may have
seen or heard something which might be useful to me. Would you
oblige me by calling them in and instructing them to reply to me?”
For the first time an uneasy look appeared in the colonel’s eyes.
“Surely that is unnecessary?” he demurred. “What could they
possibly tell you?”
“Nothing, I very greatly fear,” French admitted. “But it is a routine
enquiry and as such I dare not omit it.”
With an evident ill grace Colonel Domlio rang the bell. French,
sensing his opposition, had become keenly alert. It seemed to him
that he might be on the brink of learning something important. But
instantly he decided that he would postpone serious examination of
the staff until he had them to himself.
The butler, Burt, answered the bell.
“This gentleman is Mr. French, Burt,” said the colonel. “He wants
to ask you some questions. You might answer him so far as you
can.”
“It was only to know whether you heard or saw anything unusual
on the night of the deaths of Mr. Berlyn and Mr. Pyke,” French
explained.
The man denied with what French thought was over-earnestness.
Moreover, he looked acutely uneasy, even scared. French felt a
sudden thrill, but he merely nodded and said:
“You didn’t see any traces on the moor the next day?”
“Nothing whatever, sir,” said the man with evident relief.
“Thank you. That’s all I want. Now, Colonel, if I could see the
others to put the same questions I should be finished.”
Mrs. Burt and the two outside men were produced in turn, and
each denied having heard or seen anything unusual. Coombe and
Mee, the chauffeur and gardener, were interested, but evidently
nothing more. But Mrs. Burt reproduced all the signs of uneasiness
which her husband had exhibited, only in an intensified degree. She
was obviously terrified when French questioned her, and her relief
when her ordeal was over was unmistakable.
But French apparently saw nothing amiss and when the quartet
had gone he thanked Colonel Domlio for his assistance and
apologised for the trouble he had given. And in the colonel’s manner
he noticed the same repressed evidences of relief. That something
had taken place that night of which the master of the house and the
two domestics were aware, French was positive.
He left the house and regained the clump of brushwood in which
he had hidden the bicycle. But he did not withdraw the machine.
Instead, after a quick glance round he crept in beside it, pulling the
bushes over him to make sure that he was invisible from the road.
From his hiding-place he could see the entrance to “Torview,” as the
colonel had named his house.
He was waiting on a pure chance, but after an hour he found that
his luck was in. He heard the sounds of an engine being started up,
and presently saw a small green car turn out of the drive and
disappear in the direction of Ashburton. In the car was Colonel
Domlio.
French allowed another twenty minutes to pass, then crawling out
of the brushwood, he returned to the house. Burt again opened the
door.
“I’m sorry to trouble you again, Mr. Burt,” he apologised, with his
pleasant smile, “but I forgot to ask Colonel Domlio a question. Could
I see him again just for a moment?”
“Colonel Domlio went out about half an hour ago, sir.”
“Ah, that’s very unfortunate.” French paused and looked
disappointed, then brightened up. “Perhaps you could give me the
information, if you would be so kind? I don’t want to have to come
back another day.”
Burt was obviously disconcerted. But he tried to hide his feelings
and reluctantly invited the caller into the study.
“Yes, sir?” he said.
French instantly became official and very stern. He swung round,
frowning at the other and staring him full in the face. Then he said,
harshly: “It is you I want to see, Burt. You lied to me this afternoon. I
have come back to hear the truth.”
The man started and fell back a pace, while dismay and
something like terror showed on his features.
“I don’t understand,” he stammered. “What do you mean?”
“It’s no use, Burt. You’ve given yourself away. You saw or heard
something that night. What was it?”
“You’re mistaken, sir,” he declared, with a look of relief. “I neither
saw nor heard anything. I swear it.” And then gaining confidence: “I
don’t know what right you have to come here and tell me I was lying.
I’m sure——”
“Cut it out,” French said, sharply. “Look here, Burt, do you want to
be arrested on a charge of conspiracy to murder?”
Burt’s jaw dropped, but French did not give him time to reply.
“Because if you don’t you’ll tell what you know. Mr. Pyke was
murdered that night, and perhaps Mr. Berlyn as well. They were not
lost on the moor and it is believed they came here. If you keep back
any information that might lead to the arrest of the murderer, it’s
conspiracy—accessory after the fact. Ten years penal for that, Burt!
Come along, now. Make up your mind whether you’re going to tell or
face the judge.”
Burt’s face had grown pale, but he stuck to it that he had neither
seen nor heard anything. French cut his protestations short.
“Fetch your wife,” he ordered.
The man’s manner as he heard these words, coupled with Mrs.
Burt’s evident fear when originally questioned, assured French that
this time he was on the right track. With evident unwillingness the
woman appeared.
“Now, Mrs. Burt, I want to know what you heard or saw on the
night of the tragedy. There is no use in telling me there was nothing.
Now out with it!” And in terse language he explained what accessory
after the fact meant, and its penalty.
Mrs. Burt was of less stern stuff than her husband. Under
French’s examination she was soon in tears and presently, disjointed
and in fragments, her story came out.
It appeared that on the night of the tragedy she slept badly, owing
to some small indisposition. Shortly after one she woke in