PGDT 2024 TEACHING NOTES

Module Title: ECUMENISM AND INTERFAITH DIALOGUE

Module Code : THE6209

Name of the Facilitator: Rev. Dr. Mathias Twahirwa, PhD, MSc.

 1. Module Code: THE 6209
2. Module title: Ecumenism and Interfaith Dialogue
3. Level: 6 Semester: 2 Credits: 10
4. Pre-requisite: Systematic Theology, Church history
5. Allocation of study and teaching hours: 34 hours
6. Aims, learning outcomes and content

This module aims to:

(i) (i) Situate major religions in their historical and socio-political contexts as part of the interplay
of forces that constitute the story of humankind.
(ii) Explain historical developments and the goals of ecumenism.
(iii) Explain the peace initiatives in the Ecumenical movement through interfaith and
interreligious dialogue.
(iv) Raise awareness of students about other faiths to overcome religious indifference.

7.2 Learning outcomes

After completing this module, students will be able to:

i. Identify key actors of major religions in Africa;

ii. Compare different religious values and their respective paradoxes;
iii. Explain the concept of unity in diversity sought by Ecumenism;
iv. Explain the challenges and opportunities of interfaith and interreligious dialogue
towards peace building in society.
v. Show the impact of religion and how it influences daily life;
vi. Distinguish the link between religious tolerance and religious intolerance;
vii. Write a 3000 words paper on a topic directed by a lecturer.
viii. Promote and to participate actively in interfaith dialogue
ix. Tolerate and respect other faiths
x. Assess critically religious factors that bring conflicts in the society.
xi. Initiate religious dialogue for the sake of peace.

8. Content

Unit I: History and Development of Abrahamic Religions

Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Unit II: African Worldview and Spirituality

Belief in God and invisible beings

Rituals and practices in African traditions
African Traditional Concept of time

Unit III: Ecumenism, interfaith and interreligious dialogue

(v) Origins of Ecumenism;

Birth and development of the Ecumenical movement;
Interfaith and interreligious dialogue as goals of the Ecumenical movement;
Religion, power and violence: Christian Fundamentalism, Islamism and Secularism

8. Learning and Teaching Strategy

Skills are acquired through lectures, seminars, group works, tutorials and visits at worship
places like mosques, traditional shrines and convents. Group and individual assignments
include directed readings. Students are also organized in pools of research following key
interests and organize presentations.
9. Assessment Strategy
After exploring major religions in Africa, students will be assessed through 1.500 words
research paper presented in class. In addition, after small groups’ discussion, an assessment
will be done on peer bases, tests will be given and at the end of the course, examination will
be given.
Assessment Pattern

Compo We Learning
nent igh objectives
tin covered
g
(%)

Class 30 i, ii, iii, iv, vi

partici
pation

Assign 30 ii, v, vii, viii, ix, x,

ment xi

Final 40 i, ii, iv, v, vi, viii,

assess ix, x, xi
ment:
12. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

Lecturer should ask regularly for a feedback and ask questions. Regularly interact to the
students. Student is expected to ask questions and feedback from a lecturer. A peer group
review should be done to the student and the assignment for the students in order to be
active.
1. Indicative Resource
a) Core texts
1. Guerrie ter Haar and Busuttil. (2005). Bridge or Barrier Religion, violence and visions for
Peace. Leiden-Boston: Brill..
2. Chemorion D.C.(2014) Introduction to Christian Worldview: Meaning, origins and
perspectives. Nairobi:
3. Mel Thompson (2010) Understanding the Philosophy of Religion Canada. Library of
congress catalogue
4. Hans Kung (1992) Judaism: the religious situation of our time. London: SMC press ltd
5. Paul Gwynne (2009) World Religions in Practice: A comparative introduction. Blackwell
Publishing

b) Background texts

1. Chalmers Aaron(2012) Exploring the religion of Ancient Israel: Prophets, priests, sage
and people, SPCK
2. Wagner Walter (2009) Opening the Qur’an : Introducing Islam’s Holy Book. Indinana:
University of Notre Dame Press
3. Bonardel Francoise (2008) Boudisme et Philosophie : En Quete d’une sagesse
Commune . Paris: L’ Harmattan
4. Baldwin M.W., Christianity through the thirteenth century, New York: Harper&Row,
1970
5. Basset Jean Claude, Le dialogue interreligieux, Ed. du Cerf, Paris, 1996
6. Jargy S. Islam et Chrétienté. Le fils d’Abraham entre la confrontation et le dialogue,
Genève, Ed. Labor et Fides, 1981
7. Kagabo J.H., L’Islam et les swahili au Rwanda, Ed. Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences
Sociales, Paris,1988
8. Kirk J. Andrew, What is mission ? theological explorations, Darton, Longman and Todd,
London, 1999
9. Parshall Phil,( 2002), Understanding Muslim teachings and traditions, Published by Baker
Books, Grand Rapids, USA,

c) Journals

1. News from the WCC Interreligious Dialogue Office and Networks

2. CALLED TO DIALOGUE. The Interreligious and Intra-Christian

3. Pathways for Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue

d) Key Websites

1) African values, <http://www.emeka.at/african_cultural_vaules.pdf>

2) Awolalu, What is African Traditional Religion,
<http://www.studiesincomparativereligion.com/public/articles/What_is_African_Traditi
onal_Religion-by_Joseph_Omosade_Awolalu.aspx>
3) Chidi D. Isizoh, Christian motivation for dialogue with followers of African Traditional
Religion, < http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/motivation.html>
4) Chinwe M.A. Nwoye, Continuing the conversation on the notion of mission as
reconciliation : a critical review of Catholic Church’s dialogue with African indigenous
religion, <www.saintleo.edu/Documents.ashx?id=897>
5) Graham, William. Why study religion in 21 st century,
<http://www.hds.harvard.edu/news-events/harvard-divinity-bulletin/articles/why-
study-religion-in-the-twenty-first-century>
6) www. astudyofdenominations.com/movements/ecumenism/
7) www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/commissions/jwg-rcc-wcc/the-
ecumenical-movement-in-the-21st-century,

e) Online texts

1. Edmund, Kee Fook Chia(2016). Pathways for Ecumenical and Interreligious

Dialogue: Interfaith dialogue (retrieved from www.pdfdrive.com)
2. Neil, J. Young (2016). We gather together the Religious Right and problem of
interfaith politics. (retrieved from www.pdfdrive.com)
3. Gerad, Mannion(2016). Where we dwell in common. (retrieved from
www.pdfdrive.com)
4. Interfaith dialogue
5. Ecumenism+ Interreligious Dialogue
6. Dialogue inside-out: Ecumenism encounters the religions
TEACHING NOTES
Unit 1: ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Abrahamic Religions

The Abrahamic religions refer to three sister monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam) that claim the prophet Abraham as their common forefather. These religions
account for more than half of the world's total population today. Abraham is claimed by Jews as
the ancestor of the Israelites, while his son Ishmael (Isma'il) is seen in Muslim tradition as the
ancestor of the Arabs.

In Christian tradition, Abraham is described as a "father in faith" (see Romans 4), which may
suggest that all three religions come from one source. In modern times, leaders from all three
Abrahamic faiths have begun to interact and engage in constructive Inter-religious Dialogue.

They have begun to acknowledge their shared spiritual riches to help overcome the pains and
prejudices of past eras and move forward to building a world of religious co-operation.

I. Origin of the expression

The expression 'Abrahamic religions' originates from the Qur'an's repeated references to the
'religion of Abraham' (see Surahs 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161; 12:38; 16:123; 22:78).

In particular, this expression refers specifically to Islam, and is sometimes contrasted to Judaism
and Christianity, as for example in Surah 2:135: "They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye
would be guided (To salvation)." Say thou: "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the
True, and he joined not gods with God."

In the Qur'an, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim, 'not a Jew nor a Christian' (Surah
3:67). The latter assertion is made on the basis that Prophet Muhammad's divine revelation is
considered to be a continuation of the previous Prophets' revelations from God, hence they are
all believed to be Muslims. However, the expression 'Abrahamic religions' is generally used to
imply that all of the three faiths share a common heritage.

Adam, Noah, and Moses are also common to all three religions. As for why we do not speak of
an "Adamic," "Noachian," or "Mosaic" family, this may be for fear of confusion. Adam and Noah
are said to be the ancestors of all humanity (though as named characters they are specific to
the Biblical/Qur'anic tradition).

Moses is closely associated with Judaism and, through Judaism, continuing into Christianity;
Moses is regarded as a Prophet in Islam, but the term "Mosaic" may imply a genealogical
lineage that the first Muslims—being Arab—did not share (e.g., descending from Ishmael).
Thus, the scope suggested by the first two terms is larger than intended, while the third is too
small.

II. Patriarchs

There are six notable figures in the Bible prior to Abraham: Adam and Eve, their two
sons Cain and Abel, Enoch, and his great-grandson, Noah, who, according to the story, saved his
own family and all animal life in Noah's Ark. It is uncertain whether any of them (assuming they
existed) left any recorded moral code: some Christian churches maintain faith in ancient books
like the Book of Enoch—and Genesis mentions the Noahide Laws given by God to the family of
Noah. For the most part, these 'patriarchs' serve as good (or bad, in the case of Cain) role
models of behavior, without a more specific indication of how one interprets their actions in
any religion.

In the Book of Genesis, Abraham is specifically instructed to leave Ur of the Chaldees so that
God will "make of you a great nation."

According to the Bible, the patriarch Abraham (or Ibrahim, in Arabic) had eight sons by three
wives: one (Ishmael) by his wife's servant Hagar, one (Isaac) by his wife Sarah, and six by
another wife Keturah. Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Bahá'u'lláh and other prominent figures are
all claimed to be descendants of Abraham through one of these sons.

Jews see Abraham as the progenitor of the people of Israel, through his
descendants Isaac and Jacob. Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a
spiritual, as well as a physical, ancestor of Jesus. In addition, Muslims refer to Sabians,
Christians and Jews as "People of the Book" ("the Book" referring to the Tanakh, the New
Testament, and the Qur'an).

They see Abraham as one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. Thus,
Abraham represents for some, a point of commonality that they seek to emphasize by means of
this terminology.

III. The significance of Abraham

 For Jews, Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or Patriarch (referred to as "Our

Father Abraham") to whom God made several promises: that he would have numberless
descendants, and that they would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land").
Abraham is also known as the first post-flood person to reject idolatry through rational
analysis. (Shem and Eber carried on the Tradition from Noah), hence he symbolically
appears as a fundamental figure for monotheistic religion.
  For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear rather than a direct ancestor. [2] For
example, Christian iconography depicts him as an early witness to the Trinity in the form
of three "angels" who visited him (the Hospitality of Abraham). In Christian belief,
Abraham is a model of faith,[3] and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen
as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, Jesus.

A longstanding tendency of Christian commentators is to interpret God's promises to

Abraham, as applying to Christianity (the "True Israel") rather than Judaism (whose
representatives rejected Christ).

 In Islam, Ibrahim is considered part of a line of prophets beginning with Adam (Genesis
20:7 also calls him a "prophet"), as well as the "first Muslim" – i.e., the first monotheist
in a world where monotheism was lost. He is also referred to as ‫ ابونة ابرهيم‬or "Our Father
Abraham," as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or Abraham the Monotheist. Islam holds that it
was Ishmael (Isma'il) rather than Isaac whom Ibrahim was instructed to sacrifice.

All the Abrahamic religions are related to Judaism as practiced in ancient kingdoms of Israel and
Judah prior to the Babylonian Exile, at the beginning of the first millennium B.C.E.

The Abrahamic religions, also known as the religions of the book, are a group of monotheistic
faiths that recognize a spiritual tradition identified with Abraham.

The three primary religions in this group are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These religions
share common elements but also have significant differences in their beliefs, practices, and
historical developments.

IV. Shared Spiritual Riches and Commonalities

A number of significant commonalities are shared among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam:

 Monotheism. All three religions worship one God, although Jews and Muslims
sometimes criticize the common Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity as polytheistic.
Indeed, there exists among their followers a general understanding that they worship
the same one God.

 A prophetic tradition. All three religions recognize figures called "prophets," though
their lists differ, as do their interpretations of the prophetic role.

 Semitic origins. Judaism and Islam originated among Semitic peoples – namely
the Jews and Arabs, respectively – while Christianity arose out of Judaism.

 A basis in divine revelation rather than, for example, philosophical speculation or

custom.
  An ethical orientation. All three religions speak of a choice between good and evil,
which is conflated with obedience or disobedience to God.

 A linear concept of history, beginning with the Creation and the concept that God works
through history.

 Association with the desert, which some commentators believe has imbued these
religions with a particular ethos.

 Devotion to the traditions found in the Bible and the Qur'an, such as the stories
of Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses.

V. Monotheism

Judaism and Islam worship a Supreme Deity which they conceive strictly monotheistically as
one being; Christianity agrees, but the Christian God is at the same time (according to most of
mainstream Christianity) an indivisible Trinity, a view not shared by the other religions.

A sizable minority of Christians and Christian denominations do not support the belief in the
doctrine of the Trinity, and sometimes suggest that the Trinity idea was founded in Roman
religious culture, specifically suggesting that it was formulated due to Rome's absorption of
some Zoroastrian and some Pagan ideology as part of their homogenized culture, and was not
part of the original, primitive Christianity.

This Supreme Being is referred to in the Hebrew Bible in several ways, such
as Elohim, Adonai or by the four Hebrew letters "Y-H-V (or W) -H" (the tetragrammaton), which
observant Jews do not pronounce as a word. The Hebrew words Eloheynu (Our God)
and HaShem (The Name), as well as the English names "Lord" and "God," are also used in
modern day Judaism. The latter is sometimes written "G-d" in reference to the taboo against
pronouncing the tetragrammaton.

Allah is the standard Arabic translation for the word "God." Islamic tradition also describes the
99 names of God. Muslims believe that the Jewish God is the same as their God and that Jesus
is a divinely inspired prophet, but not God.

Thus, both the Torah and the Gospels are believed to be based upon divine revelation, but
Muslims believe them to have been corrupted (both accidentally through errors in transmission
and intentionally by Jews and Christians over the centuries).

Muslims revere the Qur'an as the final uncorrupted word of God or the last testament brought
through the last prophet, Muhammad. Muhammad is regarded as the "Seal of the Prophets"
and Islam is viewed as the final monotheist faith for all of humanity.
 VI. Holy/Religious scriptures (People of the Book)

All three Abrahamic religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be
the word of God — hence sacred and unquestionable — and some the work of religious men,
revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely
inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.

The sacred scriptures of Judaism are comprised of the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym that stands
for Torah (Law or Teachings), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). These are
complemented by and supplemented with various originally oral
traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud, and collected rabbinical writings. The Hebrew
text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered holy.

The sacred scripture of Christians is the Holy Bible, which comprises of both the Old and New
Testaments. This corpus is usually considered to be divinely inspired.

Christians believe that the coming of Jesus as the Messiah and savior of humankind would shed
light on the true relationship between God and humanity by restoring the emphasis of universal
love and compassion (as mentioned in the Shema) above the other commandments, and de-
emphasising the more "legalistic" and material precepts of Mosaic Law (such as the dietary
constraints and temple rites).

Some Christians believe that the link between Old and New Testaments in the Bible means that
Judaism has been superseded by Christianity as the "new Israel," and that Jesus' teachings
described Israel not as a geographic place but as an association with God and promise of
salvation in heaven.

Islam's holiest book is the Qur'an, comprised of 114 surahs ("chapters of the Qur'an").
However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original
forms and not the current versions, which they believe to be corrupted.

According to the Qur'an (and mainstream Muslim belief) the verses of the Qur'an were
revealed from All through the Archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad on separate
occasions.

These revelations were written down during Muhammad's lifetime and collected into one
official copy in 633 C.E., one year after his death. Finally, the Qur'an was given its present order
in 653 C.E. by the third Caliph (Uthman ibn Affan).

The Qur'an mentions and reveres several of the Israelite Prophets, including Jesus, amongst
others. The stories of these Prophets are very similar to those in the Bible.
However, the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted
outright; they are replaced by the new commandments revealed directly by God (through
Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Qur'an.

The Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Qur'an as uncorrupted and holy to the last
letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Qur'an,
as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.

The Qur'an is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by later authors that record the
sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts.

There is no consensus within Islam on the authority of the Hadith collections, but Islamic
scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad:
genuine (sahih), fair (hasan), or weak (da'if). Amongst Shia Muslims, no hadith is regarded as
Sahih, and hadith in general are only accepted if there is no disagreement with the Qur'an.

VII. Eschatology, the theology of last things

The Abrahamic religions also share an expectation of an individual who will herald the end time
(Greek: eschaton), and/or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth, in other words the
fulfillment of Messianic prophecy. Judaism awaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah (the Jewish
concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several significant ways).

Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ. Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus
(in order to complete his life and die, since he is said to have been risen alive and not crucified)
and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first incarnation, Shi'as the return of Muhammad al-
Mahdi).

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes that both Mahdi and Second Coming of Christ
were fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.

 Afterlife

The Abrahamic religions (in most of their branches) agree that a human being comprises the
body, which dies, and the soul, which need not do so.

The soul, capable of remaining alive beyond human death, carries the essence of that person
with it, and God will judge that person's life accordingly after they die. The importance of this,
the focus on it, and the precise criteria and end result differs between religions.

Reincarnation and transmigration tend not to feature prominently in Abrahamic religions.

Although as a rule they all look to some form of afterlife, Christianity and Islam support a
continuation of life, usually viewed as eternal, rather than reincarnation and transmigration
which are a return (or repeated returns) to this Earth or some other plane to live a complete
new life cycle over again.

Kabbalic Judaism, however, accepts the concept of returning in new births through a process
called "gilgul neshamot," but this is not Torah-derived, and is usually studied only among
scholars and mystics within the faith.

Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the World to Come") are quite diverse and its discussion is not
encouraged. This can be attributed to the fact that even though there clearly are traditions in
the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife, Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to
please God, rather than future reward, and its attitude can be mostly summed up by the
rabbinical observation that at the start of Genesis God clothed the naked (Adam and Eve), at
the end of Deuteronomy He buried the dead (Moses), the Children of Israel mourned for 40
days, then got on with their lives.

If there is an afterlife all agree in Judaism that the good of all the nations will get to heaven and
this is one of the reasons Judaism does not normally proselytize.

In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Qur'an 1:1). However God
is also "Most Just," Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and commit gross
sin. Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place in Paradise.

While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described,
depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels, an idea that found its
way into Christian literature through Dante's borrowing of Muslim themes and tropes for his
Inferno.

Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual
Paradise. In Islam, Heaven is divided into numerous levels, with the higher levels of Paradise
being the reward of those who have been more virtuous.

For example, the highest levels might contain the Prophets, those killed for believing, those
who help orphans, and those who never tell a lie (among numerous other categories cited in
the Qur'an and Hadith).

Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven as God is said to be the most Merciful.
Additionally, those who ultimately believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for
a time, and then ultimately released into Paradise.

If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (the association God in any way, such as claiming that He is
equal with anything or worshiping other than Him), then it is possible he will stay forever in
Hell; however, it is said that anyone with "one atom of faith" will eventually reach Heaven, and
Muslim literature also records reference to even the greatly sinful, Muslim and otherwise,
eventually being pardoned and released into Paradise.

According to Islam, once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for
eternity.

VII. Worship

Worship, ceremonies, and religion-related customs differ substantially between the various
Abrahamic religions. Among the few similarities are a seven-day cycle in which one day is
nominally reserved for worship, prayer, or other religious activities; this custom is related to the
Biblical story of Genesis, where God created the universe in six days, and rested in the seventh.
Islam, which has Friday as a day for special congregational prayers, does not subscribe to the
'resting day' concept.

Jewish men are required to pray three times daily and four times daily on the Sabbath and most
Jewish holidays, and five times on Yom Kippur. Before the destruction of the Temple, Jewish
priests offered sacrifices there; afterwards, the practice was stopped. Jewish women's prayer
obligations vary by sect; traditionally (according to Torah Judaism), women do not read from
the Torah and are only required to say certain parts of these services twice daily.

Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism, and the Reconstructionist movement have different
views.

Christianity does not have any sacrificial rites as such, but its entire theology is based upon the
concept of the sacrifice by God of his son Jesus so that his blood might atone for humankind's
sins. However, offerings to Christian Churches and charity to poor are highly encouraged and
take the place of sacrifice. Additionally, self-sacrifice in the form of Lent, penitence and
humbleness, in the name of Christ and according to his commandments (cf. Sermon on the
Mount), is considered a form of sacrifice that appeals God.

The followers of Islam, Muslims, are to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. The first pillar is the
belief in the oneness of Allah (God) and in Muhammad as his final prophet. The second is to
pray five times daily (salat) towards the direction (qibla) of the Kaaba in Mecca. The third pillar
is Zakah, is a portion of one’s wealth that must be given to the poor or to other specified
causes, which means the giving of a specific share of one’s wealth and savings to persons or
causes that God mentions in the Qur’an.

The normal share to be paid is two and a half percent of one’s saved earnings. Fasting during
the Muslim month of Ramadan is the fourth pillar of Islam, to which only able-bodied Muslims
are required to fast.
Finally, Muslims are also urged to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's life.
Only individuals whose financial position and health are insufficient are exempt from making
Hajj. During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend several days in worship, repenting and most
notably, circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims.

At the end of the Hajj, sheep and other permissible animals are slaughtered to commemorate
the moment when God replaced Abraham's son, Ishmael with a sheep preventing his sacrifice.
The meat from these animals is then distributed around the world to needy Muslims, neighbors
and relatives.

Sacraments , Circumcision and Community life

Both Judaism and Islam prescribe circumcision for males as a symbol of dedication to the
religion. Islam also recommends this practice as a form of cleanliness. Western Christianity
replaced that custom by a baptism ceremony that varies according to the denomination, but
generally includes immersion, aspersion or anointment with water.

As a result of the decision of the Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) that
circumcision is not mandatory, it continues to be optional, though the Council of
Florence[5] prohibited it and paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical
amputation or mutilation immoral.

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents have low circumcision rates (with the
notable exception of the United States[7] and the Philippines). However, many males in Coptic
Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy still observe circumcision.

 Food restrictions

Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with lawful food being called kosher in Judaism
and halaal in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam also prohibits the
consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halaal restrictions can be seen as a subset of
the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halaal; especially in the case of
meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Protestants have no set
food laws.

Roman Catholicism however developed ritual prohibitions against the consumption of meat
(but not fish) on Fridays, and the Christian calendars prescribe abstinence from some foods at
various times of the year; but these customs vary from place to place, and have changed over
time, and some sects have nothing comparable.

Some Christians oppose the consumption of alcoholic beverages, while a few Christians also
follow a kosher diet, sometimes identified as a "What Would Jesus Eat?" diet.
Some approaches to practice have developed in Protestant denominations, such as
the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which strongly advise against certain foods and in some
cases encourage vegetarianism or veganism.

 Proselytism

Christianity encourages evangelism in an attempt to convince others to convert to the religion;

many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-
Christian communities throughout the world.

Forced conversions to Christianity have been documented at various points throughout history.
The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of
Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time
of the Spanish Inquisition where they were offered the choice exile, conversion or death; and of
the Aztecs by Hernan Cortes.

Forced conversions are condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman
Catholic Church, which officially state that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and
offend human dignity, so that past or present offenses are regarded as a scandal (a cause of
unbelief).

"It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be
free: no one therefore is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."

William Heffening states that in the Qur'an "the apostate is threatened with punishment in the
next world only" however "in traditions, there is little echo of these punishments in the next
world … and instead, we have in many traditions a new element, the death penalty."

Heffening states that Shafi'is interpret verse 2:217 as adducing the main evidence for the death
penalty in the Qur'an. The Qur'an has a chapter (Sura) dealing with non believers (called "Al-
Kafiroon"). In the chapter there is also an often quoted verse (ayat) which reads, "There is no
compulsion in religion, the path of guidance stands out clear from error" [2:256] and [60:8].
This means that no one is to be compelled into Islam and that the righteous path is distinct
from the rest. According to this verse, converts to Islam are ones that see this path.

The Muslim expansion during the Ummayad dynasty held true to this teaching, affording
second-class citizenship to "People of the Book" instead of forced conversion. Nevertheless, it
should be noted that pagan Arab tribes were given the choice of 'Islam or Jizya (defense tax) or
War. Another notable exception is the en masse forced conversion of the Jews of Mashhad in
1839.

In the present day, Islam does not have missionaries comparable to Christianity, though it does
encourage its followers to learn about other religions and to teach others about Islam.
While Judaism accepts converts, it does not encourage them, and has no missionaries as such.
Only a few forced conversions to Judaism have been recorded for example the Idumeans, were
forced into conversion to Judaism by the Hasmonean kings.

However Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a
set of seven universal commandments that non-Jews are expected to follow. In this context
the Rambam (Rabbi Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers) commented,
"Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to
come, if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator."

As the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than
Noahide Laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-
Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. Most often, converts to Judaism are those
who marry Jews.

Judaism is the world’s oldest monotheistic religion, dating back nearly 4,000 years. Followers of
Judaism believe in one God who revealed himself through ancient prophets. The history of
Judaism is essential to understanding the Jewish faith, which has a rich heritage of law, culture
and tradition.

Judaism Beliefs

Jewish people believe there’s only one God who has established a covenant—or special
agreement—with them. Their God communicates to believers through prophets and rewards
good deeds while also punishing evil. Most Jews (with the exception of a few groups) believe
that their Messiah hasn’t yet come—but will one day.

Jewish people worship in holy places known as synagogues, and their spiritual leaders are called
rabbis. The six-pointed Star of David is the symbol of Judaism.

Today, there are about 14 million Jews worldwide. Most of them live in the United States
and Israel. Traditionally, a person is considered Jewish if his or her mother is Jewish.

Torah

The Jewish sacred text is called the Tanakh or the “Hebrew Bible.” It includes the same books as
the Old Testament in the Christian Bible, but they’re placed in a slightly different order. The
Torah—the first five books of the Tanakh—outlines laws for Jews to follow. It’s sometimes also
referred to as the Pentateuch.

Founder of Judaism
The origins of Jewish faith are explained throughout the Torah. According to the text, God first
revealed himself to a Hebrew man named Abraham, who became known as the founder of
Judaism. Jews believe that God made a special covenant with Abraham and that he and his
descendants were chosen people who would create a great nation.

Abraham’s son Isaac, and his grandson Jacob, also became central figures in ancient Jewish
history. Jacob took the name Israel, and his children and future generations became known as
Israelites.

More than 1,000 years after Abraham, the prophet Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt after
being enslaved for hundreds of years. According to scriptures, God revealed his laws, known as
the Ten Commandments, to Moses at Mt. Sinai.

Jewish Temples

Around 1000 B.C., King David ruled the Jewish people. His son Solomon built the first holy
Temple in Jerusalem, which became the central place of worship for Jews. The kingdom fell
apart around 931 B.C., and the Jewish people split into two groups: Israel in the North and
Judah in the South.

Sometime around 587 B.C., the Babylonians destroyed the first Temple and sent many Jews
into exile. A second Temple was built in about 516 B.C. but was eventually destroyed by the
Romans in 70 A.D.

The destruction of the second Temple was significant because Jewish people no longer had a
primary place to gather, so they shifted their focus to worshipping in local synagogues.

Jewish Holy Books

While the Tanakh (which includes the Torah) is considered the sacred text of Judaism, many
other important manuscripts were composed in later years. These offered insights into how the
Tanakh should be interpreted and documented oral laws that were previously not written
down. Around 200 A.D., scholars compiled the Mishnah—a text that describes and explains the
Jewish code of law that was previously orally communicated.

Talmud

Later, the Talmud, a collection of teachings and commentaries on Jewish law, was created. The
Talmud contains the Mishnah and another text known as the Gemara (which examines the
Mishnah). It includes the interpretations of thousands of rabbis and outlines the importance of
613 commandments of Jewish law.
The first version of the Talmud was finalized around the 3rd century A.D. The second form was
completed during the 5th century A.D.

Judaism embraces several other written texts and commentaries. One example is the 13
Articles of Faith, which was written by a Jewish philosopher named Maimonides.

Shabbat

Shabbat is recognized as a day of rest and prayer for Jews. It typically begins at sunset on Friday
and lasts until nightfall on Saturday. Observing Shabbat can take many forms, depending on the
type of Judaism that a Jewish family may follow. Orthodox and Conservative Jews, for example,
may refrain from performing any physical labor, using any electrical device or other prohibited
activities.

Most observant Jews celebrate Shabbat by reading or discussing the Torah, attending a
synagogue or socializing with other Jews at Shabbat meals.

Judaism and Persecution

Throughout history, Jewish people have been persecuted for their religious beliefs. Some well-
known events include:

1066 Granada Massacre: On December 30, 1066, a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in
Granada and killed more than 1,000 Jewish families. The group also kidnapped and crucified
Joseph ibn Naghrela, the Jewish vizier to the Berber king.

The First Crusade: In the first of the Crusades—a series of medieval holy wars involving
Christians and Muslims—thousands of Jews were killed, and many were forced to convert
to Christianity.

The Spanish Expulsion: In 1492, Spain’s rulers issued a royal edict that declared all Jews who
refused to convert to Christianity would be expelled from the country. Experts estimate about
200,000 people were ousted and tens of thousands died while trying to reach safety.

The Holocaust: In the Holocaust, the most infamous of modern-day atrocities,

the Nazis murdered more than 6 million Jews.

The Creation of Israel

During and after the Holocaust, many Jews returned to their homeland (in the Middle East
region known as Palestine) and embraced Zionism, a movement for the creation of a Jewish
state that emerged in 19th-century Europe.
In 1948, Israel officially became an independent nation. David Ben-Gurion, one of the leading
promoters of a Jewish nation state, was given the title of prime minister.

This event was considered a success for the Jewish people who had tirelessly petitioned for an
independent state in their homeland. However, tensions between Jews and Arabs living in
Palestine escalated in the years since Israel became a state and are still ongoing today.

Types of Judaism

There are several sects in Judaism, which include:

1. Orthodox Judaism: Orthodox Jews are typically known for their strict observance
of traditional Jewish law and rituals. For instance, most believe Shabbat
shouldn’t involve working, driving or handling money.
Orthodox Judaism is a diverse sect that includes several subgroups,
including Hasidic Jews. This form started in the 18th century in Eastern Europe
and holds different values than traditional or ultra-Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic
Jews emphasize a mystical experience with God that involves direct communion
through prayer and worship. Chabad is a well-known Orthodox Jewish, Hasidic
movement.
2. Reform Judaism: Reform Judaism is considered a liberal category of the religion
that values ethical traditions over strict observance of Jewish laws. Followers
promote progressive ideas and adaptation. Most of the Jews living in the United
States follow Reform Judaic traditions.
3. Conservative Judaism: Many people consider this form of Judaism somewhere in
between Orthodox and Reform Judaism. Typically, conservative Jews honor the
traditions of Judaism while allowing for some modernization.
4. Reconstructionist Judaism: Reconstructionism dates back to 1922 when
Mordecai Kaplan founded the Society for the Advancement of Judaism. This sect
believes that Judaism is a religious civilization that’s constantly evolving.
5. Humanistic Judaism: Rabbi Sherwin Wine founded this denomination of Judaism
in 1963. Humanistic Jews celebrate Jewish history and culture without an
emphasis on God.
While there are various denominations of Judaism, many Jews don’t identify
with a particular classification and simply refer to themselves as Jewish.

Jewish Holidays

Jewish people observe several important days and events in history, such as:

1. Passover: This holiday lasts seven or eight days and celebrates Jewish freedom from
slavery in Egypt. Specifically, Passover refers to the biblical story of when the Hebrew
 God “passed over” houses of Jewish families and saved their children during a plague
that was said to have killed all other first-born babies in Egypt.
2. Rosh Hashanah: Jews celebrate the birth of the universe and humanity during this
holiday, which is also known as the Jewish New Year.
3. Yom Kippur: This “Day of Atonement” is considered the holiest day of the year for Jews
who typically spend it fasting and praying.
4. High Holy Days: The 10 days starting with Rosh Hashanah and ending with Yom
Kippur are also known as the High Holidays, the Days of Awe or Yamim Noraim. The
High Holy Days are considered a time of repentance for Jewish people.
5. Hanukkah: This Jewish celebration, also known as the “Festival of Lights,” lasts eight
days. Hanukkah commemorates the rededication of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem
after the Maccabees defeated the Syrian-Greeks over 2,000 years ago.
6. Purim: This is a joyous holiday that celebrates a time when the Jewish people in Persia
were saved from extermination.

ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS: CHARACTERISTICS, GENERALITIES, AND PARTICULARITIES

Introduction

The term "Abrahamic religions" refers to the group of monotheistic faiths that trace their
spiritual lineage to the patriarch Abraham. The primary religions in this category are Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. Each of these religions has developed unique doctrines, rituals, and
cultural practices, yet they share several foundational beliefs and narratives. This essay explores
the common characteristics, generalities, and distinctive features of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam.

Chapter 2: Common Characteristics of Abrahamic Religions

1. Monotheism All Abrahamic religions uphold the belief in one God. This monotheistic
principle is central to their doctrines:

o Judaism proclaims the Shema, "Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is one"
(Deuteronomy 6:4).

o Christianity teaches the concept of the Trinity, which, although presenting God
in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), maintains the belief in one God.

o Islam emphasizes the oneness of God (Tawhid) with the declaration of faith, the
Shahada: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet."

2. Revelation through Scriptures Each religion believes in divine revelation through sacred
texts:
 o Judaism considers the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible) as its
foundational text, along with the rest of the Tanakh and the Talmud.

o Christianity bases its teachings on the Bible, which includes the Old Testament
(shared with Judaism) and the New Testament.

o Islam regards the Quran as the final and complete revelation, complemented by
the Hadith, the recorded sayings, and actions of Prophet Muhammad.

3. Prophets and Messengers Prophets play a significant role in conveying God's will to
humanity:

o Judaism has a rich tradition of prophets, from Moses to Isaiah, who guide the
people of Israel.

o Christianity recognizes prophets from the Old Testament and regards Jesus
Christ as the ultimate prophet and the Son of God.

o Islam acknowledges prophets from Adam to Muhammad, with Muhammad

being the Seal of the Prophets, the final messenger of God.

4. Ethical and Moral Codes These religions emphasize ethical conduct and moral living:

o Judaism follows the commandments given in the Torah, including the Ten
Commandments and numerous other laws and ethical guidelines.

o Christianity adheres to teachings of Jesus, particularly those found in the Sermon

on the Mount, and other ethical instructions in the New Testament.

o Islam outlines a comprehensive moral framework in the Quran and Sunnah,

encapsulated in the Five Pillars of Islam.

5. Rituals and Worship Practices Rituals and worship practices are integral to religious life:

o Judaism includes practices such as Sabbath observance, dietary laws (Kashrut),

and festivals like Passover and Yom Kippur.

o Christianity practices include sacraments like baptism and the Eucharist, prayer,
and observing holy days such as Easter and Christmas.

o Islam mandates practices like the Five Pillars: Shahada (faith), Salat (prayer),
Zakat (almsgiving), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to
Mecca).
Generalities among Abrahamic Religions

1. Historical Development and Influence All three religions have significantly shaped the
history, culture, and politics of the regions where they have predominated. They have
also influenced each other through historical interactions, leading to shared
philosophical and theological ideas.

2. Covenant Theology The concept of a covenant, a sacred agreement between God and
humanity, is central:

o Judaism is built upon covenants made with Abraham, Moses, and the people of
Israel.

o Christianity speaks of the New Covenant through Jesus Christ, which fulfills and
transcends the Old Covenant.

o Islam recognizes previous covenants but asserts the finality of the covenant
established through Muhammad.

3. Eschatological Beliefs Each religion has beliefs concerning the end times and afterlife:

o Judaism has varied views on the afterlife but generally believes in a Messianic
age and resurrection of the dead.

o Christianity emphasizes the Second Coming of Christ, the resurrection, and

eternal life.

o Islam believes in the Day of Judgment, resurrection, and eternal life in Paradise
or Hell.

4. Religious Law Religious law guides daily living and community governance:

o Judaism follows Halakha, derived from the Torah, Talmud, and rabbinic
literature.

o Christianity has canon law in various denominations, with the Roman Catholic
Church having a well-developed system.

o Islam follows Sharia, derived from the Quran, Hadith, and centuries of Islamic
jurisprudence.

Particularities of Each Religion

1. Judaism
 o Chosen People: Judaism uniquely identifies the Jews as God's chosen people,
with a special covenantal relationship.

o Ritual Purity: Emphasizes ritual purity and numerous laws governing daily life,
including dietary laws and Sabbath observance.

o Messianic Expectation: Awaits the coming of the Messiah, who will restore Israel
and bring peace.

2. Christianity

o Divinity of Jesus: Christianity's central tenet is the belief in Jesus Christ as the
Son of God and the Savior.

o Sacramental Theology: Sacraments, especially baptism and the Eucharist, are

vital to Christian worship and spiritual life.

o Universal Salvation: Emphasizes the universality of Christ's salvation, open to all

humanity.

3. Islam

o Final Prophethood of Muhammad: Islam holds Muhammad as the last prophet,

completing the message of previous prophets.

o Five Pillars: These core practices are unique to Islam and structure the religious
life of Muslims.

o Ummah: Strong emphasis on the global Muslim community, united by faith and
shared religious practices.

Conclusion

The Abrahamic religions, while sharing a common heritage, each present a unique worldview
and religious experience. Their monotheistic faith, ethical teachings, and ritual practices have
profoundly influenced the cultures and societies where they are practiced. Understanding their
commonalities and differences enhances interfaith dialogue and appreciation, fostering a more
harmonious coexistence among their adherents.
References

 Anidjar, Gil (ed.). "Once More, Once More: Derrida, the Jew, the Arab" Introduction to
Jacques Derrida, Acts of Religion. New York & London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN
0415924006

 Arnold, T.W., R. Basset, H.A.R. Gibb, R. Hartmann, and W. Heffening. E.J. Brill's
Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 1993. ISBN 978-9004097964

 Goody, Jack. The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society. Cambridge University
Press, 1986. ISBN 0521339626

 MacArhur, John. The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans. (2 Vols)

Chicago: Moody Press, [1991] 1996.

 Masumian, Farnaz. Life After Death: A Study of the Afterlife in World Religions. Oxford:
Oneworld Publications, 1995. ISBN 1851680748

 Partridge, Christopher A. Introduction to World Religions. Augsburg Fortress Publishers.

2005. ISBN 0800637143

 Patai, Raphael. Jadid al-Islam: The Jewish "New Muslims" of Meshhed. Detroit: Wayne
State University Press, 1997. ISBN 0814326528

 Smith, Jonathan Z. "Religion, Religions, Religious," essay in Mark C. Taylor (ed.), A Guide
to Critical Terms for Religious Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN
978-0226791562

Task for Students/Learners:

Please answer the Abrahamic religions regarding Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Judaism

Q1: What is the foundational text of Judaism?

Q2: Who is considered the father of the Jewish people?

Q3: What is the significance of the Sabbath in Judaism?

Christianity

Q1: What are the core beliefs of Christianity?

Q2: What is the Holy Trinity in Christianity?.

Q3: What is the significance of Easter in Christianity?

Islam

Q1: What are the Five Pillars of Islam? A1: The Five Pillars of Islam are the core
practices that all Muslims are expected to follow: Shahada (faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat
(charity), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

Q2: Who is considered the final prophet in Islam? A2: Muhammad is considered the
final prophet in Islam. Muslims believe he received the final revelation from God, which
is recorded in the Quran.

Q3: What is the Quran and why is it important in Islam? A3: The Quran is the holy book
of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad. It is the
ultimate source of guidance for Muslims in all aspects of life.

Comparative Questions

Q1: How do the Abrahamic religions view Abraham?

Q2: What is the concept of monotheism in the Abrahamic religions?

Q3: How do the Abrahamic religions differ in their view of Jesus?

Historical Questions

Q1: What was the historical significance of the Exodus for Judaism?

Q2: How did the Council of Nicaea shape Christianity?

Q3: What is the Hijra and why is it important in Islam?